MOP8 Fulltoc

Contents
Preface ......................................................................................................................................... xiii
Volume 1: Planning and Configuration of Wastewater Treatment Plants

Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1-1
Chapter 2 Overall Design Considerations ............................................................................... 2-1
Chapter 3 Principles of Integrated Facility Design .................................................................. 3-1
Chapter 4 Site Selection and Plant Arrangement ................................................................... 4-1
Chapter 5 Sustainability and Energy Management ................................................................. 5-1
Chapter 6 Plant Hydraulics and Pumping ............................................................................... 6-1
Chapter 7 Odor Control and Air Emissions ............................................................................. 7-1
Chapter 8 Occupational Health and Safety ............................................................................. 8-1
Chapter 9 Support Systems .................................................................................................... 9-1
Chapter 10 Materials of Construction and Corrosion Control ................................................. 10-1
Volume 2: Liquid Treatment Processes

Chapter 11 Preliminary Treatment .......................................................................................... 11-1
Chapter 12 Primary Treatment ................................................................................................ 12-1
Chapter 13 Biofilm Reactor Technology and Design .............................................................. 13-1
Chapter 14 Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment ............................................................ 14-1
Chapter 15 Integrated Biological Treatment ........................................................................... 15-1
Chapter 16 Physical and Chemical Processes for Advanced Wastewater Treatment ........... 16-1
Chapter 17 Sidestream Treatment .......................................................................................... 17-1
Chapter 18 Natural Systems ................................................................................................... 18-1
Chapter 19 Disinfection ........................................................................................................... 19-1
Volume 3: Solids Processing and Management

Chapter 20 Introduction to Solids Management ...................................................................... 20-1
Chapter 21 Solids Storage and Transport............................................................................... 21-1
Chapter 22 Chemical Conditioning ......................................................................................... 22-1
Chapter 23 Solids Thickening ................................................................................................. 23-1
Chapter 24 Dewatering ........................................................................................................... 24-1
Chapter 25 Stabilization .......................................................................................................... 25-1
Chapter 26 Thermal Processing ............................................................................................. 26-1
Chapter 27 Use and Disposal of Residuals and Biosolids ...................................................... 27-1
Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... G-1

Index I-1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.0 BACKGROUND 1-2
1.1 Overview 1-2
1.2 Municipal Wastewater Treatment Evolution 1-2
2.0 THE DESIGNER’S ROLE 1-6
2.1 Role 1-6
2.2 Trends 1-7
3.0 SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF MANUAL 1-8
3.1 Changes to the 5th Edition 1-8
3.2 Organization 1-9
3.2.1 Volume 1—Planning and Configuration of Wastewater Treatment Plants 1-9
3.2.2 Volume 2—Liquid Treatment Processes 1-10
3.2.3 Volume 3—Solids Processing and Management 1-11
4.0 REFERENCES 1-12
Chapter 2
Overall Design Considerations

1.0 INTRODUCTION 2-3
2.0 DEFINING OVERALL OBJECTIVES 2-4
2.1 Performance 2-4
2.2 Asset Management 2-5
2.3 Cost and Funding 2-6
2.4 Land Area 2-7
2.5 Community Effects 2-7
3.0 DEFINING WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES 2-8
3.1 Overview of U.S. Compliance Standards for Receiving Waters—The Clean Water Act (1972)
2-8
3.1.1 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 2-9
3.1.2 Nutrient Trading 2-11
3.2 Overview of International Wastewater Discharge Standards 2-11
3.3 Water Reuse 2-13
3.3.1 United States Regulations and Guidelines 2-13
3.3.2 United States Reclaimed Water Quality Criteria 2-14
3.3.3 International Reuse Regulations and Guidelines 2-18
3.3.4 Microconstituents in Reclaimed Water 2-19
3.4 Reuse Storage and Distribution 2-19
4.0 DESIGN STANDARDS 2-20
5.0 PROJECT PARTICIPANTS 2-21
5.1 Owner 2-21
5.2 Program Manager 2-21
5.3 Financier/Investment Banker 2-22
5.4 Design Professionals 2-22
5.5 Process/Equipment Vendors 2-23
5.6 Contractor(s) 2-23
5.7 Operation and Maintenance Personnel 2-23
5.8 Regulator 2-23
5.9 Legal Counsel 2-24
5.10 Community 2-24
5.11 Board of Directors or City Council 2-24
5.12 Utilities 2-24
6.0 PROJECT SEQUENCE 2-25
6.1 Chronological Design Evolution 2-25
6.2 Value Engineering 2-31
6.3 Implementation Times 2-32
7.0 PROCUREMENT 2-33
7.1 Project Delivery Alternatives 2-33
7.2 Contract Documents 2-33
7.2.1 Contract Provisions 2-33
7.2.2 Specifications 2-35
7.3 Drawings 2-36
7.3.1 -Building Information Modeling 2-36
7.3.2 Three-Dimensional Models 2-36
7.3.3 Traditional Computer-Aided Design 2-37
8.0 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS: SOURCE AND PHASE 2-37
8.1 Populations and Flow Projections 2-37
8.1.1 Design Period 2-37
8.1.2 Population 2-37
8.1.3 Service Area Considerations 2-38
8.1.4 Characteristics 2-40
8.1.5 Commercial Sources 2-42
8.1.6 Institutional Waste 2-44
8.1.7 Other Sources and Waste Contributions 2-45
8.2 Extraneous Flows 2-47
8.2.1 Infiltration 2-47
8.2.2 Inflow 2-47
8.2.3 Combined Sewers 2-47
8.3 Characteristics of Community Water Supply 2-48
9.0 HAZARDOUS AND INHIBITORY SUBSTANCES CONTROL 2-48
9.1 Statutes and Guidance 2-49
9.2 Clean Water Act 2-49
9.3 Clean Air Act 2-49
9.4 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 2-52
9.5 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 2-53
9.6 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act 2-53
9.7 Toxic Substances Control Act 2-54
9.8 Minimizing Liability from Hazardous Substances 2-55
9.9 Treatability Effect 2-55
10.0 COST ESTIMATING 2-57
10.1 Introduction 2-57
10.2 Types of Estimates 2-57
10.3 Direct and Indirect Costs 2-58
10.4 Levels of Accuracy 2-59
10.5 Quantification 2-60
10.6 Cost Resources 2-60
10.7 Application of Markups and Contingencies 2-60
10.8 Estimate Documentation 2-61
11.0 GUIDELINES FOR LIFE-CYCLE COST EVALUATIONS 2-63
11.1 Procedures for Present Value 2-63
11.2 Discount Rate 2-64
11.3 Salvage Value 2-64
11.4 Life Expectancies 2-65
11.5 Capital Costs 2-65
11.6 Annual Operation and Maintenance Costs 2-65
11.7 Interest During Construction 2-66
11.8 Land Costs 2-66
11.9 Sunk Costs 2-66
12.0 MULTIPLE-CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS 2-67
12.1 Objectives and Applicable Criteria 2-67
12.1.1 Economic Criteria 2-67
12.1.2 Environmental Criteria 2-68
12.1.3 Technical Criteria 2-68
12.1.4 Social Criteria 2-68
12.2 Evaluation Methodology 2-69
13.0 REFERENCES 2-70
Chapter 3
Principles of Integrated Facility

Design
2.0 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUSTAINABILITY 3-3
3.0 ROLE OF MODELING IN INTEGRATED DESIGN 3-4
4.0 FACILITY DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 3-5
4.1 Definition of Plant Capacity 3-5
4.2 Present and Future Design Requirements 3-6
4.3 Maintenance of Plant Operation During Construction 3-9
4.4 Compatibility with Surroundings 3-9
4.5 Design for Operations 3-11
4.6 Treatment Unit Redundancy 3-13
5.0 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION 3-13
5.1 Interpretation of Operating Records 3-13
5.1.1 Facility Sampling Protocol 3-15
5.1.2 Facility Process Control Data 3-17
5.1.3 Methods to Check Validity of Data 3-17
5.2 Interpretation of Investigative Results 3-18
5.2.1 Waste Treatability 3-18
5.2.2 Solids Processing 3-20
5.3 Mechanical Equipment Selection from Pilot Testing 3-21
5.3.1 Effects of Ragging and Stringy Materials 3-21
5.3.2 Effects of Poor Grit Removal 3-21
5.3.3 Pumping 3-22
6.0 LOADING VARIABILITY 3-22
6.1 Influent Loading Variability 3-22
6.2 Unit Process Loading Variability 3-27
6.3 Solids Production Variability 3-28
7.0 MASS BALANCES 3-29
7.1 Mass-Balance Preparation 3-30
7.2 Mass-Balance Examples 3-31
8.0 REFERENCES 3-35
9.0 SUGGESTED READINGS 3-3
Chapter 4
Site Selection and Plant

Arrangement
2.0 THE SITE-SELECTION PROCESS 4-3
2.2 Variables that Influence Siting 4-3
2.3 Steps in the Siting Process 4-4
2.3.1 Developing and Implementing a Work Plan 4-4
2.3.2 Identifying Project Components 4-7
2.3.3 Determining Site Area Requirements 4-7
2.3.4 Developing Evaluation Criteria 4-10
2.3.5 Applying the Criteria 4-12
2.3.6 Identifying Initial Candidate Sites 4-12
2.3.7 Site Evaluation Phases 4-12
2.3.8 Defining the Criteria 4-14
2.3.9 Evaluating the Sites and Site Selection 4-15
2.4 Environmental Considerations in Site Selection 4-16
2.4.1 General Considerations 4-16
2.4.2 Site Land Use 4-17
2.4.3 Surrounding Land Use 4-18
2.4.4 Natural Resources 4-18
2.4.5 Historical and Cultural Significance 4-19
2.4.6 Buffer Zones 4-19
2.4.7 Air Quality 4-19
2.4.8 Noise Effects 4-20
2.4.9 Hazardous Chemicals 4-20
2.4.10 Mitigation/Compensation Options 4-21
2.5 Technical Considerations in Site Selection 4-21
2.5.1 Elevation and Topography 4-21
2.5.2 Geology, Hydrogeology, and Soils 4-23
2.5.3 Seismic Activity 4-23
2.5.4 Transportation and Site Access 4-24
2.5.5 Utility Services 4-24
2.6 Institutional Considerations in Site Selection 4-25
2.6.1 Sustainability 4-25
2.6.2 Land Acquisition and Ownership 4-25
2.6.3 Environmental Justice 4-26
2.6.4 Permit Requirements 4-26
2.6.5 Stakeholder and Public Involvement 4-26
2.7 Cost Considerations in Site Selection 4-27
2.7.1 Capital and Operating Costs 4-27
2.7.2 Availability of Funding 4-29
3.0 PLANT ARRANGEMENT 4-29
3.1 Layout Types 4-29
3.2 Arrangement of Treatment Processes 4-29
3.2.2 Provisions for Future Expansion 4-31
3.2.3 Tank Geometry 4-32
3.2.4 Maintenance Considerations 4-33
3.3 Administration, Staff, and Support Facilities 4-33
3.3.2 Maintenance and Storage Facilities 4-33
3.3.3 Laboratory Facilities 4-34
3.3.4 Administration Offices 4-34
3.3.5 Staff Facilities 4-35
3.3.6 Support and Utility Facilities 4-35
3.4 Other Layout Considerations 4-35
3.4.1 Roadways and Walkways 4-35
3.4.2 Security 4-37
3.4.3 Site Drainage 4-37
3.4.4 Material Delivery, Handling, and Disposal 4-37
3.4.5 Waste Materials and Residuals 4-38
3.4.6 Vehicle Storage and Parking 4-38
3.4.7 Climate 4-38
3.4.8 Architecture and Landscaping 4-39
3.4.9 Public Access and Site Safety 4-40
3.5 Environmental Issues 4-41
3.5.2 Noise Control 4-41
3.5.3 Air Emissions 4-42
4.0 REFERENCES 4-42
Chapter 5
Sustainability and Energy

Management
1.1 Overview of Sustainability 5-4
1.2 Overview of Energy Management 5-4
1.3 Boundaries 5-4
2.0 DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABILITY 5-5
2.1 Definition of Sustainability 5-5
2.1.1 Classic Triple Bottom Line 5-5
2.1.2 Four Pillars 5-6
2.1.3 Application to Wastewater Facilities 5-6
2.1.4 Concept of Relative Sustainability 5-6
2.2 Sustainable Design Standards, Guidance, and Approaches 5-7
2.2.1 Planning, Design, and Construction 5-7
2.2.1.1 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design 5-7
2.2.1.2 Green Globes 5-8
2.2.1.3 American Society for Testing and Materials 5-8
2.2.1.4 Carbon Footprinting 5-8
2.2.1.5 Life-Cycle Assessments 5-9
2.2.1.6 Materials Certifications 5-10
2.2.2 Operation and Maintenance 5-10
2.2.2.1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 5-10
2.2.2.2 Environmental Management Systems 5-10
2.3 Design 5-11
2.3.1 Materials and Equipment Selection 5-11
2.3.1.1 Durability and Reliability 5-11
2.3.1.2 Low-Impact Options 5-11
2.3.1.3 Sustainably Sourced Materials 5-11
2.3.1.4 Indoor Air Quality/Low-Emitting Materials 5-11
2.3.1.5 Pollution Prevention 5-12
2.3.1.6 Recyclability 5-12
2.3.2 Operations Considerations 5-12
2.3.2.1 Chemicals 5-12
2.3.2.2 Consumables 5-12
2.4 Site 5-12
2.4.1 Site Selection 5-12
2.4.2 Site Layout 5-12
2.5 Stormwater 5-13
2.6 Construction Considerations During Design 5-13
2.6.1 Waste Management 5-13
2.6.2 Environmental Management 5-14
2.6.3 Startup and Commissioning 5-14
2.7 Economics 5-15
2.7.1 The “Value of Water” 5-15
2.7.2 Sustainable Urban Water Systems 5-16
2.7.3 Net Environmental Benefit 5-16
2.7.4 Stakeholder Workshops and Consensus Building 5-17
2.7.5 Sustainable Project Funding 5-18
2.7.5.1 Energy Services Contracting 5-19
2.7.5.2 Utility Services Contracting 5-20
2.7.5.3 Power Purchase Agreements 5-20
2.7.5.4 Grants and Rebates 5-20
2.7.5.5 Privatization 5-21
2.7.5.6 Joint Ownership and/or Development 5-21
2.7.5.7 Shared Savings 5-22
2.8 Climate Change Considerations 5-22
2.8.1 Mitigation 5-23
2.8.2 Adaptation 5-23
2.9 Regulatory 5-24
2.9.1 Federal 5-25
2.9.2 States 5-26
2.9.2.1 California 5-26
2.9.2.2 Florida 5-27
3.0 ENERGY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES 5-28
3.1 Energy Use in Wastewater Treatment Plants 5-28
3.1.1 Significance of Energy Use 5-28
3.1.2 Historical Consumption of Electricity 5-29
3.1.3 Energy-Impacting Technologies 5-31
3.1.4 Energy Modeling 5-33
3.2 Process Design Considerations 5-35
3.2.1 Measurement 5-35
3.2.2 Reducing Demand and Consumption 5-35
3.2.3 Affecting Supply 5-36
3.3 Energy Management and Conservation Approaches 5-37
3.3.1 Energy Audits 5-37
3.3.2 Benchmarking 5-39
3.3.3 Energy Goal Setting 5-40
3.4 Management 5-40
3.4.1 Mission Statement 5-40
3.4.2 Energy Manager 5-41
3.4.3 Finance and Accounting 5-41
3.4.4 Procurement 5-42
3.4.5 Documentation and Program Control 5-43
3.4.6 Energy Goal Setting 5-44
3.4.7 Risk Analysis 5-44
3.4.8 Public Education 5-45
3.5 Renewable Energy Systems 5-46
3.5.1 Energy Production 5-46
3.5.2 Energy Recovery 5-47
4.0 REUSE 5-47
5.0 REFERENCES 5-47
Chapter 6
Plant Hydraulics and Pumping

2.0 HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS 6-4
2.1 Hydraulic Profile 6-4
2.2 Overview of Calculation Procedure 6-4
2.3 Initial Water Surface Elevations and Hydraulic Controls 6-7
2.4 Flowrates 6-8
2.5 Hydraulic Effect of Out-of-Service Processes 6-8
2.6 Unit Process Liquid Levels and Freeboard 6-9
2.7 Plant Headloss Guidelines 6-10
2.8 Conduit Sizing and Velocity Guidelines 6-10
3.0 HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS 6-11
3.1 Basic Equations 6-11
3.1.1 Bernoulli Equation 6-11
3.1.2 Volumetric Flowrate 6-12
3.2 Hydraulic Losses 6-12
3.2.1 Orifice Loss 6-12
3.2.2 Weir Loss 6-13
3.2.3 Conduit Losses 6-16
3.3 Hydraulic Elements 6-19
3.3.1 Flow Distribution 6-19
3.3.2 Splitting Structures 6-20
3.3.3 Distribution Manifolds and Channels 6-22
3.4 Launders and Troughs 6-24
3.4.1 Freefall Launders and Troughs 6-24
3.4.2 Submerged Launders 6-25
3.5 Valves and Flow and Pressure Control Valves 6-25
3.6 Baffles 6-26
3.7 Junctions and Confluences 6-27
3.8 Aerated Channels 6-27
3.9 Flumes and Meters 6-28
3.10 Outfalls 6-29
3.11 Telescoping Valves 6-30
4.0 UNIT PROCESS HYDRAULICS 6-30
4.1 Screening 6-31
4.2 Grit Removal 6-33
4.2.1 Aerated Grit Chamber 6-34
4.2.2 Vortex Grit Removal 6-34
4.2.3 Constant Velocity Channels 6-34
4.3 Flow Equalization 6-35
4.4 Primary Sedimentation 6-35
4.5 Aeration Basins 6-35
4.6 Biotowers and Trickling Filters 6-36
4.7 Secondary Sedimentation 6-36
4.8 Disinfection Systems 6-36
4.8.1 Chlorination 6-36
4.8.2 Ozonation 6-37
4.8.3 UV Irradiation 6-37
4.9 Post-Aeration 6-37
4.10 Batch Reactors 6-37
4.11 Moving Bed Bioreactors and Membrane Bioreactor Systems 6-37
4.12 Tertiary Processes 6-38
4.12.1 Mixing and Flocculation 6-38
4.12.2 Filtration 6-38
4.13 Chemical Feed Systems 6-39
5.0 PUMPING 6-39
5.1 System Curve, Pump Curve, and Pump Operation 6-41
5.1.1 Power Requirements 6-43
5.1.2 Effects of Viscosity 6-44
5.1.3 Constant versus Variable Speed 6-45
5.2 Pump Types and Applications 6-45
5.3 Station Configuration 6-45
5.4 Wet-Well Sizing 6-45
5.5 Pump Construction 6-48
5.5.1 Materials 6-48
5.5.2 Seals 6-49
5.5.2.1 Mechanical Seals 6-49
5.5.2.2 Packing 6-49
5.6 Pump Control Systems 6-50
5.6.1 Pump Actuation 6-50
5.6.1.1 Manual Control 6-50
5.6.1.2 Automatic On–Off or Speed Control 6-51
5.6.1.3 Time 6-51
5.6.1.4 Pressure 6-51
5.6.1.5 Flow 6-51
5.6.1.6 Liquid Level 6-51
5.6.1.7 Starting 6-51
5.6.2 Variable Speed Operation 6-52
5.7 Pump-Monitoring Guidelines 6-52
5.8 Specification Requirements for Testing and Acceptance 6-52
5.8.1 Factory Inspections 6-52
5.8.2 Certified Tests 6-52
5.8.3 Factory Witnessed Tests 6-53
5.8.4 Field Testing and Acceptance 6-53
6.0 HYDRAULIC MODELING 6-53
6.1 Computer Models 6-53
6.1.1 Software Types 6-53
6.1.1.1 Spreadsheet-Based Models 6-54
6.1.1.2 Commercial Modeling Software 6-54
6.1.1.3 Commercial Computation Software 6-54
6.1.1.4 Open-Source Models 6-55
6.1.1.5 Specialty Models 6-55
6.1.2 Model Calibration 6-55
6.1.3 Flow Transients 6-56
6.2 Physical Models 6-56
7.0 TRACER TESTING 6-56
8.0 DESIGN EXAMPLES 6-57
8.1 Design Example—Partial Hydraulic Profile in SI Units 6-57
8.1.1 Input Parameters 6-57
8.1.2 Assumptions 6-57
8.1.3 Calculations 6-59
8.2 Design Example—Partial Hydraulic Profile in U.S. Customary Units 6-63
9.0 REFERENCES 6-70
10.0 SUGGESTED READINGS
Chapter 7
Odor Control and Air Emissions

