Anna Gray

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 What was the impact of the Weimar period on the rise of the Nazis?

What were the problems of the Weimar Republic?

How did the Nazi Party develop, 1920-23?
What were the consequences of the Munich Putsch, November
1923?
How did the Nazi Party change, 1924-29?

What were the problems of the Weimar Republic?

 On the 11th November 1918 the First World War ended and Germany signed
an armistice
 Many people saw this as a betrayal of the German Army and did not truly
believe that they had actually been defeated- felt like they had been stabbed
in the back
 The politicians who signed the treaty became known as the November
Criminals
 It was decided that it was too dangerous to meet in Berlin so began to have
meetings in Weimar- this is why the new republic was so named
 The most important result of the January election was proportional
representation so the government would have to form lots of coalitions
 Things did not go well and they were criticised for creating a weak system of
government
 Weimar was hated by communists, socialists and all people who had a part in
the old government
 They made a deal with the army so that they would be protected from the
threat of revolution and this meant that they became dependent on the army
 This was seen to weaken the republic
 It wasn’t until 28th June 1919 that the Treaty ending the War was signed-
people were shocked at the terms
 Germany lost 13% of its land and about
6,000,000 citizens were put into other
countries
 The harshest term was the War Guilt Clause
which stated that Germany had to accept full
blame for starting the war
 The Weimar government announced that they
could not pay the reparations and the value of
the German currency fell and they ended up
Map showing territorial terms of the Treaty of
in inflation Versailles.
 This led to the occupation of the Ruhr by the French troops
 When the confidence in the mark fell, inflation became hyperinflation which
further humiliated the Weimar Government
 Stresemann became chancellor and he began to steady things- introduced a
new currency called the Rentenmark and along with loans from the USA, the
currency was sorted out- became the Reichsmark

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  The Dawes Plan loaned money to the USA and helped make payments more
manageable
 Further changes came to the Further changes came to the Young Plan which
meant that payments were reduced and more time was given to pay them off

How did the Nazi Party develop, 1920-23?

 In 1919 Anton Drexler founded the German Workers
Party (DAP) in Munich
 It was a right wing party but also had some socialist
ideas like wanting a socialist government
 Hitler went to a meeting in September 1919 and he
make a powerful comment so Drexler asked him to
join the party
 He was rewarded for being a good speaker by being
made responsible for recruitment and propaganda
 February 1920 Hitler and Drexler wrote the 25 point Anton Drexler, founder of DAP

programme- their political manifesto and Hitler stuck to most of these ideas
for the rest of his life
 Hitler attracted many to their meetings and they soon had enough members
to buy their own newspaper
 Hitler had such an influence on the party that he eventually became their
leader and was given the title fuhrer
 As the leader, Hitler made some changes:
 Adopted swastika as emblem
 Started using raised arm salute
 Introduced the SA (brownshirts)
 His speeches usually had anti-Weimar criticisms but he wanted their to be an
Aryan race and used the Jews as his scape-goat for Germanys problems
 He knew that the government was weak and so planned to march on Berlin
and remove the weak politicians then form his own government

What were the consequences of the Munich Putsch, November 1923?

 Hitler had been impressed by the work of
Benito Mussolini and knew that he had the
support of the army
 This is where Hitler’s idea of the Munich
Putsch came from
 There were several reasons for the Putsch:
 Hitler hated the Weimar Republic
 Humiliation after the occupation of
People marching during the Putsch
the Ruhr
 Nazi party was growing- Hitler believed he could take on such a
challenge
 SA could be used as armed support
 Evening of 8th November 1923 Hitler and other Nazi’s marched on the
Burgerbrau Keller were leader of other parties were having a meeting

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  They were just allowed to walk out- Hitler’s plan had failed
 He still went on with the march through Berlin and as they came into contact
with police, they realised that they were no match- well armed
 Hitler escaped but was found, the same day that the Nazi Party was banned
 The trial began in February 1924 and lasted a month, giving Hitler the
worldwide support that he wanted
 He was found guilty and sentenced to 5 years but only served 9 months
 While he was in prison, he wrote Mein Kampf and was allowed to see as
many people as he wanted and received lots of mail

How did the Nazi Party change, 1924-29?

 Although the Nazi party had been banned, it had
survived whilst Hitler was in prison
 When he was released, Hitler was able to persuade
the president to lift the ban and the Nazi party was
re-launched
 At a conference Hitler was able to win over some
people like Goebbels and so they joined the Nazi
party
 The SS or schutzstaffel were set up to become
Hitler’s personal body guard and the Hitler Youth
Adolf Hitler- leader of the Nazi Party
was set up to rival other youth groups
 It was decided that now was the time to try and target rural areas and this
came at the time when farmers were not doing well- it was an attractive
solution
 Goebbels was put in charge of propaganda
 The Wall Street Crash in 1929 created problems and unemployment began to
rise and loans were removed

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 How and why did Hitler get appointed Chancellor in January 1933?

What was the impact of the Wall Street Crash and the Great
Depression?
Why was the Nazi party successful after 1930?
What was the role of Hitler in increasing support for the Nazis?
How did the events of July 1932 to January 1933 bring Hitler to
power?