1.0 DESIGN BASIS FOR CONTROLLING AIR EMISSIONS 7-6
1.1 Air Flowrate 7-6
1.2 Pollutant Loading 7-6
1.3 Emission-Control Objective 7-7
1.4 Odor Parameters 7-7
1.4.1 Odor Concentration 7-7
1.4.2 Odor Intensity 7-8
1.4.3 Odor Persistence 7-8
1.4.4 Odor-Character Descriptors 7-8
2.0 ODOR REGULATION AND COMMUNITY EFFECTS 7-9
2.1 Odor Regulations and Policies 7-10
2.1.1 State and Local Responsibility 7-10
2.1.1.1 Olfactometry-Based Regulatory Approaches 7-11
2.1.1.2 Approaches Based on Individual Odorants 7-11
2.1.1.3 Odor-Intensity Approaches 7-14
2.1.1.4 Control-Technology Approaches to Odor 7-14
2.1.2 Ambient-Odor Limits 7-16
2.1.2.1 Ambient-Odor Intensity 7-17
2.1.2.2 Ambient-Odor Concentration 7-18
2.2 Criteria and Hazardous Air-Pollutant Regulations 7-18
2.2.1 Project Planning: Pre-Permitting 7-19
2.2.1.1 Attainment Status 7-19
2.2.1.2 Facility Classification 7-20
2.2.1.3 Potential Emissions 7-21
2.2.2 Project Implementation: Permit to Construct 7-23
2.2.2.1 Permit Application Requirements 7-23
2.2.2.2 Federal Regulatory Requirements 7-25
2.2.2.3 Non-Attainment New Source Review 7-25
2.2.2.4 Prevention of Significant Deterioration 7-25
2.2.2.5 New Source Performance Standards 7-25
2.2.2.6 National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants 7-25
2.2.2.7 State and Local Regulatory Requirements 7-26
2.2.3 Construct: Commence Construction 7-26
2.2.4 Facility Operation: Permit to Operate 7-26
2.2.4.1 Federal Title V Operating Permit Program 7-27
2.2.4.2 State Operating-Permit Program 7-27
2.2.4.3 Accidental Release Prevention Program 7-27
2.2.4.4 Wastewater Residuals Management (CFR Part 503) 7-28
2.2.4.5 Air-Quality Compliance 7-28
2.3 Communicating with the Public 7-28
2.4 Public Health versus Public Nuisance 7-30
3.0 ODOR SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT 7-30
3.1 Field-Sampling Approaches 7-31
3.2 Field-Sampling Methods 7-34
3.2.1 Sampling Exhaust Stacks and Vents 7-34
3.2.2 Sampling Surfaces 7-36
3.3 Olfactometry Standards 7-37
3.4 Analyzing for Specific Odorants 7-38
3.5 Air- and Odor-Sampling Plans 7-38
3.6 Sampling Procedures 7-39
4.0 ASSESSING ODOR AND AIR EMISSIONS 7-40
4.1 Odor Emissions from Wastewater Systems 7-41
4.1.1 Organic-Sulfur Compounds 7-42
4.1.2 Ammonia and Nitrogen Compounds 7-43
4.1.3 Other Wastewater Odorants 7-45
4.1.4 Odorants from Industrial Sources 7-45
4.1.5 Exposed Surface Area 7-46
4.1.6 Driving Force 7-46
4.2 Air Emissions from Combustion Sources 7-48
4.3 Emission Estimation Methods—General Fate Models 7-50
4.4 Odor-Control Strategies 7-52
4.4.1 Determine Emission-Reduction Goals 7-52
4.4.2 Quantify Emissions from Sources 7-53
4.4.3 Determine Effects on the Surrounding Community 7-55
4.4.4 Develop Control Alternatives 7-56
4.4.5 Assess Effectiveness of Control Alternatives 7-57
5.0 DISPERSION MODELING OF ODORS AND AIR EMISSIONS 7-57
5.1 Source Characteristics 7-58
5.1.1 Point Sources 7-58
5.1.1.1 Stack or Vent Design 7-58
5.1.1.2 Building Cavity and Wake Effects 7-60
5.1.2 Area Sources 7-61
5.1.3 Volume Sources 7-61
5.2 Odor-Emission Rates 7-62
5.2.1 Example Problem 7-63
5.2.2 Cautionary Note 7-64
5.3 Dispersion Models 7-64
5.3.1 Regulatory Models 7-64
5.3.2 Modeling Procedures 7-65
5.4 Presentation of Results 7-66
5.4.1 Averaging Periods 7-67
5.4.2 Peak-to-Mean Scaling Factors 7-68
6.0 EMISSIONS CONTAINMENT AND VENTILATION 7-69
6.1 Odor Containment 7-69
6.1.1 Flat Covers 7-70
6.1.2 Barrel-Arch Covers 7-71
6.1.3 Pitched Covers 7-73
6.1.4 Building an Extension or Enclosure 7-74
6.1.4.1 Dome Enclosures 7-76
6.1.4.2 Equipment Enclosures 7-78
6.1.4.3 Bar Screens 7-79
6.1.4.4 Belt-Filter Presses and Belt Thickeners 7-81
6.1.4.5 Centrifuges 7-82
6.2 Materials Used for Odor Containment 7-82
6.3 Access 7-88
6.4 Ventilation Rates 7-89
6.4.1 Non-Worker-Accessible Space 7-90
6.4.2 Worker-Accessible Space 7-92
6.4.3 Confined Spaces 7-94
6.5 Ductwork and Fans 7-95
6.5.1 Ductwork 7-95
6.5.1.1 Duct Materials of Construction 7-95
6.5.1.2 Shapes 7-96
6.5.1.3 Sizing Criteria 7-96
6.5.2 Fans 7-97
6.5.2.1 Fan Balancing 7-99
6.5.2.2 Dampers 7-99
7.0 ODOR AND AIR EMISSIONS CONTROL 7-100
7.1 Liquid-Phase Treatment 7-100
7.1.1 Air/Oxygen Injection 7-100
7.1.2 Chemical Oxidation 7-102
7.1.2.1 Chlorine Compounds 7-102
7.1.2.2 Hydrogen Peroxide 7-103
7.1.2.3 Potassium Permanganate 7-104
7.1.2.4 Ozone 7-105
7.1.3 Nitrate Addition 7-105
7.1.3.1 Nitrate-Reaction Mechanisms 7-106
7.1.3.2 Equipment Requirements 7-107
7.1.4 Iron Salts 7-108
7.1.4.1 Iron Salt Reactions 7-109
7.1.4.2 Iron Solutions 7-109
7.1.5 Adjustment of pH 7-111
7.2 Biological Treatment 7-112
7.2.1 Biological Odor-Treatment Biochemistry 7-113
7.2.1.1 Autotrophic Biological Processes 7-113
7.2.1.2 Heterotrophic Biological Processes 7-113
7.2.1.3 Biological Uptake Processes 7-113
7.2.2 Biofiltration Systems 7-114
7.2.2.1 Air-Ducting and Fan System 7-115
7.2.2.2 Air Plenum 7-116
7.2.2.3 Underdrain Piping System 7-118
7.2.2.4 Media-Support System 7-119
7.2.2.5 Acid and Neutral Zones 7-119
7.2.2.6 Biofilter Media 7-120
7.2.2.7 Soil Media 7-121
7.2.2.8 Organic Media 7-122
7.2.2.9 Irrigation and Humidification 7-123
7.2.2.10 Nutrient Control 7-125
7.2.2.11 Media Life 7-126
7.2.2.12 Media Instrumentation and Monitoring 7-126
7.2.2.13 Weed Control 7-126
7.2.3 Modular/Prefabricated Biofilters 7-127
7.2.4 Bioscrubbers and Biotrickling Filters 7-127
7.2.4.1 Bioscrubber 7-127
7.2.4.2 Biotrickling Filter 7-127
7.2.4.3 Biotrickling Filters and Biofilters in Combination 7-129
7.2.5 Other Biological-Treatment Approaches 7-130
7.3 Chemical and Physical Treatment 7-131
7.3.1 Gas-Absorption Scrubbers 7-131
7.3.1.1 Packed-Bed Wet Scrubbers 7-132
7.3.1.2 Chemistry 7-134
7.3.1.3 Overflow Rates and Makeup Water 7-136
7.3.1.4 Mist Eliminators 7-139
7.3.1.5 Packing 7-141
7.3.1.6 Misting-Scrubber Systems 7-141
7.3.1.7 Catalytic Oxidation 7-143
7.3.1.8 Multiple-Stage Scrubbers 7-144
7.3.2 Dry-Adsorption Systems 7-145
7.3.3 Types of Carbon 7-146
7.3.3.1 Impregnated 7-146
7.3.3.2 Virgin Carbon 7-148
7.3.3.3 Catalytic Carbon 7-148
7.3.4 Types of Activated-Carbon Applications 7-148
7.3.4.1 Multiple Stage 7-149
7.3.4.2 Canisters 7-149
7.3.5 Carbon-Saturation Calculations 7-150
7.3.6 Other Adsorption Processes 7-151
7.4 Combustion Emissions Control 7-152
7.4.1 Thermal Oxidation 7-152
7.4.1.1 Flare 7-155
7.4.1.2 Regenerative Thermal Oxidizers 7-155
7.4.1.3 Recuperative Thermal Oxidizers 7-156
7.4.1.4 Catalytic Oxidizers 7-157
7.4.1.5 Thermal Efficiency 7-158
7.4.2 Particulate Removal 7-159
7.4.3 Control of Nitrogen Oxides and Carbon Monoxide 7-161
7.4.3.1 Primary Measures 7-162
7.4.3.2 Secondary Measures 7-163
Chapter 8
Occupational Health and Safety

1.0 NEED FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY IN DESIGN 8-2
1.1 Becoming Hurt on the Job 8-2
1.2 Safety as Part of Design 8-3
2.0 BECOMING SICK FROM THE JOB 8-3
3.0 LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND GUIDANCE 8-4
3.1 Occupational Safety and Health Act and Federal Regulations 8-5
3.2 State Requirements 8-6
3.3 Local Codes 8-6
3.4 National Fire Protection Association Recommendations (NFPA 820) 8-7
4.0 ACCIDENTS, INJURIES, AND UNWANTED INCIDENTS 8-7
4.1 Causes of Accidents 8-8
4.2 Responsibility of Owners 8-9
4.3 Responsibility of Designers 8-9
5.0 SPECIAL SAFETY ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH WASTEWATER 8-10
5.1 Ambient Hazards 8-10
5.2 Process Equipment 8-12
5.3 Utilities 8-14
5.4 Specialty Equipment 8-15
5.5 Support Functions 8-16
5.6 Hazardous Materials 8-17
5.7 Resources for Safety 8-19
5.8 Emergencies 8-20
5.9 Communication 8-21
5.10 Inherently Safer Workplace 8-21
6.0 DESIGNING FOR CONSTRUCTION SAFETY 8-21
6.1 Federal Regulations 8-22
6.2 Liability 8-22
6.3 “Design for Safety” 8-22
6.4 Pre-Bid Specifications 8-23
6.5 Safety for Utility and Designer Employees 8-24
6.6 Safety-Qualifying Contractors 8-24
6.7 Preconstruction Meetings 8-27
6.8 Project-Safety Monitoring 8-27
6.9 Owner-Controlled Insurance Programs 8-28
7.0 REFERENCES 8-28
Chapter 9
Support Systems
2.0 RELIABILITY CRITERIA 9-6
3.0 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 9-7
3.1 Supply and Distribution System Voltage 9-12
3.1.1 Utility-Power-Supply Capacity and Redundancy 9-12
3.1.2 Distribution Voltage 9-13
3.1.3 Short-Circuit Capacity 9-14
3.1.4 Selective Device Coordination and Protection 9-14
3.1.5 Arc-Flash Studies 9-15
3.2 Distribution System 9-15
3.3 Variable-Speed Drives 9-16
3.3.1 Variable-Frequency Drives 9-16
3.3.2 Direct-Current Drives 9-18
3.3.3 Permanent-Magnet Drives 9-18
3.4 Lighting Systems 9-19
3.4.1 Light-Source Considerations 9-19
3.4.2 Indoor-Lighting Systems 9-19
3.4.3 Outdoor-Lighting Systems 9-21
3.4.4 Emergency-Lighting Systems 9-21
3.5 Standby-Power Considerations 9-22
3.6 Other Considerations 9-23
3.6.1 Harmonics 9-23
3.6.2 Harmonic Mitigation Options 9-24
3.6.3 Grounding Systems 9-25
3.6.4 Load Transfer on Power Failure 9-25
3.6.5 Hazardous Areas 9-26
3.6.6 Seismic Protection 9-26
3.6.7 Lightning and Surge Protection 9-27
3.6.8 “Clean” Power for Computer Systems 9-27
3.6.9 Energy Savings and Design Features 9-27
4.0 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 9-29
4.1 Design Standards 9-29
4.2 New Construction versus Retrofit 9-29
4.3 Project Scope Development 9-30
4.4 Types of Diagrams 9-30
4.4.1 Process-Flow Diagrams 9-30
4.4.2 Process and Instrumentation Diagrams 9-31
4.4.3 Three-Dimensional/Four-Dimensional Modeling 9-31
4.5 Selection and Specification of Field Instruments 9-31
4.5.1 Considerations for Selection 9-33
4.5.2 Instrumentation Data Sheets 9-33
4.5.3 Physical Drawings 9-36
4.5.4 Special Mounting Details 9-37
4.5.5 Networking Considerations 9-38
4.6 Bus Technology for Instrumentation 9-39
4.6.1 Fieldbus 9-39
4.6.2 Profibus 9-39
4.6.3 DeviceNet 9-40
4.6.4 Others 9-40
4.7 Control Panels 9-40
4.7.1 Vendor-Supplied Control Panels 9-41
4.7.2 Custom Panels 9-41
4.7.2.1 Local Control Panels 9-41
4.7.2.2 Area and Main Control Panels 9-41
4.7.2.3 Graphic Panels 9-41
4.7.2.4 Termination Panels 9-42
4.7.2.5 Motor Control Center Panels 9-42
4.8 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems 9-43
4.8.1 Human–Machine Interface Systems 9-43
4.8.2 Control Systems 9-43
4.8.3 Independent Data-Acquisition Systems 9-43
4.9 Plant-Control Systems 9-44
4.9.1 Programmable Logic Controller versus Distributed Control Systems 9-44
4.9.2 Types of Process Controllers 9-44
4.9.3 Building Blocks of a Plant-Control System 9-45
4.10 Process/Plantwide-Control-System Approaches 9-45
4.10.1 Small-Scale Control Systems 9-46
4.10.2 Medium-Scale Control Systems 9-47
4.10.3 Large-Scale Control Systems 9-48
4.11 Hazard and Operability Design 9-49
4.12 Process-Control Strategies 9-50
4.12.1 Process-Control-Strategy Narrative 9-50
4.12.2 Interaction with Other Control Strategies 9-50
4.12.3 Process Graphics 9-50
4.13 Precautions for Instrumentation and Control 9-50
4.13.1 Spare Systems 9-51
4.13.2 Redundancy 9-51
4.14 Control-System Elements 9-52
4.14.1 Instrumentation 9-52
4.14.2 Monitoring versus Control 9-52
4.14.3 Data Systems 9-52
5.0 HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDITIONING 9-53
5.1 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Design Criteria 9-53
5.1.1 Codes, Standards, and Regulations 9-53
5.1.2 Climate 9-55
5.1.3 Climatic Data Sources 9-55
5.1.4 Design-Temperature Frequency Levels 9-56
5.1.5 Space Environmental Requirements 9-56
5.1.6 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Utilities 9-58
5.1.7 Heating Loads 9-59
5.1.8 Cooling Loads 9-59
5.2 Design Constraints and Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Alternative Selection Criteria
9-60
5.2.1 Hazard Assessment 9-60
5.2.2 Corrosion Resistance 9-60
5.2.3 System Redundancy 9-61
5.2.4 Capital, Energy, Operating, and Maintenance Costs 9-61
5.2.5 Energy and Sustainable-Design Initiatives 9-62
5.2.6 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Space Requirements and Discipline Coordination
9-62
5.2.7 Acoustics 9-63
5.2.8 Future Expansion 9-64
5.2.9 Economic and Other Weighting Criteria 9-64
5.3 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Systems 9-64
5.3.1 Hydronic 9-64
5.3.2 Air Distribution 9-65
5.3.3 Central Heating and Cooling 9-66
5.3.4 Unitary Heating and Cooling 9-66
5.3.5 Evaporative Cooling 9-67
5.3.6 Temperature and Building Automation Controls 9-68
5.3.7 Testing, Balancing, and Commissioning 9-69
5.4 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Energy and Sustainable-Design Opportunities 9-69
5.4.1 Energy-Code Compliance 9-69
5.4.2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design and Other Sustainable-Design Effects on
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning 9-69
5.4.3 Indoor-Air Quality 9-70
5.4.4 Building Energy Modeling as Part of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Calculations
9-70
5.4.5 Renewable Energy and Energy-Recovery Systems 9-71
6.0 CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 9-71
6.1 Chemical Selection 9-72
6.1.1 Monetary Considerations 9-72
6.1.2 Non-Monetary Considerations 9-74
6.1.3 National, State, and Local Codes 9-75
6.2 Application Points 9-75
6.3 Equipment Selection 9-76
6.4 Storage (Delivery), Handling, Feed Systems, and Mixing 9-77
6.4.1 Bulk Delivery and Intermediate Bulk Containers 9-77
6.4.2 Containment and Diking 9-77
6.4.3 Chemical Form 9-78
6.4.4 Gas-Chemical-Feed Systems 9-78
6.4.5 Dry-Chemical-Feed System 9-78
6.4.6 Liquid-Chemical-Feed System 9-78
6.4.7 Construction Materials 9-80
6.4.8 Mixing: Static versus Dynamic 9-80
6.4.9 Additional Security Measures 9-80
6.5 Considerations for Retrofitting, Upgrading, or Converting Existing Systems 9-80
6.6 Considerations for Solids Management 9-81
7.0 OTHER SUPPORT SYSTEMS 9-81
7.1 Fire Protection 9-81
7.1.1 Building Classifications 9-82
7.1.2 Representative Fire-Suppression Codes 9-82
7.1.3 Authority Having Jurisdiction and Agency Review 9-83
7.1.4 Fire-Suppression-Systems Overview 9-83
7.1.4.1 Wet-Pipe Sprinkler Systems 9-84
7.1.4.2 Dry-Pipe Sprinkler Systems 9-84
7.1.4.3 Pre-Action Systems 9-84
7.1.4.4 Gaseous, Foam, and Other Systems 9-84
7.1.5 Standpipe, Fire-Pump, and Water-Supply Systems 9-85
7.2 Site Security 9-86
7.2.1 Vulnerability Assessment 9-86
7.2.2 Types of Security 9-87
7.2.3 Camera Surveillance 9-87
7.2.4 Fence Detection 9-87
7.3 Plumbing 9-88
7.3.1 General Design Criteria 9-88
7.3.2 Water-Supply Systems 9-89
7.3.3 Sanitary Systems 9-90
7.3.4 Storm Drainage 9-91
7.4 Fuel 9-92
7.5 Compressed-Air Systems 9-92
7.6 Communication 9-93
7.7 Location of Devices 9-94
8.0 REFERENCES 9-94
Chapter 10
Materials of Construction and

Corrosion Control
1.0 APPROACH TO MATERIALS SELECTION 10-6
2.0 PLANT EXPOSURES 10-7
3.0 EXPOSURE CONDITIONS 10-7
3.1 Submerged and Immersion Conditions 10-9
3.2 Submergence in Raw or Unaerated Wastewater 10-10
3.3 Submergence in Aerated or Chlorinated Wastewater 10-11
3.4 Splash Zone Continuous or Intermittent Submerged Exposure 10-11
3.5 Chemical Environments 10-11
3.6 Moist Atmosphere 10-12
3.7 Outside Atmosphere 10-13
3.8 Interior Dry Atmosphere 10-14
3.9 Hydrogen Sulfide 10-15
3.10 Carbon Dioxide 10-16
3.11 Marine Conditions 10-16
3.12 Coastal Conditions 10-17
3.13 Anoxic Conditions 10-17
3.14 Anaerobic Conditions 10-17
3.15 Soil 10-17
4.0 COMMON FORMS OF CORROSION 10-18
4.1 Uniform Corrosion 10-19
4.2 Pitting Corrosion 10-20
4.3 Crevice Corrosion 10-20
4.4 Galvanic Corrosion 10-20
4.5 Erosion–Corrosion 10-20
4.6 Cavitation 10-20
4.7 Fretting 10-20
4.8 Selective Leaching 10-20
4.9 Dealloying Corrosion 10-21
4.10 Carbonation of Concrete 10-21
4.11 Cracking Phenomena 10-21
4.12 Embrittlement 10-21
4.13 Flexure 10-21
4.14 Heat 10-22
4.15 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 10-22
4.16 Plastic Deformation 10-22
4.17 UV Deterioration of Plastics and Coatings 10-22
5.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 10-23
5.1 Deterioration Control 10-23
5.1.1 Change of Materials 10-23
5.1.2 Change of Environment 10-23
5.1.3 Barrier Films 10-23
5.1.4 Electrochemical Techniques 10-23
5.2 Alteration of Corrosive Environment 10-23
5.2.1 Remove Material from Environment 10-23
5.2.2 Change Process Parameters 10-24
5.2.3 Add Corrosion-Inhibiting Chemicals 10-24
5.2.4 Reduce Corrosion Constituents 10-24
5.3 Selection of Materials 10-24
5.4 New Materials Considerations 10-24
5.5 Geometric Considerations 10-26
5.6 Fire-Protection Regulations/Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals 10-28
5.6.1 Fire-Protection Regulations 10-36
5.6.2 Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals 10-36
5.7 Cathodic Protection 10-36
5.8 Protective Coatings 10-36
5.9 Useful Life of Plant Facilities 10-36
6.0 MATERIALS SELECTION FOR DESIGN OF UNIT PROCESSES 10-37
6.1 Preliminary Treatment 10-37
6.1.1 Screens 10-37
6.1.2 Grit Removal 10-38
6.1.3 Flow Equalization 10-38
6.2 Primary Treatment 10-39
6.2.1 Settling Tanks 10-39
6.2.2 Dissolved-Air Flotation 10-40
6.3 Suspended-Growth Biological Treatment 10-40
6.4 Attached-Growth Biological Treatment 10-41
6.4.1 Trickling Filters 10-41
6.4.2 Rotating Biological Contactors 10-42
6.5 Natural Systems 10-43
6.5.1 Wastewater Ponds 10-43
6.5.2 Constructed Wetlands 10-43
6.6 Disinfection and Dechlorination 10-43
6.6.1 Chlorine 10-43
6.6.2 Ozone 10-44
6.6.3 Sulfur Dioxide 10-44
6.6.4 Sodium Metabisulfite 10-44
6.6.5 Miscellaneous Electrotechnology Processes 10-45
6.7 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Processes 10-45
6.7.1 Coagulation 10-45
6.7.2 Sedimentation 10-46
6.7.3 Filtration 10-46
6.7.4 Adsorption 10-47
6.7.5 Air Stripping 10-47
6.8 Solids Handling and Treatment 10-47
6.9 Storage 10-48
6.10 Solids Processing 10-48
6.10.1 Grinders 10-48
6.10.2 Degritting Equipment 10-49
6.10.3 Screening 10-50
6.11 Solids Pumping 10-50
6.11.1 Piston Pumps 10-50
6.11.2 Centrifugal Pumps 10-50
6.12 Solids Conveyance 10-51
6.13 Solids Thickening 10-51
6.13.1 Gravity Thickeners 10-51
6.13.2 Gravity-Belt Thickeners 10-51
6.13.3 Flotation Thickeners 10-51
6.13.4 Other Thickening Methods 10-52
6.14 Solids Dewatering 10-52
6.14.1 Belt-Filter Press 10-52
6.14.2 Centrifuges 10-53
6.14.3 Plate and Frame Presses 10-53
6.14.4 Other Dewatering Devices 10-53
6.15 Solids Stabilization 10-53
6.15.1 Aerobic Digesters 10-53
6.15.2 Thermophilic Aerobic Digesters 10-54
6.15.3 Anaerobic Digesters 10-54
6.15.4 Mesophillic Digestion 10-54
6.15.5 Thermophilic Digestion 10-55
6.15.6 Digester Tanks 10-55
6.15.7 Mixing Systems 10-55
6.15.8 Gas-Mixing Systems 10-55
6.16 Gas Collection, Storage, and Distribution 10-56
6.17 Thermal Processing 10-56
6.17.1 Thermal Conditioning and Wet-Air Oxidation 10-56
6.17.2 Thermal Drying 10-57
6.17.2.1 Flash Dryers 10-58
6.17.2.2 Rotary Dryers 10-58
6.17.2.3 Indirect Dryers 10-58
6.17.2.4 Miscellaneous Dryers 10-58
6.18 Thermal Destruction 10-58
6.18.1 Multiple-Hearth Furnace 10-59
6.18.2 Rabble Arms and Teeth 10-59
6.18.3 Fluid-Bed Furnace 10-60
6.18.4 Refractory and Insulation 10-60
6.19 Effluent Discharge 10-60
6.19.1 Pumps 10-60
6.19.2 Piping 10-61
6.19.3 Freshwater Outfalls 10-62
6.19.4 Marine Outfalls 10-62
6.19.5 Storage Tanks 10-63
6.19.6 Land-Sprinkling Systems 10-64
6.19.7 Building-Reuse Systems 10-64
7.0 MATERIALS SELECTION FOR DESIGN OF PLANT SUPPORT SYSTEMS 10-65
7.1 Structural Systems 10-65
7.1.1 Concrete 10-65
7.1.2 Grout 10-66
7.1.3 Reinforcing Steel 10-66
7.1.4 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete 10-66
7.1.5 Miscellaneous Metal Materials 10-67
7.2 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Systems 10-68
7.2.1 Air-Handling Units 10-68
7.2.2 Terminal Heating Equipment 10-69
7.2.3 Fans and Blowers 10-69
7.2.4 Duct Work 10-69
7.2.5 Piping 10-69
7.2.6 Boilers 10-69
7.3 Electrical Systems 10-70
7.3.1 Conduits and Enclosures 10-70
7.3.2 Signal Cables 10-71
7.4 Instrumentation 10-71
7.4.1 Panels/Enclosures 10-71
7.4.2 Panel-Mounted Devices 10-72
7.4.3 Field Instruments 10-72
7.5 Odor-Control Facilities 10-72
7.6 Chemical-Feed and -Distribution Facilities 10-73
8.0 MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS 10-73
8.1 Concrete 10-75
8.2 Masonry 10-77
8.2.1 Brick Masonry 10-77
8.2.2 Concrete Unit Masonry 10-77
8.3 Pre-Stressed Concrete 10-77
8.4 Metals 10-77
8.4.1 Aluminum 10-78
8.4.2 Aluminum Oxide 10-78
8.4.3 Brass 10-79
8.4.4 Bronze 10-79
8.4.5 Cadmium 10-79
8.4.6 Carbon Steel 10-79
8.4.7 Cast Iron 10-80
8.4.8 Chromium 10-80
8.4.9 Copper 10-80
8.4.10 Copper-Nickel Alloys 10-81
8.4.11 Ductile Iron 10-81
8.4.12 Gold 10-81
8.4.13 Nickel Alloys 10-81
8.4.14 Inconel 625 (Special Metals Corporation) 10-82
8.4.15 Hastelloy C (Haynes International) 10-82
8.4.16 Ni-Hard 10-82
8.4.17 Lead 10-82
8.4.18 Platinum 10-82
8.4.19 Silver 10-82
8.4.20 Stainless Steel 10-82
8.4.21 Tantalum 10-83
8.4.22 Titanium 10-83
8.4.23 Tungsten Carbide 10-84
8.4.24 Stellite 10-84
8.4.25 Zinc 10-84
8.5 Plastics 10-84
8.5.1 Polyvinyl Chloride 10-85
8.5.2 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride 10-85
8.5.3 Polyethylene 10-85
8.5.4 Polypropylene 10-85
8.5.5 Polyurethane 10-85
8.5.6 Polytetrafluoroethylene 10-85
8.5.7 Polyvinylidene Fluoride 10-86
8.5.8 Carbon Black 10-86
8.5.9 Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic 10-86
8.6 Rubber and Elastomers 10-86
8.6.1 Buna-N (Nitrile Butadiene) 10-86
8.6.2 Hypalon (Chlorosulphonated Polyethylene) 10-87
8.6.3 Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer 10-87
8.6.4 Neoprene (Chloroprene) 10-87
8.6.5 Natural Rubber 10-87
8.7 Geosynthetics 10-87
8.8 Glass 10-87
8.9 Wood 10-88
9.0 PROTECTIVE COATINGS 10-88
9.1 Generic Types 10-88
9.2 Thermosetting Coatings 10-88
9.3 Coating Selection 10-89
9.4 Surface Preparation 10-89
9.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions and Temperatures 10-92
9.4.2 Safety Precautions 10-92
9.5 Use of Paint for Identification and Safety 10-92
10.0 CATHODIC PROTECTION 10-94
10.1 Theory 10-94
10.2 Practical Application of Cathodic Protection 10-94
10.3 Types of Cathodic-Protection Systems 10-95
10.3.1 Galvanic Anodes 10-95
10.3.2 Impressed-Current Systems 10-97
10.4 Criteria for Materials Protection 10-97
11.0 DESIGN STANDARDS AND REVIEW 10-98
11.1 Conditional Assessment 10-98
11.2 Facilities Design 10-98
11.3 Construction Testing and Equipment Identification 10-101
12.0 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES 10-101
CHAPTER 11
Preliminary Treatment
2.0 SCREENING 11-4
2.1 Benefits of Screening 11-4
2.2 Screening Categories 11-5
2.3 Screenings Characterization 11-5
2.3.1 Quantities 11-5
2.3.2 Physical Properties 11-8
2.4 Types of Screening Media 11-8
2.4.1 Bars 11-8
2.4.2 Wedge Wire 11-9
2.4.3 Perforated Plate 11-9
2.4.4 Mesh 11-10
2.5 Screen Types 11-10
2.5.1 Trash Racks and Bypass Screens 11-10
2.5.2 Coarse Screens 11-11
2.5.2.1 Chain-Driven Screens 11-12
2.5.2.2 Single-Rake Screens 11-13
2.5.2.3 Catenary Screens 11-14
2.5.2.4 Continuous Self-Cleaning Screens 11-14
2.5.2.5 Arc Screens 11-15
2.5.2.6 Sack Screens 11-15
2.5.3 Fine Screens 11-16
2.5.3.1 Continuous-Element Screens 11-16
2.5.3.2 Multiple-Rake Screens 11-16
2.5.3.3 Stair Screens 11-17
2.5.3.4 Band Screens 11-18
2.5.3.5 Drum Screens 11-19
2.5.3.6 Inclined-Cylindrical Screens 11-21
2.5.3.7 Static Screens 11-22
2.5.3.8 Microscreens 11-23
2.5.4 Storm Water/Wet Weather Flow Screens 11-23
2.6 Screenings Processing 11-24
2.6.1 Conditioning 11-24
2.6.2 Transport, Storage, and Disposal 11-28
2.7 Design Considerations 11-30
2.7.1 Design Criteria 11-30
2.7.2 Equipment Selection Criteria 11-30
2.7.3 Location of Screen 11-31
2.7.4 Hydraulic Considerations 11-31
2.7.4.1 Coarse Screens Headloss 11-34
2.7.4.2 Fine Screens Headloss 11-35
2.7.5 Special Fine Screening Design Considerations 11-36
2.7.6 Screenings Conditioning and Handling 11-37
2.7.7 Automation and Instrumentation 11-38
2.7.8 Performance Testing 11-38
2.7.8.1 Screen Retention Value 11-39
2.7.8.2 Screenings Organics Test 11-39
3.0 COARSE SOLIDS REDUCTION 11-49
4.0 GRIT REMOVAL 11-50
4.1 Benefits of Grit Removal 11-50
4.2 Grit Characterization 11-50
4.2.1 Grit Quantities 11-50
4.3 Grit Removal Processes 11-51
4.3.1 Aerated Grit Basins 11-51
4.3.2 Vortex Grit Removal Systems 11-55
4.3.2.1 Mechanical Vortex 11-55
4.3.2.2 Induced Vortex 11-57
4.3.2.3 Multi-Tray Vortex 11-58
4.3.3 Detritus Tanks 11-59
4.3.4 Velocity Control Tanks 11-59
4.3.5 Primary Sludge Degritting 11-59
4.4 Grit Slurry Processing 11-60
4.4.1 Cyclone/Classifiers 11-60
4.4.2 Conical Grit Washers 11-62
4.5 Transport, Storage, and Disposal 11-62
4.6.1 Process Selection Criteria 11-63
4.6.2 Grit Handling 11-65
4.6.4 Performance Testing 11-66
5.0 GREASE REMOVAL 11-66
5.1 Application and Benefits 11-66
5.2 Grease Removal Processes 11-67
6.0 SEPTAGE ACCEPTANCE AND PRETREATMENT 11-68
6.1 Applications 11-68
6.2 Septage Characterization 11-68
6.2.1 Quantities 11-70
6.2.1.1 Residential Sources 11-70
6.2.1.2 Nonresidential Sources 11-70
6.3.1 Receiving Station Design 11-72
6.3.1.1 Screening and Grit Removal 11-73
6.3.1.2 Storage and Equalization 11-75
6.3.2 Effects on Downstream Processes 11-75
7.0 EQUALIZATION 11-76
7.1 Benefits 11-77
7.1.1 Primary Treatment 11-78
7.1.2 Secondary Treatment 11-78
7.1.3 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 11-79
7.1.4 Wet-Weather Treatment 11-79
7.2.1 Peak Flow Characterization 11-79
7.2.2 Volume Determination 11-80
7.2.3 Location within Treatment Process 11-83
7.2.4 Method of Operation 11-83
7.2.5 Basin Configuration 11-84
7.2.6 Aeration and Mixing 11-85
7.2.7 Flow Control Methods 11-86
7.2.8 Cleaning of Basins 11-86
Chapter 12
Primary Treatment
2.0 SEDIMENTATION 12-4
2.1 Conventional Sedimentation 12-4
2.1.1 Types of Clarifiers 12-5
2.1.1.1 Rectangular Clarifiers 12-5
2.1.1.2 Circular Clarifiers 12-5
2.1.1.3 Stacked Sedimentation Tanks 12-6
2.1.1.4 Plate and Tube Clarifiers 12-9
2.1.2 Design Considerations 12-9
2.1.2.1 Surface Overflow Rate 12-10
2.1.2.2 Influent Wastewater Characteristics 12-10
2.1.2.3 Depth 12-14
2.1.2.4 Hydraulic Detention Time 12-14
2.1.2.5 Inlet Conditions 12-15
2.1.2.6 Outlet Conditions 12-16
2.1.2.7 Weir Loading Rate 12-26
2.1.2.8 Linear Flow-Through Velocity 12-26
2.1.2.9 Surface Geometry 12-26
2.1.2.10 Weather Conditions 12-27
2.1.2.11 Maintenance Provisions 12-27
2.1.2.12 Extreme Flow (Wet-Weather) Considerations 12-28
2.1.2.13 Odor Control Considerations 12-29
2.1.2.14 Corrosion Control Considerations 12-29
2.1.2.15 Design Considerations for Stacked Clarifiers 12-29
3.0 ENHANCED SEDIMENTATION 12-30
3.1 Preaeration 12-30
3.1.1 Description 12-30
3.2 Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment 12-31
3.2.2.1 Chemical Coagulants 12-33
3.2.2.2 Chemical Flocculants 12-34
3.2.2.3 Rapid Mix 12-34
3.2.2.4 Flocculation 12-36
4.0 HIGH-RATE CLARIFICATION 12-37
4.1 Plate or Tube Settlers 12-37
4.2 Ballasted Flocculation 12-39
4.3 Solids Contact/Sludge Recirculation 12-40
4.4 Swirl and Vortex Separators 12-41
5.0 FINE SCREENS 12-41
6.0 PRIMARY SLUDGE COLLECTION AND REMOVAL 12-42
6.1 Description 12-42
6.2 Quantities and Characteristics 12-45
6.3 Thickening 12-47
6.4 Transport and Handling 12-49
7.0 FLOATABLE SOLIDS MANAGEMENT 12-49
7.1 Description 12-49
7.2 Collection 12-49
7.3 Quantities and Characteristics 12-51
7.4 Transport and Handling 12-54
7.5 Concentration, Treatment, and Disposal 12-54
8.0 DOWNSTREAM PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS 12-57
8.1 Generation of Volatile Fatty Acids 12-57
8.2 Preservation of Available Carbon 12-58
8.3 Cothickening of Primary and Secondary 12-58
8.4 Digester Hydrogen Sulfide Control 12-58
8.5 Toxicity Considerations 12-59
8.6 Sludge Disposal 12-59
9.0 DESIGN EXAMPLE 12-59
Chapter 13
Biofilm Reactor Technology and

Design
1.0 INTRODUCTION: BIOFILMS AND BIOFILM REACTORS IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
TREATMENT 13-5
1.1 Biofilm Reactor Compartments 13-8
1.2 Biofilm Processes, Structure, and Function 13-8
1.3 Bulk-Liquid Hydrodynamics 13-10
1.4 Biofilm Development and Detachment 13-12
2.0 BIOFILM REACTOR DESIGN APPROACHES, CONSIDERATIONS 13-15
2.1 Simplified Biofilm Reactor Design Approaches 13-16
2.1.1 Graphical Procedure 13-17
2.1.2 Empirical and Semi-Empirical Models 13-20
2.2 Mathematical Biofilm Models for the Practitioner 13-23
2.2.1 Why Should We Use Biofilm Models as a Design Tool? 13-23
2.2.2 Diffusion and Reaction in a One-Dimensional Biofilm: First- and Zero-Regions in Biofilm
Reactors 13-25
2.2.3 Identifying the Rate-Limiting Substrate 13-29
2.2.4 Biofilm Models Used in Engineering Design 13-31
2.2.5 Limitations of Biofilm Models for the Practitioner 13-33
2.2.6 Wastewater Characterization 13-35
3.0 MOVING BED BIOFILM REACTORS 13-36
3.1 General Description 13-38
3.1.1 Plastic Biofilm Carriers 13-39
3.1.2 Media Retention Sieves 13-42
3.1.3 Aeration System 13-43
3.1.4 Mechanical Mixing Devices 13-44
3.2 Process Flow Sheets and Bioreactor Configurations 13-44
3.2.1 Carbon Oxidation 13-45
3.2.2 Nitrification 13-49
3.2.3 Denitrification 13-58
3.2.4 Phosphorus Limitations (Focus on Denitrification) 13-64
3.3.1 Preliminary and Primary Treatment 13-66
3.3.2 Plastic Biofilm Carrier Media 13-66
3.3.3 Aeration System 13-68
3.3.4 Media Retention Sieves 13-70
3.3.5 Mechanical Mixing 13-71
3.3.6 Solids Separation 13-72
4.0 BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE FILTERS 13-73
4.1 Biologically Activate Filter Configurations 13-74
4.1.1 Downflow with Sunken Media 13-77
4.1.2 Upflow with Sunken Media 13-79
4.1.3 Upflow Biologically Activate Filter with Floating Media 13-81
4.1.4 Moving Bed, Continuous Backwash Filters 13-82
4.1.5 Non-Backwashing, Open-Structure Media Filters 13-84
4.2 Media for Use in Biologically Activated Filter Reactors 13-87
4.3 Backwashing and Air Scouring 13-87
4.4 Biologically Activated Filter Process Design 13-88
4.4.1 Secondary Treatment 13-90
4.4.3 Combined Nitrification and Denitrification 13-97
4.4.4 Tertiary Denitrification 13-99
4.4.5 Phosphorus Removal Considerations 13-104
4.5 Facility Design Considerations for Biologically Activated Filter Plants 13-105
4.5.1 Preliminary and Primary Treatment 13-105
4.5.2 Backwash Handling Facilities 13-105
4.5.3 Process Aeration 13-106
4.5.4 Supplemental Carbon Feed Facilities 13-109
5.0 EXPANDED AND FLUIDIZED BED BIOFILM REACTORS 13-109
5.1 Fluidized Bed Biofilm Reactor Advantages and Disadvantages 13-112
5.2 Fluidized Bed Biofilm Reactor Technology Status 13-115
5.2.1 History 13-115
5.2.2 Installations 13-115
5.3 Process Design 13-116
5.3.1 Typical Design Parameters 13-116
5.3.1.1 Vertical Flow Velocity 13-116
5.3.1.2 Recirculation 13-117
5.3.1.3 Flow Distribution 13-118
5.3.2 Media 13-120
5.3.3 Biofilm Thickness Control 13-124
5.3.4 Aeration 13-125
5.4 Pilot Testing 13-126
5.5 Fluidized Bed Biofilm Reactor Design Models 13-128
5.6.2 Tertiary Denitrification 13-129
5.7 Design Example for Denitrification 13-130
5.8 Performance of Fluidized Bed Biofilm Reactor Fauna 13-133
5.9 Process Performance 13-133
5.9.1 Nitrogen Removal Rate 13-133
5.9.2 Temperature 13-135
6.0 ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS 13-136
6.2 Carbon Oxidation 13-137
6.2.1 Monod Kinetic Model 13-137
6.2.2 Second-Order Model 13-138
6.2.3 Empirical Model 13-138
6.3 Nitrification 13-139
6.4 Media and Media Support Shaft 13-139
6.5 Covers 13-140
6.6 Biofilm Thickness Control 13-140
7.0 TRICKLING FILTERS 13-141
7.1 General Description 13-141
7.1.1 Distribution System 13-142
7.1.2 Biofilm Carriers 13-143
7.1.3 Containment Structure 13-148
7.1.4 Underdrain System and Ventilation 13-148
7.1.5 Trickling Filter Pumping Station 13-149
7.1.6 Hydraulic and Pollutant Loading 13-150
7.2 Process Flow Sheets and Bioreactor Configuration 13-151
7.2.1 Process Flow Diagrams 13-151
7.2.2 Bioreactor Classification 13-153
7.2.3 Hydraulics 13-155
7.3 Oxygen Requirements and Air Supply Alternatives 13-157
7.3.1 Natural Draft 13-158
7.3.2 Forced Ventilation 13-159
7.4 Trickling Filter Design Models 13-160
7.4.1 National Research Council Formula 13-161
7.4.2 Galler and Gotaas Formula 13-163
7.4.3 Kincannon and Stover Model 13-165
7.4.4 Velz Equation 13-165
7.4.5 Schulze Formula 13-166
7.4.6 Germain Formula 13-167
7.4.7 Eckenfelder Formula 13-168
7.4.8 Institution of Water and Environmental Management Formula 13-169
7.4.9 Logan Trickling Filter Model 13-170
7.4.10 Selecting a Trickling Filter Design Model 13-171
7.5 Combined Carbon Oxidation and Nitrification 13-173
7.6 Nitrifying Trickling Filters 13-178
7.6.1 Kinetics and Design Procedures 13-180
7.6.2 Gujer and Boller Model 13-182
7.6.3 Modified Gujer and Boller Model 13-184
7.6.4 Albertson and Okey Model 13-184
7.6.5 Comparisons of NTF Models 13-186
7.6.6 Temperature Effects 13-186
7.6.7 Hydraulic Application 13-187
7.7.1 Distribution System 13-189
7.7.2 Hydraulic Propelled Distributors 13-189
7.7.3 Electronic or Mechanically Driven Distributors 13-190
7.7.4 Other Means for Distributor Speed Control 13-192
7.7.5 Trickling Filter Pumping Station or Dosing Siphon 13-193
7.7.6 Construction of Rotary Distributors 13-193
7.7.7 Filter Media 13-194
7.7.7.1 Media Selection 13-194
7.7.7.2 Filter Media Depth 13-195
7.7.7.3 Structural Integrity 13-196
7.8 Design Examples 13-198
7.8.1 Example 13.1: Biofilter Design for Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Limitations 13-198
7.8.2 Example 13.2: Nitrifying Trickling Filter Design 13-200
7.8.3 Example 13.3: Organic and Hydraulic Loading 13-202
7.8.4 Example 13.4: Biofilter Classification and Distributor Adjustment 13-204
8.0 EMERGING BIOFILM REACTORS 13-205
8.1 Membrane Biofilm Reactors 13-206
8.1.1 Hydrogen-Based 13-207
8.1.2 Oxygen-Based 13-209
8.2 Suspended-Biofilm Reactors 13-210
8.2.1 Reactors Based on Aerobic Granules 13-210
8.2.2 Anammox Biofilm Reactors 13-211
8.2.3 Biofilm Airlift Reactors 13-212
8.2.4 Internal Circulation Reactor 13-213
Chapter 14
Suspended-Growth Biological
Treatment
1.1 Process Description 14-9
1.2 Historic Overview 14-10
1.3 Activated Sludge Environment 14-11
1.4 System Components 14-12
2.0 PROCESS CONFIGURATIONS AND TYPES 14-12
2.1 Basin Shape 14-13
2.1.1 Complete Mix 14-13
2.1.2 Plug Flow 14-14
2.1.3 Oxidation Ditch 14-15
2.1.4 Aerated Lagoon 14-18
2.1.5 Deep Shaft 14-20
2.2 Loading Rates 14-21
2.2.1 Conventional 14-21
2.2.2 Low Rate 14-21
2.2.3 High Rate 14-24
2.3 Feeding and Aeration Patterns 14-25
2.3.1 Conventional 14-25
2.3.2 Contact Stabilization 14-25
2.3.3 Step Feed 14-26
2.3.4 Tapered Aeration 14-26
2.4 Selectors 14-27
2.5 Other Variations 14-29
2.5.1 Pure Oxygen 14-29
2.5.2 Sequencing Batch Reactors 14-31
2.5.3 Activated Carbon Addition 14-34
2.5.4 Integrated Systems 14-35
2.6 Solids Separation 14-35
2.6.1 Clarifiers 14-35
2.6.2 Membranes 14-36
2.6.3 Flotation 14-36
3.0 PROCESS DESIGN FOR CARBON OXIDATION AND NITRIFICATION 14-36
3.1 Carbon Oxidation 14-37
3.2 Nitrification 14-41
3.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen 14-45
3.3.3 Nutrients 14-46
3.3.4 Toxic and Inhibitory Wastes 14-46
3.3.5 pH 14-46
3.4 Design Approach 14-46
3.4.1 Influent Characteristics 14-46
3.4.2 Volume of Aerobic Reactor Basins 14-47
3.4.3 Aerated Lagoons 14-49
3.4.4 Waste Sludge Generation 14-51
3.4.5 Oxygen Demand 14-52
3.4.6 Return Activated Sludge Requirements 14-54
3.4.7 Solids/Liquid Separation 14-54
4.0 PROCESS DESIGN FOR NUTRIENT CONTROL 14-55
4.1 Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Processes 14-55
4.1.1 Process Principles 14-55
4.1.2 Process Configurations 14-56
4.1.2.1 Anaerobic/Oxic 14-56
4.1.2.2 PhoStrip Process 14-59
4.1.3 Factors Affecting Performance 14-60
4.1.3.1 Influent Characteristics 14-60
4.1.3.2 Integrity of the Anaerobic Zone 14-61
4.1.3.3 Aerobic Zone Impacts 14-62
4.1.3.4 pH 14-64
4.1.3.5 Solids and Hydraulic Retention Times 14-64
4.1.3.6 Temperature 14-68
4.1.3.7 Solids Capture 14-69
4.1.3.8 Secondary Release and Recycle Load Management 14-71
4.1.3.9 Carbon Sources 14-73
4.1.3.10 Key Design Considerations 14-75
4.2 Nitrogen Removal Processes 14-76
4.2.2.1 Single-Sludge Processes 14-90
4.2.2.2 Time Cyclic Processes 14-96
4.2.3 Nitritation and Denitritation 14-99
4.3 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal Processes 14-99
4.3.2.1 Five-Stage Bardenpho™ 14-101
2
4.3.2.2 A /O™ 14-102
4.3.2.3 University of Cape Town 14-106
4.3.2.4 Virginia Initiative Plant 14-108
4.3.2.5 Johannesburg 14-109
4.3.2.6 PhoStrip II™ 14-110
4.3.2.7 Time Cyclic Processes 14-111
4.4 Adding External Carbon to Suspended-Growth Nutrient Removal 14-111
4.4.1 Dosage Locations 14-113
4.4.1.1 Process Feed 14-114
4.4.1.2 Anoxic Zone Feed 14-114
4.4.1.3 Anaerobic Zone Feed 14-115
4.4.2 Fermentation 14-115
4.4.2.1 Activated Primary Sedimentation 14-117
4.4.2.2 Complete-Mix Fermenter 14-117
4.4.2.3 Static Fermenter 14-118
4.4.2.4 Two-Stage Fermenter 14-119
4.4.2.5 Unified Fermentation and Thickening 14-119
4.5 Other Design Considerations 14-120
4.2.1 Baffles 14-120
4.5.1.1 Interzone Baffles 14-121
4.5.1.2 Intrazone Baffles to Create Plug-Flow Characteristics 14-121
4.5.1.3 Intrazone Baffles to Create a “Racetrack” Zone 14-122
4.5.1.4 Mixing Chimney 14-122
4.5.1.5 Nitrified Mixed-Liquor Pump Baffle 14-122
4.5.2 Mixing 14-122
4.5.2.1 Blending Streams 14-122
4.5.2.2 Mechanical Mixing—Maintaining Solids in Suspension 14-123
4.5.2.3 Aeration—Maintaining Solids in Suspension 14-123
4.5.2.4 Degasification 14-124
4.5.2.5 Scum/Foam Control 14-124
5.0 ANAEROBIC TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER 14-125
5.2 Microbiology 14-127
5.3 Process Configurations 14-128
5.4 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket 14-128
5.4.2 Installations 14-131
5.4.3.1 Reactor Sizing 14-134
5.4.3.2 Gas/Liquid/Solids Separation 14-137
5.4.3.3 Gas Production 14-140
5.4.3.4 Sludge Production 14-141
5.4.3.5 Alkalinity 14-141
6.0 MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS 14-142
6.2 Components and Configurations 14-142
6.2.1 Responsibility for Process Performance 14-143
6.2.2 Historic Overview and Applications 14-144
6.2.3 Influent Quality 14-146
6.2.4 Effluent Quality 14-146
6.3 Process and Equipment Design Approach 14-147
6.3.1 Biological Process Design 14-147
6.3.1.1 Solids Retention Time 14-150
6.3.1.2 Mixed-Liquor Suspended Solids Concentration 14-150
6.3.1.3 Oxygen Transfer 14-151
6.3.2 Equipment System Design 14-152
6.3.3 Equipment System Procurement 14-152
6.4 Pretreatment 14-153
6.4.1 Fine Screens 14-153
6.4.2 Primary Clarifiers 14-153
6.5 Membrane Bioreactor Design 14-154
6.5.1 Mixed-Liquor Recycle Pumping 14-154
6.5.2 Mixing 14-156
6.5.3 Aeration (Bioreactors, Membrane Tanks) 14-156
6.5.4 Permeate Pumping and Gravity Permeation 14-156
6.5.5 Instrumentation and Process Control Systems 14-158
6.6 Membrane Bioreactor System Equipment 14-159
6.6.1 Process Air and Air Scour Equipment Systems 14-159
6.6.1.1 Biological Process Blowers 14-159
6.6.1.2 Air Scour Blowers 14-160
6.6.2 Cleaning Systems 14-162
6.6.3 Chemical Feed Systems 14-162
6.6.4 Backpulse Pumping and Backwashing 14-164
6.6.5 Service Air Systems 14-164
6.6.6 Tank Isolation and Drain Pumps 14-164
6.6.7 Waste Activated Sludge Management Systems 14-165
7.0 WET-WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS 14-165
7.2 Flow Reduction 14-166
7.3 Aeration Tanks 14-166
7.3.1 Aeration Tank Settling 14-166
7.3.2 Step-Feed or Contact-Aeration Mode 14-167
7.4 Secondary Clarifiers 14-169
8.0 OXYGEN-TRANSFER SYSTEMS 14-169
8.2 Diffused Aeration 14-172
8.2.1 Porous Diffuser Systems 14-173
8.2.2 Nonporous Diffusers 14-177
8.2.3 Other Diffused Aeration Systems 14-177
8.2.3.1 Jet Aeration 14-177
8.2.3.2 U-Tube Aeration 14-180
8.2.3.3 Countercurrent Aeration 14-180
8.3 Mechanical Surface Aerators 14-180
8.3.1 Radial Flow Low Speed 14-182
8.3.2 Axial Flow High Speed 14-182
8.3.3 Aspirating Devices 14-183
8.3.4 Horizontal Rotors 14-183
8.4 Submerged Turbine Aerators 14-185
8.5 Air Supply System 14-187
8.5.1 Air Filtration 14-188
8.5.1.1 Types of Air-Cleaning Systems 14-188
8.5.1.2 Filter Selection 14-189
8.5.1.3 Design Considerations 14-189
8.5.2 Blowers 14-190
8.5.2.1 Turndown 14-191
8.5.2.2 Selection 14-191
8.5.2.3 Control 14-192
8.5.3 Air-Piping Materials 14-192
8.5.4 Air-Piping Design 14-193
8.5.5 Pure-Oxygen Generation 14-194
8.6 Mixing Requirements 14-196
8.7 Aerator Design and Testing 14-197
8.7.1 Equipment Considerations 14-198
8.7.2 Clean Water Testing 14-200
8.7.3 Transformation of Clean Water Test Data to Clean Process Water Conditions 14-201
8.8 Process Water Testing 14-203
8.9 Aeration System Maintenance 14-204
9.0 SECONDARY CLARIFICATION 14-205
9.2 Suspension Characteristics and Settleability 14-205
9.2.1 Characteristics 14-205
9.2.2 Factors That Affect Settleability 14-208
9.2.3 Measures of Settleability 14-211
9.2.4 Techniques to Improve Settleability 14-211
9.2.4.1 Food-to-Microorganisms Ratio Control 14-211
9.2.4.2 Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration 14-212
9.2.4.3 Selectors 14-212
9.2.4.4 Process Configuration 14-212
9.2.4.5 Selective Wasting and Foam Control 14-213
9.2.4.6 Chemical Addition 14-213
9.2.4.7 Energy Gradient Optimization 14-214
9.3 Clarifier Sizing Approaches 14-215
9.3.1 Overflow Rate 14-215
9.3.2 Solids Loading Rate 14-217
9.3.2.1 State Point Analysis 14-217
9.3.2.2 Daigger Approach 14-220
9.3.2.3 Keinath Approach 14-222
9.3.2.4 Wilson Approach 14-222
9.3.2.5 Ekama-Marais Approach 14-226
9.3.3 Side Water Depth 14-227
9.3.4 Weir Loading 14-227
9.3.5 Redundancy 14-227
9.3.6 Effect of Flow Variations 14-228
9.3.7 Summary of Sizing Steps 14-228
9.3.8 Shapes 14-230
9.3.9 Batch and Other Clarification 14-230
9.4 Rectangular Design 14-231
9.4.1 Flow Patterns 14-231
9.4.2 Dimensions 14-234
9.4.2.1 Length 14-234
9.4.2.2 Width 14-235
9.4.2.3 Depth 14-235
9.4.2.4 Flow Distribution to Parallel Units 14-235
9.4.2.5 Inlet Geometry 14-236
9.4.2.6 Flow Distribution within Clarifiers 14-236
9.4.2.7 Inlet Design 14-236
9.4.2.8 Inlet Baffles and Flocculation Zones 14-241
9.4.2.9 Interior Baffles 14-241
9.4.2.10 Stacked Clarifiers 14-242
9.4.2.11 Scum Removal 14-244
9.4.2.12 Outlets 14-244
9.4.2.13 End-Wall Effect and Other Launder Design Considerations 14-244
9.4.2.14 Weir Loading Rates 14-246
9.4.2.15 Submerged Launders 14-246
9.4.2.16 Sludge Withdrawal 14-247
9.5 Circular and Other Radial Flow Designs 14-249
9.5.1 Flow Patterns 14-250
9.5.2 Diameter 14-251
9.5.3 Side Wall Depth 14-252
9.5.4 Inlet Geometry 14-253
9.5.4.1 Center Feed 14-256
9.5.4.2 Peripheral Feed 14-267
9.5.5 Interior Baffles 14-269
9.5.6 Scum Removal 14-271
9.5.7 Outlets 14-274
9.5.7.1 Peripheral Weir 14-275
9.5.7.2 Cantilevered Double or Multiple Launders 14-276
9.5.7.3 Launders Suspended from the Bridge 14-276
9.5.7.4 Submerged Orifices 14-276
9.5.8 Sludge Withdrawal 14-277
9.5.8.1 Scrapers 14-277
9.5.8.2 Hydraulic Suction 14-278
9.5.8.3 Hoppers 14-282
9.5.8.4 Collection Rings and Drums 14-284
9.5.8.5 Drive Location 14-285
9.5.8.6 Floor Slopes 14-285
9.5.9 Other Considerations 14-285
9.5.9.1 Return Activated Sludge Pumping 14-285
9.5.9.2 Algae Control 14-286
9.6 Control Strategy and Facilities Design 14-286
9.6.1 Key Parameters 14-287
9.6.2 Return and Waste Activated Sludge Strategies 14-287
9.6.3 Concentration and Density Measurement 14-289
9.6.4 Sludge Blanket Depth Measurement 14-290
9.6.5 Equipment and Instrumentation 14-293
10.0 SUSPENDED-GROWTH BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEM EXAMPLE 14-294
10.1 Aeration Basin Volume 14-297
10.2 Aeration Requirements 14-301
10.3 Secondary Clarification 14-307
10.4 Summary for the Base Case 14-308
10.5 Addressing Nutrients 14-309
10.5.1 Influent Characterization and Fractionation 14-312
10.5.2 Modification of Decay Rate for Activated Sludge Models 14-317
10.5.3 Nitrification Only 14-317
10.5.4 Denitrification System Design 14-318
Chapter 15
Integrated Biological Treatment

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT 15-3
1.2 Process Objectives of Integrated Systems 15-3
2.0 OVERVIEW OF INTEGRATED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS 15-5
2.1 Integrated Biological Treatment Configurations 15-5
2.1.1 Trickling Filter Solids Contact 15-5
2.1.2 Roughing Filter Activated Sludge 15-7
2.1.3 Activated Biofilter 15-7
2.1.4 Biofilter Activated Sludge 15-9
2.1.5 Trickling Filter Activated Sludge 15-9
2.1.6 Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge 15-10
3.0 DESIGN OF CONVENTIONAL INTEGRATED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEM SYSTEMS15-
10
3.1.1 Primary Treatment 15-10
3.1.2 Solids Production 15-10
3.1.3 Sloughing 15-11
3.1.4 Solids Recycle 15-11
3.1.5 Distribution 15-11
3.1.6 Fixed Biofilm Media 15-12
3.1.7 Odor 15-12
3.1.8 Snails 15-14
3.1.10 Secondary Clarification 15-14
3.1.11 Final Effluent Quality 15-15
3.1.12 Site Considerations 15-15
3.1.13 Energy 15-15
3.1.14 Existing Treatment Units 15-16
3.2.1 Design Criteria 15-16
3.2.2 Fixed Biofilm Reactor Stage 15-18
3.2.3 Suspended-Growth Biological Reactor Stage 15-20
3.2.4 Solids Retention Time 15-21
3.2.5 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio 15-24
3.2.6 Hydraulic Residence Time 15-24
3.2.7 Mixing and Aeration Requirements 15-25
3.2.8 Solids Production and Settleability 15-26
3.2.9 Biochemical Oxygen Demand and Total Suspended Solids Removal 15-28
3.2.10 Nitrogen Removal 15-29
3.2.11 Phosphorus Removal 15-33
3.3 Specific Process Design 15-34
3.3.1 Trickling Filter Solids Contact 15-34
3.3.1.1 Operational Modes 15-34
3.3.1.2 Trickling Filter Stage 15-36
3.3.1.3 Solids Contact Step 15-36
3.3.1.4 Bioflocculation 15-36
3.3.1.5 Biological Nitrogen Removal 15-36
3.3.1.6 Flocculator Secondary Clarifiers 15-37
3.3.2 Roughing Filter Activated Sludge 15-37
3.3.3 Trickling Filter Activated Sludge 15-38
3.3.4 Design Example 15-39
4.0 DESIGN OF INTEGRATED FIXED-FILM ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS 15-40
4.2 Parameters Influencing Organics Removal in the Biofilm of IFAS Systems 15-42
4.2.1 Biofilm Flux Rates 15-42
4.2.2 Removals in Biofilm per Unit of Tank Volume 15-44
4.3 Parameters Influencing Removals in the Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids 15-46
4.4 Interaction Between Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids and Biofilm 15-47
4.5 Interaction Between Heterotrophs and Nitrifiers 15-47
4.6 Design Tools/Procedures 15-48
4.7 Empirical Design Methods 15-48
4.7.1 Equivalent Sludge Age Approach 15-48
4.7.2 Quantity of Media Approach 15-49
4.7.3 Rates Based on Pilot Studies 15-49
4.8 Disadvantages of These Systems 15-49
4.8.1 Energy Efficiency 15-49
4.8.2 Red Worms 15-50
4.8.3 Storage of Media 15-50
4.8.4 Nocardia Foaming 15-50
4.9 Process Kinetics Design Methods (Process Models) 15-50
4.9.1 Biofilm Rate Model 15-50
4.10 Define Range of Flux Rates 15-50
4.11 Quantify Removal 15-51
4.12 Select Flux Rates Based on Location Along Aerobic Zone 15-51
4.13 Additional Analysis to Finalize a Design 15-51
4.14 Design Example: Upgrading a Conventional Activated Sludge Plant 15-51
Chapter 16
Physical and Chemical Processes

for Advanced Wastewater
Treatment
1.0 PROCESS SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS 16-6
2.0 SECONDARY EFFLUENT FILTRATION 16-6
2.1 Background 16-6
2.1.1 Goals 16-8
2.1.2 Applications 16-8
2.1.3 Process Flow Diagram 16-8
2.2.1 Secondary Effluent Characteristics 16-9
2.2.2 Filtered Effluent Quality Characteristics 16-10
2.2.3 Filtration Removal Mechanisms 16-10
2.2.4 Filter Medium Properties 16-11
2.2.5 Backwash Requirements 16-11
2.2.6 Site Requirements 16-11
2.2.7 Hydraulic Requirements 16-12
2.2.8 Filter Controls and Appurtenances 16-12
2.2.9 Pretreatment/Use of Filtration (Chemical) Aids 16-13
2.2.10 Design Optimization 16-14
2.2.11 Protective Structures 16-15
2.2.12 Typical Design Deficiencies 16-15
2.3 Technology Types 16-16
2.3.1 Depth Filtration 16-17
2.3.1.1 Granular Media Filtration 16-17
2.3.1.2 Granular Media Selection and Characteristics 16-19
2.3.1.3 Granular Medium Filtration Technology Types 16-22
2.3.1.4 Compressible Medium Filtration 16-51
2.3.2 Disc Filtration 16-57
2.3.2.1 Fully Submerged Disc Filters 16-57
2.3.2.2 Partially Submerged Disc Filters 16-63
2.3.2.3 Other Emerging Disc Filters 16-66
3.0 ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION 16-66
3.2 Application 16-69
3.2.1 Tertiary Treatment 16-69
3.2.2 Chemical 16-71
3.3.1 Wastewater Quality 16-71
3.3.2 Carbon Characteristics 16-72
3.3.3 Types of Carbon Adsorption Units 16-74
3.3.3.1 Upflow Columns 16-74
3.3.3.2 Downflow Columns 16-74
3.3.3.3 Fixed and Expanded Beds 16-75
3.3.3.4 Countercurrent Adsorption 16-75
3.3.4 Unit Sizing 16-75
3.3.5 Backwashing 16-77
3.3.6 Valve and Piping Requirements 16-78
3.3.7 Instrumentation 16-79
3.3.8 Control of Biological Activity 16-79
3.3.9 Carbon Transport 16-80
3.3.10 Carbon Regeneration 16-82
3.3.10.1 Carbon Dewatering 16-83
3.3.10.2 Regeneration Furnace 16-83
4.0 CHEMICAL TREATMENT 16-84
4.1 Phosphorus Precipitation 16-85
4.1.1 Phosphorus Removal Methods 16-86
4.1.2 Precipitants 16-86
4.1.2.1 Lime 16-86
4.1.2.2 Alum 16-90
4.1.2.3 Sodium Aluminate 16-92
4.1.2.4 Ferric Chloride 16-94
4.1.3 Solids Considerations 16-96
4.2 pH Adjustment 16-97
4.2.1 Neutralization of Acidity 16-98
4.2.1.1 Lime Alkalies 16-99
4.2.1.2 Sodium Alkalies 16-99
4.2.2 Neutralization of Alkalinity 16-103
4.2.2.1 Sulfuric Acid 16-104
4.2.2.2 Hydrochloric Acid 16-104
4.2.2.3 Acid System Design Considerations 16-105
4.3 Rapid Mixing 16-105
4.3.1 Impeller Mixers 16-105
4.3.1.1 Turbine Mixers 16-106
4.3.1.2 Propeller Mixers 16-106
4.3.2 Other Mixing Devices 16-107
4.3.3 Fluid Regimes 16-108
4.3.4.1 Power Requirements 16-109
4.3.4.2 Laboratory Scale-Up 16-111
4.3.4.3 Batch and Continuous Systems 16-111
4.3.4.4 Hydraulic Retention Time 16-112
4.3.4.5 Vessel Geometry 16-112
4.3.4.6 High- and Low-Speed Mixers 16-112
4.3.4.7 Propeller and Turbine Mixers 16-112
4.3.4.8 Mixer Mounting 16-113
4.3.4.9 Top-Entering Turbines and Side-Entering Propeller Mixers 16-113
4.3.4.10 Single-Propeller and Multipropeller Mixers
16-113
4.3.5 Chemical Feed Systems 16-113
4.3.5.1 Dry Feed 16-116
4.3.5.2 Solution Feed 16-118
5.0 MEMBRANE PROCESSES 16-119
5.1.1 Low-Pressure Membranes: Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 16-120
5.1.2 High-Pressure Membranes: Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis 16-121
5.1.3 Electrical Current-Driven Membranes 16-124
5.1.4 Nanocomposite-Membrane Processes 16-126
5.1.5 Forward Osmosis 16-127
5.1.6 Membrane Bioreactor 16-128
5.1.7 Autotrophic Membrane-Biofilm Reactor (MBfR) 16-128
5.2 Process Objectives 16-129
5.3.1 Scale Control 16-131
5.3.1.1 Acid Addition 16-131
5.3.1.2 Scale-Inhibitor Addition 16-132
5.3.1.3 Softening with a Strong Acid Cation Exchange Resin 16-132
5.3.1.4 Lime Softening 16-132
5.3.1.5 Preventive Cleaning 16-133
5.3.1.6 Adjusting Operating Variables 16-133
5.3.2 Colloidal Fouling Prevention 16-133
5.3.2.1 Media Filtration 16-134
5.3.2.2 Inline Filtration 16-134
5.3.2.3 Coagulation/Flocculation 16-134
5.3.2.4 Cross-Flow Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration 16-134
5.3.3 Biological Fouling Prevention 16-135
5.3.3.1 Chlorination 16-135
5.3.3.2 Dechlorination 16-136
5.3.3.3 Sodium Metabisulfite 16-136
5.3.3.4 Chloramination 16-136
5.3.3.5 Shock Treatment 16-136
5.3.3.6 Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration 16-137
5.3.3.7 Ozone 16-137
5.3.3.8 Ultraviolet Irradiation 16-137
5.3.3.9 Advanced Oxidation 16-137
5.4 Membrane Systems 16-137
5.5 Membrane Module Configuration 16-144
5.6 Membrane Separation by Microfiltration or Ultrafiltration 16-144
5.7 Reverse Osmosis 16-144
5.8 Reject/Brine Disposal Requirements 16-148
5.8.1 Disposal to Surface Water 16-149
5.8.2 Deep-Well Injection 16-149
5.8.3 Evaporation Ponds 16-149
5.8.4 Evaporation to Dryness and Crystallization 16-149
5.8.5 Local Brine Management (Brine Lines) 16-149
5.8.6 Blending with Other Streams 16-150
5.8.7 Brine Recovery Reverse Osmosis 16-150
6.0 AIR STRIPPING FOR AMMONIA REMOVAL 16-150
6.2.1 Tower Packing 16-153
6.2.2 Loading 16-154
6.2.3 Air-to-Water Ratio 16-154
7.0 AMMONIA REMOVAL BY BREAKPOINT CHLORINATION 16-155
7.1 Process Theory 16-155
8.0 EFFLUENT REOXYGENATION 16-158
8.1 Cascade Reoxygenation 16-159
8.2 Mechanical/Diffused Air Reoxygenation 16-160
8.3 Relationship to Other Unit Processes 16-161
8.4 References and Design Procedures 16-161
Chapter 17
Sidestream Treatment
1.1 Sidestream Nutrient Management 17-3
1.1.1 Manage the Load 17-4
1.1.2 Export the Load 17-5
1.1.3 Treatment of Load 17-6
1.2 Definition of Sidestream Nutrient Removal 17-6
1.3 Drivers for Sidestream Treatment 17-8
1.3.1 Reduction in Chemical Demand 17-8
1.3.2 Energy Conservation 17-8
1.3.3 Reduction in Facility Carbon Footprint 17-8
1.3.4 Increased Low Temperature Capacity 17-9
1.3.5 Effluent Nutrient Limitations 17-9
1.3.6 Biosolids Processing 17-9
2.0 SIDESTREAM NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 17-9
2.1 General Design Considerations 17-9
2.1.1 Sidestream Characteristics 17-10
2.1.2 Equalization Requirements for Sidestream Facilities 17-11
2.1.3 Anaerobic Digester Feed Solids 17-12
2.1.4 Energy Effect 17-12
2.1.5 Chemical Requirements and Effects 17-13
2.1.6 Dewatering Effects 17-13
2.1.7 Online Instrumentation 17-14
2.1.8 Safety 17-14
2.1.9 Materials of Construction 17-14
2.1.10 Incorporating Operational Flexibility to Meet Emerging Requirements 17-15
2.2 Nitritation 17-15
2.3 Denitritation 17-15
2.4 Anammox 17-16
3.0 NUTRIENT REMOVAL SIDESTREAM PROCESSES 17-16
3.1 Bioaugmentation Processes 17-16
3.1.1 Ammonia Oxidation Processes 17-17
3.1.2 Nitritation and Nitrification Processes 17-17
3.1.3 Key Design Considerations 17-19
3.1.4 Nitrogen Removal Bioaugmentation Processes 17-20
3.2 Non-Bioaugmentation Processes 17-21
3.2.1 Nitritation/Denitritation 17-22
3.2.2 Suspended Growth without Sludge Retention 17-22
3.2.3 Suspended Growth with Sludge Retention 17-24
3.2.4 Equipment Requirements 17-24
3.2.5 Nitritation/Anammox 17-25
3.3 Physiochemical Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal Processes 17-26
3.3.1 Ammonia Stripping and Recovery 17-26
3.3.2 Chemical Precipitation of Phosphorus 17-26
3.3.3 Controlled Struvite Precipitation for Phosphorus and Ammonia Removal 17-28
3.3.4 Calcium Phosphate Precipitation for Phosphorus Removal 17-29
3.3.5 Integrated Treatment Reactor 17-30
4.1 Facility Basis/Assumptions 17-31
4.2 Equalization 17-31
4.3 Sidestream Nitrification/Denitrification 17-32
4.4 Nitritation/Denitritation 17-34
Chapter 18
Natural Systems
1.0 HISTORY 18-3
2.0 SOIL-ABSORPTION SYSTEMS 18-3
2.2 Typical Absorption Systems 18-4
2.3 Alternative Systems 18-4
2.4 Drip Application 18-5
2.5 Soil-Absorption System Design Example 18-5
3.0 POND SYSTEMS 18-7
3.1 Facultative Ponds 18-8
3.1.1 Treatment Performance 18-9
3.1.2 Design Procedures 18-10
3.1.3 Controlled Discharge Ponds 18-11
3.1.4 Hydrograph Controlled Release Ponds 18-11
3.2 Partial-Mix Aerated Ponds 18-12
3.3 High-Performance Aerated Ponds 18-14
3.4 Advanced Integrated Pond Systems 18-15
3.5 Ponds Design Example 18-17
4.0 LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS 18-19
4.1 Preapplication Treatment 18-21
4.2 Site Requirements 18-22
4.3 Slow-Rate Systems 18-23
4.3.2 Design Objectives 18-24
4.3.2.1 Crop Selection 18-24
4.3.2.2 Distribution System 18-25
4.3.2.3 Hydraulic Loading Rate 18-26
4.3.2.4 Nitrogen Loading Rate 18-27
4.3.2.5 Land Requirements 18-28
4.3.2.6 Storage Requirements 18-29
4.3.3 Slow-Rate Land Treatment Design Example 18-29
4.4 Overland Flow Systems 18-29
4.4.2 Design Factors 18-30
4.4.3.1 Suspended Solids Loadings 18-33
4.4.3.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Loadings 18-33
4.4.3.3 Nitrogen Removal 18-33
4.4.3.5 Vegetation Selection 18-34
4.4.3.6 Distribution System 18-34
4.4.4 Overland Flow Land Treatment Design Example 18-34
4.5 Rapid-Infiltration Systems 18-35
4.5.2 Design Objectives 18-36
4.5.3.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate 18-38
4.5.3.2 Organic Loading Rate 18-39
4.5.4 Rapid Infiltration Design Example 18-40
5.0 FLOATING AQUATIC PLANT SYSTEMS 18-40
5.1 Water Hyacinths 18-41
5.2 Duckweed Systems 18-41
5.3 Design Criteria for Water Hyacinth and Duckweed Systems 18-42
6.0 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS 18-42
6.1 Types of Constructed Wetlands 18-43
6.2 Free Water Surface Wetlands 18-43
6.3 Subsurface Flow Wetlands 18-44
6.4 Vertical-Flow wetlands 18-45
6.5 Performance of Constructed Wetlands 18-46
6.6 Land Requirements 18-47
6.7 Wetlands Design Example 18-48
Chapter 19
Disinfection
2.0 PATHOGENS, DISEASE, AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS 19-8
2.1 U.S. Federal Standards 19-11
2.2 State Standards 19-11
2.3 Pathogenic Organisms 19-12
2.3.1 Bacteria 19-12
2.3.2 Fungi
19-13
2.3.3 Protozoa 19-13
2.3.4 Viruses 19-13
2.4 Pathogens and Disease 19-13
2.5 Pathogens and Indicator Organisms 19-15
2.6 Survival of Pathogens in the Environment 19-16
2.7 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks 19-17
2.7.1 Recreational Water 19-17
2.7.2 Shellfish 19-19
2.7.3 Summary 19-19
2.8 Regulatory Requirements for Wastewater Disinfection in Selected Other Countries 19-20
2.8.1 Canada 19-20
2.8.2 European Countries 19-21
2.8.3 China 19-21
3.0 INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER DISINFECTION TECHNOLOGIES 19-21
3.1 Types of Disinfection Technologies 19-21
3.1.1 Chlorine Gas 19-22
3.1.2 Sodium Hypochlorite 19-22
3.1.3 On-Site Generation of Sodium Hypochlorite 19-23
3.1.4 Disinfection Alternatives to Chlorination 19-23
3.2 Trends in Disinfection Technology Selection 19-25
3.3 Sustainability Considerations 19-25
3.4 Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation 19-26
3.4.1 Chlorine 19-26
3.4.2 UV Radiation 19-26
3.5 Disinfection Kinetics 19-27
3.5.1 Kinetic Models of Disinfection 19-28
3.5.2 Regrowth Phenomena 19-30
3.6 Plant Control of Disinfection 19-31
3.7 Residual Toxicity of Disinfectants 19-31
4.0 EFFECTS OF WASTEWATER TYPE AND CHARACTERISTICS 19-31
4.1 Wastewater Type and Quality 19-31
4.1.1 Secondary Treated Effluent 19-33
4.1.2 Reclaimed Water 19-33
4.1.3 Wet Weather 19-33
4.2 Effects of Upstream Processes 19-34
4.3 Effects of Industrial and Wastewater Treatment Plant Chemicals 19-34
5.0 REACTOR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 19-34
5.1 Reactor Dynamics 19-34
5.2 Typical Wastewater Disinfection Reactors 19-34
5.3 Initial Mixing 19-35
5.4 Combining Tracer Analysis and Disinfection Kinetics 19-36
5.5 Kinetic Equations 19-36
5.6 Factors that Influence Disinfection Efficiencies 19-37
5.7 Reactor Design for Chemical Disinfectants 19-37
5.7.1 Designing to Achieve a Specific Contact Time “t” 19-39
5.7.2 Designing to Facilitate Reactor Maintenance 19-47
5.7.3 Designing to Minimize Reintroduction of Microbes to the Effluent 19-47
5.7.4 Designing to Control Disinfection-Byproduct Formation 19-48
5.7.5 Reactor Modeling and Computational Fluid Dynamics 19-49
5.8 Surrounding Conditions 19-50
6.0 CHLORINATION 19-50
6.1 Chemistry of Chlorine as a Disinfectant 19-50
6.1.1 Inorganic Reactions 19-52
6.1.1.1 Chloramines 19-52
6.1.1.2 The Breakpoint Phenomenon 19-53
6.1.1.3 Other Chlorine/Nitrogen Reactions 19-54
6.1.2 Organic Reactions 19-54
6.2 Chlorination and Dechlorination Chemicals 19-56
6.2.1 Elemental Chlorine 19-56
6.2.1.1 Physical Properties 19-56
6.2.1.2 Chemical Properties 19-56
6.2.2 Hypochlorites 19-56
6.2.2.3 Toxicity 19-57
6.2.3 Sulfur Dioxide 19-57
6.2.3.3 Toxicity 19-58
6.2.4 Sulfite Salts 19-58
6.2.5 Chlorine Dioxide 19-59
6.2.5.1 Properties 19-59
6.2.5.2 Generation 19-60
6.3 On-Site Generation of Sodium Hypochlorite 19-61
6.3.1 Unseparated Electrolyzer System Types and Principles of Operation 19-61
6.3.2 Separated Electrolyzer Systems (Membrane Systems) and Principles of Operation19-62
6.4 Chlorine and Disinfection Byproduct Toxicity 19-64
6.5 Aftergrowths 19-65
6.6 Safety and Health 19-65
6.6.1 Chlorine Gas 19-65
6.6.2 Hypochlorites 19-66
6.6.3 Shipment and Handling 19-67
6.6.3.1 Cylinders 19-67
6.6.3.2 Containers 19-67
6.6.3.3 Facility Design 19-68
6.6.3.4 900-kg (1-Ton) Containers 19-69
6.6.3.5 Vaporizer Facilities 19-70
6.7 Analytical Determination of Chlorine Residuals 19-71
6.8 Free Versus Combined Chlorine Residual 19-71
6.9 Process Design Requirements 19-74
6.9.1 Mixing 19-74
6.9.1.1 Closed Conduits 19-74
6.9.1.2 Hydraulic Devices 19-74
6.9.2 Contacting 19-75
6.10 Design and Selection of Equipment 19-75
6.10.1 Chlorinators 19-75
6.10.2 Chemical-Feed for Hypochlorite Solutions 19-79
6.10.3 Manifolds and Vacuum-Regulator Location 19-80
6.10.4 Vaporizers 19-81
6.11 Feed-Control Strategies 19-83
6.11.1 Manual Control 19-84
6.11.2 Semiautomatic Control 19-84
6.11.3 Flow-Proportional Control 19-85
6.11.4 Residual Control 19-86
6.11.5 Compound-Loop Control 19-87
6.11.6 Cascade Control 19-87
6.12 Chlorination of Secondary Effluent 19-90
6.13 Chlorination of Reclaimed Water 19-90
6.14 Factors Influencing Chlorination Efficacy 19-90
7.0 DECHLORINATION 19-93
7.1 Dechlorination Reactions and Kinetics 19-94
7.2 Sulfur Dioxide 19-94
7.3 Shipment and Handling Safety 19-95
7.4 Design and Selection of Equipment 19-95
7.5 Dechlorination Control 19-95
8.0 UV DISINFECTION 19-97
8.1 General Description of UV Disinfection 19-98
8.1.1 Intensity 19-101
8.1.2 UV-Intensity Measurement 19-105
8.1.3 Transmittance 19-105
8.1.4 UV Dose (Fluence) 19-106
8.1.5 UV-Dose-Estimation Methods 19-107
8.1.5.1 Point Source-Summation Model for Estimating UV Dose 19-107
8.1.5.2 Computational Fluid Dynamic Modeling 19-107
8.1.5.3 Use of Actinometers 19-107
8.1.5.4 Bioassays 19-108
8.1.6 Factors Affecting UV Dose 19-110
8.1.7 UV-Inactivation Kinetics 19-110
8.1.8 Photoreactivation and Dark Repair 19-119
8.2 UV-System-Reactor Design and Testing 19-120
8.2.1 System Hydraulics 19-120
8.2.1.1 Longitudinal Dispersion, Axial Dispersion, and Turbulence 19-120
8.2.1.2 Inlet Structure 19-121
8.2.1.3 Outlet Structure 19-122
8.2.1.4 Headloss 19-123
8.2.2 Factors Affecting UV-Lamp Output 19-124
8.2.3 UV-Reactor Validation and Scale-Up 19-127
8.2.4 Design Criteria for Reuse—NWRI–AwwaRF Guidelines 19-128
8.2.5 Validation Testing for Reuse—NWRI–AwwaRF Guidelines 19-130
8.2.6 Design Example Using NWRI–AwwaRF Guidelines 19-131
8.2.6.1 Pilot Facility 19-131
8.2.6.2 Testing the System 19-131
8.2.6.3 Sensor Readings and Flowrates 19-132
8.2.6.4 Comments 19-135
8.2.7 Current Validation Concerns 19-136
8.3 Mathematical Models 19-138
8.4 Role of Computational Fluid Dynamics in UV Design 19-142
8.5 Fouling and Sleeve-Cleaning Systems 19-143
8.6 Safety and Health 19-145
8.6.1 Exposure to UV Light 19-145
8.6.2 Electrical Hazards 19-146
8.7 General Considerations in UV-System Design 19-146
8.8 Design Considerations and Parameters 19-147
8.8.1 Facility Requirements 19-147
8.8.2 System Redundancy 19-147
8.8.3 Bypass Channels and Designing for Flood Conditions 19-147
8.8.4 Reactor Considerations 19-147
8.8.5 Module Lifting 19-148
8.8.6 Spare Parts 19-148
8.8.7 Power Supply and Harmonic Distortion 19-148
8.8.8 Power Supply (Voltage) 19-149
8.8.9 Harmonic Distortion 19-149
8.8.10 Power Conditioning 19-149
8.9 Current UV Equipment 19-149
8.9.1 Low-Pressure, Low-Intensity Systems 19-150
8.9.2 Horizontal UV Systems 19-151
8.9.3 Vertical UV Systems 19-152
8.9.4 Medium-Pressure, Mercury-Lamp Systems 19-153
8.9.5 Low-Pressure, High-Intensity Systems 19-154
8.10 Effects of Water Quality and Design Wastewater Characteristics 19-154
8.10.1 Effects of Upstream Processes 19-157
8.10.2 Effects of Industrial and Wastewater Treatment Plant Chemicals 19-157
8.11 Bench and Pilot Testing 19-158
8.11.1 Bench Testing 19-158
8.11.2 Pilot Testing 19-159
8.12 System Sizing and Configuration Considerations 19-159
8.12.1 Final Design 19-160
8.12.2 Retrofit Considerations 19-163
8.12.3 UV Disinfection of Secondary Effluent 19-163
8.12.4 Disinfection of Reclaimed Water 19-163
8.12.5 Design Guidelines 19-164
8.12.6 Transmittance Monitoring 19-164
8.12.7 Intensity Monitoring 19-165
8.12.8 Flow and Dose Pacing 19-166
8.13 Emerging UV-Disinfection Methods 19-166
9.0 OZONE DISINFECTION 19-166
9 .1 General Description of Ozone Disinfection 19-167
9.2 Analytical Methods for Ozone Measurement 19-169
9.3 Reaction Kinetics 19-169
9.3.1 Indirect Pathway 19-169
9.3.2 Direct Pathway 19-170
9.3.3 Effect of Ozone Concentration in Bulk Liquid 19-170
9.3.4 Effect of Temperature 19-170
9.3.5 Effect of pH 19-171
9.3.6 Effect of Inorganic Carbon 19-171
9.3.7 Effect of Organic Carbon 19-171
9.4 Modeling Ozone Disinfection in Wastewater 19-171
9.5.1 Ozone Generators 19-172
9.5.2 Ozone Contactors 19-173
9.5.3 Ozone Demand and Absorption 19-174
9.5.4 Ozone Exhaust Destruction 19-175
9.6 Safety, Health, and Environmental Effects 19-175
9.7 Shipment and Handling Safety 19-176
10.0 OTHER DISINFECTION METHODS 19-177
10.1 Peracetic Acid 19-177
10.2 Bromine 19-178
10.3 Ferrate 19-179
10.4 Electron-Beam Irradiation 19-179
10.5 Solar Disinfection 19-179
10.6 Pond Treatment System Die-Off 19-180
10.7 Pasteurization 19-180
10.8 Tertiary Filtration and Membrane Treatment 19-181
10.9 Advanced Oxidation 19-182
10.10 Combined Processes
19-182
Chapter 20
Introduction to Solids Management

2.0 DEFINITIONS 20-3
3.0 REGULATIONS 20-4
3.1 40 CFR 503 20-4
3.1.1 Background 20-4
3.1.2 General Requirements 20-5
3.1.3 Pollutant Limits 20-5
3.1.4 Pathogen Limits 20-6
3.1.4.1 Class A Requirements 20-6
3.1.4.2 Class B Requirements 20-9
3.1.4.3 Pathogen Treatment Processes 20-9
3.1.5 Vector-Attraction Reduction Requirements 20-10
3.1.6 Management Practices 20-10
3.1.7 Monitoring Requirements 20-11
3.1.8 Recordkeeping Requirements 20-11
3.1.9 Reporting Requirements 20-12
3.1.10 Incineration 20-12
3.1.11 Prohibited Disposal Method (Ocean Disposal) 20-12
3.2 State Regulations 20-12
4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 20-13
5.0 SOLIDS QUANTITIES 20-13
5.1 Estimating Solids Quantities 20-14
5.2 Primary Solids Production 20-15
5.3 Secondary Solids Production 20-17
5.4 Combined Solids Production 20-23
5.5 Chemical Solids Production 20-24
5.6 Mass Balance Example 20-24
5.6.1 Step 1: Determine the Mass of BOD and TSS in Influent 20-25
5.6.2 Step 2: Estimate Soluble BOD in Effluent 20-26
5.6.3 Step 3: Conduct First Iteration 20-26
5.6.3.1 Step 3.1: Primary Settling 20-26
5.6.3.2 Step 3.2: Secondary Process 20-27
5.6.3.3 Step 3.3: Gravity Belt Thickening 20-28
5.6.3.4 Step 3.4: Anaerobic Digestion 20-29
5.6.3.5 Step 3.5: Flowrate Distribution of Supernatant and Digested Solids 20-30
5.6.3.6 Step 3.6: Solids Dewatering 20-31
5.6.3.7 Step 3.7: Summary of Recycle Flows 20-31
5.6.4 Step 4: Conduct Second Iteration 20-32
5.6.4.1 Step 4.1: New Influent Concentration and Mass of BOD and TSS to Primary
Sedimentation 20-32
5.6.4.2 Step 4.2: Secondary Process 20-32
5.6.4.3 Step 4.3: Gravity Belt Thickening 20-33
5.6.4.4 Step 4.4: Anaerobic Digestion 20-34
5.6.4.5 Step 4.5: Flowrate Distribution of Supernatant and Digested Solids 20-35
5.6.4.6 Step 4.6: Solids Dewatering 20-35
5.6.5 Step 5: Create Summary of Recycle Flows 20-36
6.0 SOLIDS CHARACTERISTICS 20-36
6.1 Primary Solids 20-37
6.2 Secondary Solids 20-38
6.3 Combined Solids 20-38
6.4 Chemical Solids 20-38
7.0 PRETREATMENT OPTIONS 20-39
7.1 Degritting 20-39
7.2 Grinding 20-39
7.3 Screening 20-42
Chapter 21
Solids Storage and Transport

1.1 Flow Characteristics 21-4
1.2 Flow and Solids Monitoring 21-7
2.0 LIQUID RESIDUALS AND BIOSOLIDS STORAGE 21-8
2.1 Storage Requirements 21-8
2.2 Storage Tanks 21-9
2.2.1 Typical Design Criteria 21-9
2.2.2 Spill Prevention 21-11
2.2.3 Odor Control 21-12
2.3 Storage Lagoons 21-12
2.3.1 Aerobic Basins 21-13
2.3.2 Facultative Basins 21-13
2.3.3 Anaerobic Basins 21-13
3.0 LIQUID RESIDUALS TRANSPORT 21-13
3.1 Trucking 21-14
3.2 Pumping 21-14
3.3.1 Dilute Residuals 21-16
3.3.2 Thickened Residuals 21-16
3.3.2.1 Laminar Flow 21-23
3.3.2.2 Transition and Turbulent Flow 21-24
3.4 Example 21.1 21-26
3.4.1 Option 1: Using the Darcy-Weisbach Equation 21-26
3.4.2 Option 2: Using the Buckingham Equation 21-27
3.4.3 Option 3: Using Figure 21.6 (6-in. pipe, worst case) 21-28
3.5 Kinetic Pumps 21-28
3.5.1 Solids-Handling Centrifugal Pumps 21-28
3.5.2 Recessed-Impeller Pumps 21-29
3.5.3 Screw/Combination Centrifugal Pumps 21-30
3.5.4 Disc Pumps 21-30
3.5.5 Grinder Pumps 21-30
3.6 Positive-Displacement Pumps 21-30
3.6.1 Plunger Pumps 21-30
3.6.2 Progressing Cavity Pumps 21-32
3.6.3 Diaphragm Pumps 21-34
3.6.4 Rotary Lobe Pumps 21-34
3.6.5 Pneumatic Ejectors 21-36
3.6.6 Peristaltic Hose Pumps 21-36
3.6.7 Reciprocating Piston Pumps 21-37
3.7 Other Pumps 21-37
3.7.1 Air-Lift Pumps 21-37
3.7.2 Archimedes Screw Pumps 21-37
3.8 Long-Distance Pipelines 21-39
3.9 Common Design Deficiencies in Pumps and Piping 21-39
3.10 Standby Capacity 21-42
4.0 DEWATERED CAKE STORAGE 21-42
4.1 Storage Requirements 21-42
4.2 Odor-Control Issues 21-42
5.0 DEWATERED CAKE TRANSPORT 21-43
5.1 Pumping 21-43
5.2 Hydraulics 21-44
5.3 Flow and Headloss Characteristics 21-44
5.4.1 Example 21.2: Pumping Cake with 28% Solids 21-49
5.4.1.1 Solution Option 1 21-50
5.5 Line Lubrication for Long-Distance Pumping 21-51
5.6 Controls 21-52
5.7 Progressing Cavity Pumps 21-52
5.8 Hydraulically Driven Reciprocating Piston Pumps 21-53
5.8.1 Operating Experience and Design Considerations 21-55
5.8.2 Cake Production Rate 21-56
5.8.3 Volumetric Efficiency 21-56
5.8.4 Service Factor 21-57
5.8.5 Hydraulic Power Unit Sizing 21-57
5.9 Conveyors 21-57
5.9.1 Belt Conveyors 21-57
5.9.1.1 Belt Conveyor Applications 21-59
5.9.1.2 Belt Conveyor Design and Operation Considerations 21-60
5.9.1.3 Special Belt Conveyors 21-61
5.9.2 Screw Conveyors 21-62
5.9.2.1 Screw Conveyor Applications 21-63
5.9.2.2 Screw Conveyor Design and Operation Considerations 21-64
5.10 Standby Capacity 21-65
6.0 DRIED SOLIDS STORAGE 21-65
6.2 Safety Issues 21-66
7.0 DRIED SOLIDS TRANSPORT 21-67
7.1 Belt Conveyors 21-67
7.1.1 Belt Conveyor Applications 21-68
7.1.2 Belt Conveyor Design and Operation Considerations 21-68
7.2 Screw Conveyors 21-70
7.2.1 Screw Conveyor Applications 21-71
7.2.2 Screw Conveyor Design 21-71
7.2.2.1 Known Factors 21-71
7.2.2.2 Materials Classification 21-71
7.2.2.3 Determine Conveyor Diameter and Speed 21-71
7.2.2.4 Compare Conveyor Diameter to Lump Size 21-74
7.2.2.5 Determine Conveyor Horsepower 21-74
7.2.2.6 Select Components for Torsional and Horsepower Requirements 21-74
7.3 Drag Conveyors 21-74
7.3.1 Drag Conveyor Applications 21-75
7.3.2 Drag Conveyor Design 21-75
7.3.2.1 Chain Type 21-75
7.3.2.2 Chain Material 21-75
7.3.2.3 Chain Pitch 21-75
7.3.2.4 Sprocket Size 21-76
7.3.2.5 Drive 21-76
7.3.2.6 Take-Ups 21-76
7.3.2.7 Head and Tail Sections 21-76
7.3.2.8 Troughs 21-76
7.4 Bucket Elevators 21-77
7.4.1 Bucket Elevator Applications 21-78
7.4.2 Bucket Elevator Design and Operation Considerations 21-78
7.5 Pneumatic Conveyors 21-80
7.5.1 Pneumatic Conveyor Applications 21-80
7.5.2 Pneumatic Conveyor Design and Operation Considerations 21-81
Chapter 22
Chemical Conditioning
2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING CONDITIONING 22-4
2.1 Residuals Characteristics 22-4
2.1.1 Source of Residuals 22-5
2.1.2 Solids Concentration 22-5
2.1.3 Alkalinity and pH 22-6
2.1.4 Biocolloids and Biopolymers 22-6
2.1.5 Particle Size and Distribution 22-7
2.1.6 Degree of Hydration 22-7
2.1.7 Particle Surface Charge 22-7
2.1.8 Wastewater Cations 22-8
2.1.9 Rheology 22-8
2.2 Handling and Processing Conditions Before Conditioning 22-9
2.2.1 Storage 22-9
2.2.2 Pumping 22-10
2.2.3 Mixing 22-10
2.2.4 Solids Concentration 22-10
2.2.5 Stabilized and Unstabilized Solids 22-11
2.3 Purpose of Conditioning: Thickening and Dewatering 22-12
3.0 ULTIMATE DISPOSAL OR USE OF BIOSOLIDS 22-12
4.0 TYPES OF CHEMICAL CONDITIONING 22-13
4.1 Inorganic Chemicals 22-13
4.1.1 Lime and its Characteristics 22-14
4.1.2 Ferric Salts 22-15
4.1.3 Ferric Salts with Lime 22-18
4.1.4 Aluminum Salts 22-20
4.1.5 Process Design Considerations 22-21
4.1.5.1 Conditioning for Gravity Thickening 22-21
4.1.5.2 Conditioning for Recessed Plate Filter Press Dewatering 22-22
4.1.5.3 Conditioning for Belt Filter Press Dewatering 22-23
4.2 Organic Polymers 22-24
4.2.1 Properties of Organic Polymers 22-25
4.2.1.1 Polymer Charge 22-25
4.2.1.2 Polymer Molecular Weight 22-26
4.2.2 Polymer Cross-Linkage 22-27
4.2.3 Polymer Forms and Structure 22-27
4.2.2.1 Dry Polymers 22-27
4.2.2.2 Emulsion Polymers 22-28
4.2.2.3 Mannich Polymers 22-28
4.2.4 Polymer Dosage 22-29
4.2.5 Application of Polymers 22-29
4.2.5.1 Dosage 22-30
4.2.5.2 Mixing Procedure 22-31
4.2.5.3 Process Monitoring and Control 22-32
4.3 Process Design Considerations for Thickening and Dewatering 22-33
4.3.1 Conditioning for Gravity Thickening 22-33
4.3.2 Conditioning for Dissolved Air Flotation Thickening 22-37
4.3.3 Conditioning for Centrifugal Thickening 22-37
4.3.4 Conditioning for Gravity Belt Thickening 22-38
4.3.5 Conditioning for Rotary Drum Thickening 22-38
4.3.6 Conditioning for Centrifugal Dewatering 22-39
4.3.7 Conditioning for Belt Filter Press Dewatering 22-39
4.3.8 Conditioning for Screw Press Dewatering 22-39
4.3.9 Conditioning for Rotary Press Dewatering 22-40
4.3.10 Conditioning for Drying Beds 22-40
5.0 CHEMICAL STORAGE AND FEED EQUIPMENT 22-41
5.1 Inorganic Chemicals 22-42
5.1.1 Ferric Chloride 22-42
5.1.2 Lime 22-43
5.1.2.1 Lime Silos 22-43
5.1.2.2 Lime Feed System 22-44
5.2 Organic Polymers 22-46
5.2.1 Dry Polymer Feeders 22-46
5.2.2 Liquid Polymer Feeders 22-48
5.2.3 Emulsion Polymers 22-50
5.3 Safety 22-53
6.0 DOSE OPTIMIZATION FOR ORGANIC CONDITIONERS 22-54
6.1 Cost-Effectiveness of Chemical Conditioner and Dosage 22-54
6.2 Tests for Selecting Conditioning Agents and Dosages 22-56
7.1 Step 1: Calculate the peak weekly solids to be dewatered 22-57
7.2 Step 2: Determine whether solids loading and hydraulic loading rates are within operating
parameters 22-57
7.3 Step 3: Calculate the polymer dosage 22-58
Chapter 23
Solids Thickening
2.0 GRAVITY THICKENER 23-4
2.1 Evaluation and Scale-Up Procedures 23-5
2.1.1 Determining Area Based on Existing Data 23-6
2.1.2 Determining Area Based on Batch Settling Tests 23-8
2.1.3 Determining Area Based on Bench-Scale Testing 23-9
2.1.4 Determining Area Based on Pilot-Scale Testing 23-11
2.2 Process Design Considerations and Criteria 23-12
2.2.1 Loading Rate 23-12
2.2.2 Overflow Rate 23-12
2.2.3 Inlet 23-13
2.2.4 Pickets 23-13
2.2.5 Drive Mechanisms 23-14
2.2.6 Skimmers and Scrapers 23-14
2.2.7 Underflow Piping 23-15
2.2.8 Rectangular Thickener Considerations 23-16
2.3 Operational Considerations Related to Design 23-16
2.3.1 Feed Solids Source and Characteristics 23-16
2.3.2 Polymer 23-17
2.3.3 Underflow Withdrawal 23-17
2.4 Ancillary Equipment/Controls 23-17
2.5 Design Example 23-17
3.0 DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION THICKENER 23-18
3.1.1 Bench-Scale Evaluations 23-20
3.1.2 Pilot Flotation Units 23-21
3.2.1 Type of Solids 23-23
3.2.2 Mixed-Liquor Sludge Volume Index 23-23
3.2.3 Hydraulic Loading Rate 23-23
3.2.5 Feed-Solids Concentration 23-24
3.2.6 Air-to-Solids Ratio 23-25
3.2.7 Float-Blanket Depth 23-26
3.2.8 Polymer Addition 23-26
3.2.9 Floating Solids Concentration 23-27
3.2.10 Solids Capture 23-28
3.2.11 Solubilization Efficiency 23-29
3.3 Mechanical Features 23-30
3.3.1 Typical Flotation Systems 23-30
3.3.2 Rectangular Versus Circular 23-30
3.3.4 Location 23-32
3.3.5 Skimmers and Rakes 23-32
3.3.6 Overflow Weir 23-33
3.3.7 Pressurization System 23-33
3.3.8 Pressurization Tanks 23-35
3.4 Ancillary Equipment and Controls 23-36
3.4.1 Pipes, Valves, and Instruments 23-36
3.4.2 Pumps and Compressors 23-37
3.5 Cothickening Primary and Secondary Solids 23-38
4.0 CENTRIFUGE 23-41
4.1 Operating Principle 23-42
4.2 Physical Features 23-43
4.2.1 Bowl Geometry 23-43
4.2.1.1 Bowl Volume 23-44
4.2.1.2 Cylinder Volume 23-46
4.2.2 Scroll Geometry 23-46
4.2.2.1 Open Scroll 23-46
4.2.2.2 Closed Scroll 23-46
4.2.3 Scroll Configuration 23-46
4.2.4 Scroll Drive Features 23-47
4.2.5 Differential Speed Adjustment 23-47
4.3.1 Theoretical Capacity Factors 23-48
4.4 Process Design Conditions and Criteria 23-50
4.4.1 Process Design Criteria 23-52
4.5.1 Motor Type and Size 23-53
4.5.2 Base 23-54
4.5.3 Case 23-54
4.5.4 Bowl 23-54
4.5.5 Conveyor 23-54
4.5.6 Feed Pipe 23-54
4.5.7 Bearings 23-54
4.5.8 Back-drive 23-55
4.5.9 Abrasion Areas 23-55
4.5.10 Vibration 23-55
4.5.11 Electrical Controls 23-55
4.6 Ancillary Equipment 23-55
4.6.1 Pumps 23-55
4.6.2 Thickened Solids Transportation 23-56
4.7 Performance-Control Systems 23-56
4.7.1 Feed-Forward System 23-56
4.7.2 Feed-Backwards System 23-57
4.8 Variable-Speed Bowl and Scroll 23-57
4.9 Pond-Depth Adjustments 23-57
4.10 Chemical Conditioning 23-57
5.0 GRAVITY BELT THICKENER 23-60
5.2.1 Unit Sizing 23-63
5.2.2 Other Design Considerations 23-64
5.2.3 Mixing Design 23-64
5.2.4 Flocculation Design 23-64
5.2.5 Belt Speed Design 23-65
5.2.6 Plow Design 23-65
5.2.7 Discharge Design 23-66
5.3.1 Solids Polymer Injection and Mixer 23-66
5.3.2 Flocculation Tank and Feed Distribution 23-67
5.3.3 Frame 23-67
5.3.4 Gravity Drainage Area 23-67
5.3.5 Discharge Area 23-67
5.3.6 Belt Washing 23-68
5.3.7 Filtrate and Wash Water 23-68
5.3.8 Gravity Belt Thickener Drive, Tracking, and Tensioning 23-68
5.4 Ancillary Equipment/Controls 23-68
5.4.1 Feed Pumps and Feed Flow Control 23-69
5.4.2 Polymer System and Feed Control 23-70
5.4.3 Belt Washwater Supply 23-71
5.4.4 Thickened-Solids Pumps 23-71
6.0 ROTARY DRUM THICKENER 23-73
6.2.1 Solids Feed Rate 23-75
6.2.2 Polymer Feed Rate 23-75
6.2.3 Pool Depth 23-76
6.2.4 Drum Speed 23-76
7.0 COMPARISON OF THICKENING METHODS 23-80
Chapter 24
Dewatering
1.1 Objectives of Dewatering 24-4
1.2 Key Process Performance Parameters 24-5
1.3 Overview of Dewatering Technologies 24-7
1.4 Effect of Solids Characteristics 24-8
1.6 Chemical Conditioning 24-11
1.7 Effect of Recycle Streams 24-12
1.8 Odor Control 24-12
1.9 Pilot Testing 24-12
1.10.4 Output 24-16
2.0 CENTRIFUGES 24-17
2.2.1 Mechanical Features 24-17
2.2.1.1 Installation Considerations 24-21
2.2.2 Hydraulic Loading Rates 24-22
2.2.3 Solids Loading Rates 24-22
2.2.4 Bowl Speed 24-22
2.2.5 Pool Depth 24-23
2.2.6 Structural Support 24-23
2.2.7 Safety 24-24
2.2.8 Capture Efficiency 24-24
2.2.9 Area/Building Requirements 24-25
2.3.1 Feed System 24-25
2.3.2 Scroll Tip Linings 24-26
2.3.3 Scroll/Bowl Differential Speed Controls Drives 24-26
2.3.4 Dynamic Loads 24-27
2.3.5 Vibration/Noise Control 24-27
2.3.6 Cake Discharge 24-28
2.3.7 Chemical Conditioning Requirements 24-28
2.3.8 Energy Requirements 24-28
2.3.9 Washwater Requirements 24-29
3.0 BELT PRESSES 24-29
3.2.2 Hydraulic Loading Rates 24-31
3.2.3 Solids Loading Rates 24-31
3.2.4 Gravity Drainage Zone 24-33
3.2.5 Pressure Zones 24-33
3.2.6 Frame 24-34
3.2.7 Rollers 24-35
3.2.8 Belts 24-35
3.2.9 Bearings 24-35
3.2.10 Safety 24-36
3.2.11 Press Enclosures 24-36
3.3.1 Controls and Drives 24-37
3.3.2.1 Feed Pumps 24-38
3.3.2.2 Feed Piping 24-38
3.3.2.3 Conditioning System 24-38
3.3.3 Belt Speed 24-39
3.3.4 Belt Tracking 24-39
3.3.5 Tensioning 24-39
3.3.6 Belt Cleaning System 24-39
3.3.6.1 Discharge (Doctor) Blade 24-39
3.3.6.2 Belt-Wash System 24-40
3.3.7 Washwater Requirements 24-40
4.0 RECESSED-PLATE FILTER PRESSES 24-41
4.2.1 Cycle Time 24-45
4.2.2 Operating Pressure 24-46
4.2.3 Number of Plates 24-46
4.2.4 Type of Feed System 24-46
4.2.7 Type of Press 24-51
4.2.7.1 Fixed-Volume Press 24-51
4.2.7.2 Variable-Volume Press 24-53
4.2.8.1 Structural Frame 24-54
4.2.8.2 Filter Press Plates 24-55
4.2.8.3 Diaphragms 24-57
4.2.8.4 Filter Cloths 24-57
4.2.8.5 Plate Shifters 24-59
4.2.9 Safety 24-59
4.3.1.1 Precoat System 24-60
4.3.1.2 Rapid Fill 24-61
4.3.1.3 Pressurization 24-62
4.3.1.4 Cake Removal 24-62
4.3.1.5 Washing System 24-63
4.3.2 Acid Cleaning 24-64
5.0 DRYING BEDS AND LAGOONS 24-66
5.2 Sand Drying Beds 24-67
5.2.1 Process Design Considerations and Criteria 24-68
5.2.1.1 Area Requirements 24-68
5.2.1.2 Solids Loading Criteria 24-68
5.2.1.3 Chemical Conditioning 24-70
5.2.1.4 Design Criteria 24-72
5.2.2 Structural Elements of Conventional Beds 24-75
5.2.2.1 Sidewalls 24-75
5.2.2.2 Underdrains 24-76
5.2.2.3 Gravel Layers 24-76
5.2.2.4 Sand Layer 24-77
5.2.2.5 Partitions 24-77
5.2.2.6 Decanters 24-78
5.2.2.7 Solids Distribution Channel 24-78
5.2.2.8 Runway and Ramps 24-79
5.2.2.9 Enclosures for Covered Beds 24-80
5.3 Other Types of Drying Beds in Use 24-81
5.3.1 Polymer-Assisted Filter Bed 24-81
5.3.2 Mechanically Assisted Solar Drying System 24-82
5.4 Other Types of Drying Beds Not Frequently Used 24-83
5.4.1 Paved Drying Beds 24-83
5.4.2 Wedge-Wire Drying Beds 24-83
5.4.3 Vacuum-Assisted Drying Beds 24-83
5.5 Reed Beds 24-84
5.5.1 Introduction 24-84
5.6 Lagoons 24-86
5.6.1 Environmental Considerations 24-86
5.6.2 Storage Lagoons 24-87
5.6.3 Drying Lagoons 24-88
6.0 ROTARY PRESSES 24-89
6.2.2 Structural Elements 24-91
6.2.3 Hydraulic Loading Rate 24-91
6.2.5 Operational Control 24-92
6.3.3 Wash Water Requirements 24-93
7.0 SCREW PRESSES 24-97
7.3.1 Screw 24-102
7.3.2 Screen 24-103
7.3.3 Cleaning System 24-103
7.3.4 Flocculation System 24-104
7.4 Structural Elements and Building Requirements 24-104
7.5 Hydraulic and Solids Loading Rates 24-106
7.6 Unit Redundancy 24-108
7.7 Rotation Speed 24-108
7.8.1 Chemical Conditioning 24-109
7.8.3 Washwater and Pressate 24-110
Chapter 25
Stabilization
1.1 Comparison of Processes 25-12
2.0 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION 25-15
2.1 Process Development 25-15
2.2 Process Fundamentals 25-16
2.2.1 Microbiology and Biochemistry 25-16
2.2.2 Process Rates and Kinetics 25-17
2.2.2.1 Hydrolysis 25-18
2.2.2.2 Acidogenesis 25-18
2.2.2.3 Methanogenesis 25-18
2.2.3 Microbial Ecology 25-19
2.2.4 Feedstock Characteristics 25-20
2.2.5 Hydraulic and Solids Residence Time 25-20
2.2.6 Organic Loading Rate and Frequency 25-21
2.2.7 Process Stability 25-22
2.2.9 Volatile Fatty Acids, Concentration and Composition 25-25
2.2.10 Alkalinity and pH 25-26
2.2.11 Toxicity in Digesters 25-26
2.2.12 Volatile Solids and COD 25-28
2.2.13 Biogas Production and Characterization 25-28
2.2.14 Pathogens 25-30
2.3 Process Options 25-30
2.3.1 Low-Rate Digestion 25-30
2.3.2 High-Rate Digestion (Mesophilic and Thermophilic) 25-31
2.3.2.1 Process Development 25-31
2.3.2.2 Design Criteria—Mesophilic 25-32
2.3.2.3 Design Criteria—Thermophilic 25-33
2.3.3 Primary–Secondary Digestion 25-34
2.3.4 Recuperative Thickening 25-35
2.3.5 Staged Digestion 25-36
2.3.5.1 Two-Stage Mesophilic Digestion 25-36
2.3.5.2 Multiple-Stage Thermophilic Digestion 25-37
2.3.6 Temperature-Phased Anaerobic Digestion 25-38
2.3.6.3 Performance 25-42
2.3.6.4 Heating, Cooling, and Other Design Considerations 25-43
2.3.7 Two-Phase Anaerobic Digestion 25-44
2.3.7.4 Process Variation—Three-Phase Digestion 25-46
2.3.7.5 Process Variation—Enzymic Hydrolysis and Digestion 25-46
2.3.8 Pre-Pasteurization 25-46
2.3.8.3 Pre-Pasteurization Vessel 25-48
2.3.8.4 Ancillary Equipment for Pre-Pasteurization 25-49
2.3.9 Thermal Hydrolysis 25-50
2.3.9.2 Design Criteria—Thermal Hydrolysis Vessels 25-52
2.3.9.3 Ancillary Equipment for Thermal Hydrolysis 25-53
2.3.9.4 Process Mode Variations 25-54
2.3.9.5 Anaerobic Digestion Performance 25-54
2.3.10 Aerobic Pretreatment 25-56
2.3.10.3 Aerobic Vessel Design 25-59
2.3.10.4 Ancillary Equipment for Aerobic Pretreatment 25-59
2.3.11 Lagoon Digestion 25-60
2.3.11.1 System Performance 25-61
2.3.11.2 Covered Lagoons for Methane Emission Control 25-61
2.3.12 Solids Disintegration Processes 25-62
2.3.12.1 Ultrasonic Technologies—Process Development 25-62
2.3.12.2 Ultrasonic Technologies—Process Variations 25-63
2.3.12.3 Ultrasonic Technologies—Design Considerations 25-63
2.4 Digestion Processing 25-64
2.4.1 Thickening Before Digestion 25-64
2.4.2 Debris Removal 25-65
2.4.3 Debris Size Reduction (Reduction in “Identifiables”) 25-66
2.4.4 Batch and Plug-Flow Systems 25-67
2.5 Post-Digestion Processing 25-68
2.5.1 Process Development 25-68
2.5.2 Storage of Biosolids 25-68
2.5.3 Cake Conveyance Impacts 25-72
2.5.4 Dewatering Impacts 25-73
2.5.5 Digestion Process Impacts 25-75
2.6 Co-Digestion Processing 25-76
2.6.1 Dry Digestion and Wet Digestion 25-77
2.6.2 FOG and Grease Wastes 25-78
2.6.3 Liquid and High-Strength Wastes 25-79
2.6.4 Food Waste Materials 25-79
2.7.1 Design Data and Parameters 25-80
2.7.2 Process Design 25-82
2.7.2.1 Sizing Criteria 25-82
2.7.2.2 Loading Rates and Frequency 25-86
2.7.2.3 Solids Blending 25-87
2.7.2.4 Solids Destruction and Gas Production 25-87
2.7.3 Tank Configuration and Shape 25-91
2.7.3.1 Egg-Shaped Digesters 25-91
2.7.3.2 Silo Digesters (Tall Cylinders) 25-94
2.7.3.3 Cylindrical Digesters 25-95
2.7.4 Digester Cover Type-Shape 25-97
2.7.4.1 Fixed-Cover Digester 25-97
2.7.4.2 Floating-Cover Digester 25-98
2.7.4.3 Downe’s Floating Cover 25-99
2.7.4.4 Gas-Holder Cover 25-100
2.7.4.5 Membrane Gas-Holder Cover 25-100
2.7.4.6 Submerged Fixed Cover 25-102
2.7.5 Digester Feeding Systems 25-103
2.7.6 Digester Mixing Systems 25-103
2.7.6.1 Mixing Requirements 25-104
2.7.6.2 System Performance 25-106
2.7.7 Digester Heating Systems 25-108
2.7.7.1 Digester Heating Needs 25-108
2.7.7.2 Solids Heating 25-108
2.7.7.3 Digester Heat Losses 25-108
2.7.7.4 Heat Sources 25-109
2.7.8 Heat Exchangers 25-110
2.7.8.1 Heat Exchanger Types 25-110
2.7.8.2 Heat Exchanger Characteristics 25-113
2.7.9 Steam Heating 25-113
2.7.10 Heat Recovery 25-113
2.7.11 Additional Equipment Options 25-114
2.7.11.1 Debris Buildup and Foam Control 25-114
2.7.11.2 Scaling (Struvite) 25-115
2.7.11.3 Piping and Cleaning Maintenance 25-116
2.7.11.4 Corrosion 25-117
2.7.11.5 Pumping 25-117
2.7.11.6 Sampling and Process Monitoring 25-117
2.7.11.7 Alkalinity and pH Control 25-118
2.7.12 Design Example—Thermophilic Digestion 25-119
2.7.12.1 Digestion System and Suitability for Thermophilic Operation 25-119
2.7.12.2 Digestion Loading and Operating Conditions 25-119
2.8 Physical Facilities 25-120
2.8.1 Tanks and Materials 25-121
2.8.2 Pumps and Piping 25-121
2.8.3 Mixing Equipment 25-121
2.8.4 Heating and Heat-Transfer Equipment 25-122
2.8.5 Cleaning and Safety 25-122
2.9 Digester Gas Handling 25-123
2.9.1 Characteristics and Contaminants 25-123
2.9.2 Gas Collection 25-123
2.9.2.1 Piping Systems-Piping Material 25-123
2.9.2.2 Pressure Loss Considerations 25-124
2.9.3 Digester Gas Storage 25-125
2.9.3.1 Low-Pressure Digester Gas Storage 25-125
2.9.3.2 Flexible Membrane Covers 25-125
2.9.3.3 Flexible Membrane Cover Comparison 25-125
2.9.3.4 Dry Seal Type Cylindrical Steel Gas Holder Vessels 25-125
2.9.3.5 Dry Seal Type Gas Holder 25-126
2.9.3.6 Floating Deep Skirted Digester Gas Holder or Gas Storage Covers 25-126
2.9.3.7 High-Pressure Compressed Digester Gas Storage 25-127
2.9.4 Gas Processing and Equipment 25-127
2.9.4.1 Sediment and Condensate Traps 25-127
2.9.4.2 Moisture Removal 25-127
2.9.4.3 Gas-Pressure Boosters 25-128
2.9.4.4 Corrosion 25-128
2.9.4.5 High-Pressure Gas Compressors 25-129
2.9.4.6 Gas Metering and Gas Pressure Monitoring 25-130
2.9.4.7 Isolation Valves 25-131
2.9.4.8 Gas Analysis 25-131
2.9.4.9 Gas Safety Equipment 25-132
2.9.4.10 Waste Gas Combustion 25-132
2.9.4.11 Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 25-133
2.9.4.12 Siloxane Removal Systems 25-134
2.9.4.13 Carbon Dioxide Removal 25-136
2.9.4.14 Amines 25-137
2.9.5 Gas Use—Boilers 25-137
2.9.5.1 Fire-Tube Boiler 25-137
2.9.5.2 Fire-Box Boilers 25-138
2.9.5.3 Water-Tube Boilers 25-138
2.9.5.4 Cast-Iron Boilers 25-138
2.9.6 Gas Use—Combined Heat and Power (Cogeneration) 25-138
2.9.6.1 Reciprocating Internal-Combusion Gas Engines 25-138
2.9.6.2 Combustion Gas Turbine Generators 25-139
2.9.6.3 Microturbines 25-140
2.9.6.4 Steam Turbines and Steam Boilers 25-141
2.9.7 Gas Cleanup and Sale 25-142
2.9.8 Solids Drying 25-142
2.9.9 Emerging Technologies—Fuel Cells 25-143
2.9.9.1 Representative Digester Gas Fuel Cell Plants 25-143
2.9.9.2 Types of Fuel Cells 25-143
2.9.9.3 Fuel Cell Components 25-144
2.9.9.4 Emerging Technologies—Solid Oxide and Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
25-145
2.9.10 Emerging Technologies—Stirling Cycle Engines 25-145
2.9.11 Digester Gas Use Technology and Heat Recovery 25-146
2.9.11.1 Internal Combustion Engine Heat Recovery 25-147
2.9.11.2 Fuel Cell Heat Recovery 25-147
2.9.12 Air Emissions; Limits and Control Options, Greenhouse Gases 25-148
2.9.12.1 Criteria Pollutants 25-148
2.9.12.2 Greenhouse Gases 25-148
2.9.12.3 Greenhouse Gases and Power-Generation Efficiency 25-150
2.9.12.4 Digester Gas Use Greenhouse Gas Concerns 25-151
3.0 AEROBIC DIGESTION 25-151
3.1 Process Applications 25-152
3.2 Process Theory 25-153
3.3.1 General 25-154
3.3.2 Reduction in Volatile Solids 25-154
3.3.3 Feed Quantities/Characteristics 25-155
3.3.4 Operating Temperature 25-155
3.3.5 Oxygen-Transfer and Mixing Requirements 25-157
3.3.6 Tank Volume and Detention Time Requirements 25-159
3.3.7 Summary of Design Parameters 25-163
3.3.7.1 Aeration and Mixing Equipment 25-164
3.3.7.2 Piping Arrangements 25-166
3.3.7.3 Instrumentation and Controls 25-167
3.3.7.4 Considerations of Equipment Selection 25-168
3.3.7.5 Design for Safety 25-168
3.3.7.6 Design for Operability 25-168
3.4.1 Conventional (Mesophilic) Aerobic Digestion 25-169
3.4.1.1 Process Design 25-169
3.4.1.2 Process Performance and Operation 25-169
3.4.2 Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion 25-171
3.4.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 25-172
3.4.2.2 Process Design 25-172
3.4.2.3 Process Performance and Operation 25-174
3.5 Process Variations 25-177
3.5.1 High-Purity-Oxygen Aeration 25-177
3.5.2 Combined Stabilization Processes 25-177
3.5.2.1 Combined Aerobic and Anaerobic Digestion 25-177
3.5.2.2 Aerobic Digestion 1 Drying 25-177
3.6 Design Techniques to Optimize Aerobic Digestion 25-178
3.6.1 Prethickening 25-178
3.6.1.1 Advantages of Prethickening 25-178
3.6.1.2 Disdvantages of Prethickening 25-178
3.6.1.3 Categories of Prethickening 25-178
3.6.2 Basin Configuration—Staged or Batch Operation (Multiple Basins) 25-184
3.6.3 Aerobic–Anoxic Operation 25-185
3.7 Process Considerations for Designers 25-185
3.7.1 Specific Oxygen Uptake Rate 25-185
3.7.2 Pathogen Reduction 25-186
3.7.3 Volatile Solids Reduction and Solids Reduction 25-186
3.7.4 Solids Retention Time 3 Temperature Product 25-187
3.7.5 Nitrogen Removal in Biosolids 25-187
3.7.6 Phosphorus Reduction in Biosolids and Biophosphorus 25-188
3.7.6.1 Option I: Liquid Disposal—No Restriction of Phosphorus on Land Application25-190
3.7.6.2 Option II: Dewatering, Post-Thickening, and Supernating, with Limit Restriction of
Phosphorus on Land Application 25-190
3.7.7 Supernatant Quality of Recycled Sidestreams 25-191
3.7.8 Aerobic Digester Design Example 25-194
3.7.8.1 Standard Design: Single Tank 25-194
3.7.8.2 Optimizing the Single Tank Conventional Design by Thickening 25-196
4.0 COMPOSTING 25-198
4.1 Process Variables 25-198
4.1.1 Solids Content 25-198
4.1.2 Carbon-to-Nitrogen (C;N) Ratio 25-199
4.1.3 Maintaining Aerobic Conditions 25-199
4.1.4 Maintaining Proper Temperatures 25-199
4.1.5 Microbiology 25-199
4.1.6 Energy Balance 25-200
4.2 Process Objectives 25-201
4.2.1 Pathogen Reduction 25-201
4.2.2 Maturation 25-202
4.2.3 Drying 25-203
4.3 Description of Composting Methods 25-203
4.3.1 Aerated Static-Pile Composting 25-204
4.3.2 Windrow Composting 25-205
4.3.3 In-Vessel Composting 25-206
4.3.4 Comparison of Composting Methods 25-207
4.4.1 Bulking Agents and Amendments 25-210
4.4.2 Characteristics of the Solids–Amendment Mixture 25-210
4.4.3 Calculation of Materials Balance 25-212
4.4.4 Temperature Control and Aeration 25-212
4.4.5 Detention Time 25-214
4.5 General Design Considerations 25-215
4.5.1 Site Layout 25-215
4.5.2 Material-Handling Systems 25-216
4.5.3 Bulking Agent Storage and Handling 25-216
4.5.4 Mixing 25-216
4.5.5 Leachate 25-218
4.5.6 Aeration and Exhaust Systems 25-218
4.5.7 Ventilation 25-223
4.5.8 Screening 25-223
4.5.9 Product Curing and Storage 25-223
4.5.10.1 Odor Sources in Composting 25-224
4.5.10.2 Odor Measurement 25-226
4.5.10.3 Containment and Treatment 25-226
4.5.11 Design Example 25-227
4.6 Health and Safety Considerations 25-230
5.0 ALKALINE STABILIZATION 25-231
5.1 Stabilization Objectives 25-232
5.1.1 Process Application 25-236
5.1.2 Process Fundamentals 25-237
5.1.2.1 pH Elevation 25-237
5.1.2.2 Heat Generation 25-238
5.1.3 Process Description 25-238
5.1.3.1 Liquid Lime (Pre-lime) Stabilization 25-238
5.1.3.2 Dry Lime (Post-lime) Stabilization 25-239
5.1.3.3 Advanced Alkaline Stabilization Technologies 25-239
5.1.4 Process Variations 25-244
5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 25-244
5.3 Applicability 25-245
5.4.1 Feed Characteristics 25-246
5.4.2 Contact Time, pH, and Temperature 25-248
5.4.3 Alkaline Chemical Types and Doses 25-248
5.4.4 Solids Concentration of Feed/Chemical Mixture 25-254
5.4.6 Storage Requirements 25-257
5.4.6.1 Intermediate Storage 25-257
5.4.6.2 Product Storage 25-257
5.4.7 Pilot-Scale Testing 25-258
5.5 Description of Physical Facilities 25-260
5.5.1 Solids Handling and Feed Equipment 25-260
5.5.2 Alkaline Material Storage and Feeding 25-260
5.5.3 Liquid Lime Chemical Handling and Mixing Requirements 25-262
5.5.4 Dewatered Cake/Chemical Mixing for Dry Alkaline Stabilization 25-264
5.5.5 Space Requirements 25-267
5.5.6 Economic Considerations 25-268
5.6 Other Design Considerations 25-269
5.6.1 Startup Issues 25-269
5.6.2 Health and Safety Considerations 25-270
5.6.3 Process Monitoring and Control 25-270
5.6.4 Odor Generation and Control 25-271
5.6.5 Dust 25-273
5.6.6 Sidestream Effects 25-273
5.6.7 Drying 25-273
5.6.8 Process Performance 25-274
5.6.8.1 Odor Reduction 25-274
5.6.8.2 Settling and Dewatering Characteristics 25-274
5.6.9 Procurement Options 25-275
5.7.1 Dosage Criteria 25-275
5.7.1.1 Class B Stabilization 25-275
5.7.1.2 Class A Stabilization 25-276
5.7.1.3 Class B Odor Control 25-276
5.7.2 Lime Type and Gradation 25-277
5.7.3 Mixing Requirements 25-278
5.7.3.1 Measuring Mixing Efficiency 25-279
5.7.3.2 Optimization of Mixing—Examining Five Factors Affecting Mixing 25-282
5.7.4 Class B Lime Stabilization Design Example 25-287
5.7.4.1 Design Example—Part I 25-288
5.7.4.2 Design Example—Part II 25-289
5.8 Product End-Use Considerations 25-291
Chapter 26
Thermal Processing
2.0 THERMAL CONDITIONING 26-6
2.1 Slurry Carbonization 26-6
3.0 THERMAL DRYING 26-8
3.1 Overview of Technology 26-8
3.2.1 Stages of Thermal Drying 26-9
3.2.1.1 Warm-Up Stage 26-9
3.2.1.2 Constant-Rate Stage 26-10
3.2.1.3 Falling-Rate Stage 26-10
3.2.2 Heat-Transfer Methods 26-10
3.2.2.1 Convection 26-10
3.2.2.2 Conduction 26-11
3.3.1 Established Systems 26-11
3.3.1.1 Convection Dryers 26-11
3.3.1.2 Conduction Drying Systems 26-15
3.3.2 Emerging Convection Dryers 26-17
3.3.2.1 Belt Dryers 26-17
3.3.2.2 Solar Dryers 26-18
3.4 Process Design Guidelines 26-18
3.4.1 Sizing Parameters 26-18
3.4.1.1 Evaporative Capacity 26-18
3.4.1.2 Hours of Operation 26-19
3.4.1.3 Solids Residence Time 26-19
3.4.1.4 Operating Temperatures 26-19
3.4.1.5 Storage 26-20
3.4.2 Selection 26-20
3.4.2.1 Product Quality and Use 26-20
3.4.2.2 Processing Train Unit Capacity 26-20
3.4.2.3 Labor Requirements 26-21
3.4.3 Utility Requirements 26-21
3.4.3.1 Electrical 26-21
3.4.3.2 Thermal 26-21
3.4.3.3 Water 26-22
3.4.3.4 Sidestreams 26-22
3.4.3.5 Emissions and Odor Control 26-22
3.5 Design Practice 26-22
3.5.1 Pre-Processing Equipment 26-22
3.5.2 Post-Processing Equipment 26-22
3.5.4 Safety 26-23
3.5.4.1 Dryer Equipment 26-24
3.5.4.2 Dryer Operation 26-24
3.5.4.3 Industry Standards 26-25
4.0 THERMAL OXIDATION 26-25
4.1.1 Solids Calorific Values 26-26
4.1.2 Oxygen Requirements 26-27
4.1.2.1 Stoichiometric Air 26-28
4.1.2.2 Oxygen Content 26-28
4.1.3 Heat and Temperature 26-28
4.2.1 Established Technologies 26-30
4.2.1.1 Fluidized Bed Incinerator 26-30
4.2.1.2 Multiple-Hearth Furnace 26-34
4.2.2 Emerging Technologies 26-35
4.2.2.1 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Innovations and Enhancements 26-35
4.3 Process Design Guidelines 26-39
4.3.1 Furnace Sizing Parameters 26-39
4.3.1.1 Temperatures 26-39
4.3.1.2 Time 26-39
4.3.1.3 Turbulence 26-40
4.3.1.4 Space Velocity 26-40
4.3.1.5 Evaporation/Heat Release Limitations 26-40
4.3.1.6 Sufficient Air 26-41
4.3.1.7 Summary 26-42
4.3.2 Selection and Sizing 26-42
4.3.2.1 Furnace Selection 26-42
4.3.2.2 Equipment Sizing 26-44
4.3.2.1 Effect of Dewatered Solids Characteristics on Selection and Sizing 26-44
4.3.2.2 Fuel Optimization 26-45
4.3.2.3 Air Emission Objectives 26-47
4.3.2.4 Mass and Energy Balance 26-47
4.3.2.5 Operating Schedule and Redundancy 26-48
4.3.2.6 Ash Handling 26-49
4.3.3 Electricity Requirements 26-49
4.4 Design Practice 26-50
4.4.1 Feed Equipment and Systems 26-50
4.4.2 Process Train Equipment 26-52
4.4.3 Fans and Blower Equipment 26-55
4.4.3.1 Fluidizing Air 26-56
4.4.3.2 Purge Air 26-56
4.4.3.3 Atomizing Air 26-56
4.4.4 Other Auxiliary Equipment 26-56
4.4.4.1 Auxiliary Fuel System 26-56
4.4.4.2 Preheat Burner 26-57
4.4.4.3 Bed Fuel Injection 26-57
4.4.4.4 Water System 26-58
4.4.4.5 Sand System 26-58
4.4.6 Process Control 26-60
4.4.7 Safety 26-61
4.4.7.1 Regulations, Codes and Standards 26-61
4.4.7.2 Thermal Oxidizer Safety Considerations 26-63
4.4.8 Heat Recovery and Use Opportunities 26-66
5.0 VITRIFICATION 26-67
6.0 BIOGASIFICATION 26-67
7.0 EMISSIONS CONTROL 26-68
7.1 Odors 26-68
7.2 Combustion Emissions 26-69
7.2.1 Carbon Monoxide 26-69
7.2.2 Volatile Organic Compounds 26-70
7.2.3 Polycyclic Organic Matter 26-71
7.2.4 Nitrogen Oxides 26-71
7.3 Emission Regulations 26-71
7.3.1 New Source Performance Standards 26-72
7.3.2 National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants 26-72
7.3.3 Prevention of Significant Deterioration 26-72
7.3.4 New Source Review 26-73
7.3.4.1 Clean Air Amendments of 1990 26-73
7.3.5 Standards for the Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge 26-73
7.3.6 Local Prohibitory Rules 26-74
7.3.7 Future Regulations 26-74
7.3.8 Source-Specific Standards 26-75
7.3.9 Nonregulated Emissions (Greenhouse Gases) 26-76
7.3.9.1 Thermal Drying 26-77
7.3.9.2 Incineration 26-77
7.3.9.3 Indirect Emissions Associated with Thermal Processes 26-77
7.4 Air Pollution Control Methods and Technology 26-77
7.4.1 Particulate and Metals 26-77
7.4.1.1 Mechanical Collectors 26-80
7.4.1.2 Wet Scrubbers 26-81
7.4.1.3 Fabric Filters 26-82
7.4.1.4 Electrostatic Precipitators 26-82
7.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides 26-82
7.4.2.1 Combustion Modification 26-83
7.4.2.2 Flue Gas Treatment 26-83
7.4.3 Acid Gases, Including Sulfur Oxides 26-84
7.4.4 Mercury Control 26-84
7.4.5 Stack-Gas Reheat 26-85
8.1 Thermal Drying 26-86
8.1.1 Given Information 26-87
8.1.2 Procedure 26-88
8.1.5 Mass Balance 26-92
8.2 Incineration 26-92
8.2.1 Design Data 26-93
8.2.2 Procedure 26-94
8.2.2.1 Heat and Mass Balances 26-97
8.2.2.2 Other Results and Conclusions 26-97
Chapter 27
Use and Disposal of Residuals and

Biosolids
2.0 LAND APPLICATION 27-4
2.1 Regulatory Considerations 27-4
2.1.1 Federal Requirements 27-4
2.1.2 State Requirements 27-5
2.1.2.1 Nutrient Management Planning 27-5
2.1.2.2 Site Permits 27-5
2.2 Project Planning 27-6
2.2.1 Biosolids Characteristics and Suitability 27-6
2.2.1.1 Physical Characteristics 27-7
2.2.1.2 Pathogens and Vectors 27-7
2.2.1.3 Metals 27-8
2.2.1.4 Nutrients 27-9
2.2.1.5 Other Constituents 27-10
2.2.2 Site Suitability 27-10
2.2.2.1 Objectives 27-11
2.2.2.2 Resources 27-11
2.2.2.3 Site Evaluation Criteria 27-11
2.2.2.4 Attitudes 27-12
2.3 Design and Implementation 27-12
2.3.1 Application Rates 27-12
2.3.1.1 Metals 27-13
2.3.1.2 Nutrients 27-13
2.3.1.3 Calcium 27-14
2.3.1.4 Design Examples 27-15
2.3.2 Recommended Land Area 27-19
2.3.3 Field Storage 27-19
2.3.4 Odor Management 27-19
2.3.5 Land-Application Equipment and Methods 27-19
2.3.6 Biosolids Transportation 27-21
2.3.7 Public Acceptance 27-21
3.0 LAND RECLAMATION AND OTHER NONAGRICULTURAL USES 27-21
4.0 LANDFILLING 27-22
4.1.1 Monofills 27-22
4.1.2 Co-Disposal Landfills 27-23
4.2 Planning 27-23
4.2.1 Siting 27-23
4.2.2 Landfill Capacity Needs 27-25
4.3 Landfill Design 27-25
4.3.1 Regulatory Requirements for Liners 27-25
4.3.2 Liner Design 27-26
4.3.3 Leachate Collection System 27-26
4.3.3.1 Leachate Quantity 27-27
4.3.3.2 Leachate Quality 27-27
4.3.4 Surface Water Control 27-28
4.4 Groundwater Monitoring Requirements 27-28
4.5 Landfill Gas Management 27-29
4.6 Landfill Closure 27-29
4.6.1 Closure Plan 27-29
4.6.2 Cap System 27-30
4.6.3 Post-Closure Use Identification 27-31
5.0 DEDICATED LAND DISPOSAL 27-32
5.1.1 General Requirements 27-33
5.1.2 Pollutant Limits 27-33
5.1.3 Nitrate Contamination 27-33
5.1.4 Other Management Practices 27-34
5.1.5 Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements 27-34
5.2 Planning 27-34
5.2.1 Groundwater Protection 27-34
5.2.2 Site Selection 27-35
5.2.3 Application Rates 27-35
5.3 Design and Implementation 27-36
5.3.2 Biosolids Storage 27-36
5.3.3 Groundwater Protection 27-37
5.3.4 Biosolids Application Rates 27-37
5.3.5 Application Methods 27-37
6.0 ASH USE AND DISPOSAL 27-37
6.2 Use and Disposal Options 27-38
7.0 DISTRIBUTION AND MARKETING 27-42
7.1 Value-Added Products 27-42
7.1.1 Compost 27-42
7.1.2 Heat-Dried Product 27-43
7.1.3 Advanced Alkaline Stabilized Products 27-43
7.1.4 Ash-Derived Products 27-44
7.1.5 Other Products 27-44
7.2.1 Federal Regulations 27-45
7.2.2 State Regulations 27-45
7.3 Marketability Criteria 27-46
7.3.1 Product Quality 27-46
7.3.1.1 Compost 27-46
7.3.1.2 Heat-Dried Biosolids 27-49
7.3.2 Product Consistency 27-54
7.4 Identifying and Developing Markets 27-54
7.4.1 Typical Markets 27-54
7.4.2 Regional and Seasonality Issues 27-56
7.4.3 Distribution Approaches 27-57
7.4.4 Distribution Methods 27-57

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Contents

Preface ......................................................................................................................................... xiii

Volume 1: Planning and Configuration of Wastewater Treatment Plants

Volume 2: Liquid Treatment Processes

Volume 3: Solids Processing and Management

Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... G-1

Overall Design Considerations

Principles of Integrated Facility

Site Selection and Plant

Sustainability and Energy

Plant Hydraulics and Pumping

Odor Control and Air Emissions

Occupational Health and Safety

Materials of Construction and

Biofilm Reactor Technology and

Integrated Biological Treatment

Physical and Chemical Processes

Introduction to Solids Management

Solids Storage and Transport

Use and Disposal of Residuals and

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