What was the impact of the Wall Street Crash and the Great Depression?
 By 1929 almost all of Germany had experienced a lot of prosperity- loans
from the USA had helped to remove inflation and there had been a lot of
investment for industry
 This all depended on the USA and so when the
stock market collapsed in October 1929, there
were lots of problems for the German economy
 The death of Stresemann also didn’t help- people
felt the only person who could help them was
dead
 Bankers now had to remove the loans from the
Dawes Plan and international trade began to People queuing outside a bank during
contract the Wall Street Crash
 This led to the great depression in Germany- unemployment was on the rise
in Germany because factories had to close
 German farmers had been experiencing problems and the fall in food prices
didn’t help because they were not receiving a steady income
 The unemployed wanted solutions and they began to look to parties like the
Nazis because it was believed that they would help
 In 1932 the total number of unemployed people exceeded 6 million
 This time, the problem was not inflation, but unemployment and people
wanted the solution to come about quickly
 The economic crisis created problems for the Weimar Republic because they
didn’t know how to tackle unemployment and poverty
 March 1930 Bruning was replaced but he wasn’t very good and had to rely on
Hindenburg, using Article 48 to pass laws
 As Bruning didn’t have a majority he called a
general election and it was here that the Nazis won their
biggest amount of seats
 Bruning’s policies led to him being known as the
hunger chancellor because people were tired of becoming
hungry due to food shortages
 He was unable to win support and so he resigned
in May 1932
 The Depression seemed to have unleashed chaos
resulting in Hitler becoming chancellor in January 1933
Chancellor Bruning

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Why was the Nazi party successful after 1930?
 Josef Goebbels increased the support for the Nazi Party through his clever
use of propaganda- mass rallies, posters and banners were placed in
prominent places so they caught people’s attention
 He ensured that the Nazi message was simple and repeated frequently
 In 1920 the Nazi’s owned 120 newspapers so they could use these to
target the thousands of people who read them
 Goebbels was able to represent the Nazis at lots of events and the Nazi
message was heard everywhere, especially on the radio
 Bruning called an election hoping to secure a majority for his party but the
Wall Street Crash disrupted it as it had affected all classes
 This meant that people were looking to extremist parties such as the Nazis
for help and the Nazis reacted with what the people wanted to hear
 Hitler blamed the Jews for what was going on, saying:
 They were involved with communism but also the evils of
capitalism
 They helped cause unemployment
 They conspired Germanys defeat in the war
 Preparing to cause a revolution in Germany
 The 1932 election proved to be a breakthrough but it meant that Bruning
still had to rely on Hindenburg and article 48
 During the election the Nazis were quick to use technology- for example,
Hitler was able to use aeroplane to fly from one
city to another to speak at up to 5 cities in a day
 The message was put on the news, in films, on
the radio and in music- Goebbels had mastered
the art of propaganda
 Hindenburg failed to win more than 50% of the
votes so there had to be a second round of
voting
 Hitler was successful and won a large amount of
votes in each- Goebbels present the defeat as a
huge victory because of the overall percentage
of votes
 Tactics used by Hitler were paying off because
there was greater success in the Reichstag Hitler over Germany campaign poster
elections
 He also continued to play on his fears, especially communism
 The Nazis could not have continued their campaign without financial support
 Hitler appointed Rohm as leader of the SA in January 1931 and within a year
its membership had increased by 70,000 people
 The communists had their own private army and there were frequent
clashes
 The SA also attacked and intimidated any opponents to the Nazi regime

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What was the role of Hitler in increasing support for the Nazis?
 Hitler had developed the art of public speaking in the
early days of the NSDAP and his speeches attracted
lots of people
 He had helped to draw up the 25 point programme
and was aware that the putsch meant he had to
present himself as being law-abiding
 Also knew that he had to offer himself in German
society before he became the leader of Germany
 He was seen as a war hero but also an ordinary man Logo for the NSDAP when
and also created a philosophy that all could look up too Hitler first joined

 Finally, he had the one thing that most other politicians lacked- charisma

How did the events of July 1932 to January 1933 bring Hitler to power?
 Hitler had been successful in the presidential elections in March and April
1932- now the leader of the second largest party in the Reichstag
 When an election was called for 31st July 1932 the Nazis
were optimistic that they would improve their result
 There was much violence leading up to the election and
about 100 people were killed and more than 1125 were
injured
 More people voted than ever before and the Nazis won
250 seats and were now the largest party in the Reichstag
 Von Papen was annoyed that he had not won the most
seats and so he began to scheme so that he would be One of the Nazi Party’s
allowed to become Chancellor election posters

 Hitler demanded that he became chancellor but Hindenburg REFUSED to let

him become chancellor even if he did have the largest party in the Reichstag
 Von Papen wanted to see if the Nazi Party was losing momentum so he called
for there to be more elections and he was right has the results of the
November general election showed
 He lost Hindenburg’s confidence and resigned but later was determined to
stay in power so persuaded Hindenburg to let there be a coalition between
the Nationalist party and the Nazis
 Scheming took place and more and more German people were convinced
that Von Papen was trying to save them from a Communist takeover
 Von Papen said that he would be able to make Hitler squeak
 30th January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany- he had achieved it
by legal and democratic means

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 How did the Nazis consolidate their power, 1933-34?

What was the importance of the Reichstag Fire?

Why was the Enabling Act important for Hitler?
How did the Nazis remove opposition to their regime?
What was the importance of the Night of the Long Kinves?
Why was the support of the army important for Hitler and the
Nazis?

What was the significance of the Reichstag fire?

 When Hitler became Chancellor there were only 2
other Nazis in his cabinet
 Hitler position was not strong because the Nazis did
not have a majority in the Reichstag
 It was soon clear that von Papen’s claim would be
wrong
 Hitler called a general election for 5th March hoping
that it would give him a clear majority so he didn’t
have to have von Papen with him at all times Franz von Papen
 Violence and terror were again seen in the lead up to the election and there
were about 70 deaths
 Hitler received large amounts of money in the weeks leading
up to voting day to help him have his campaign
 With access to the media Goebbels knew that he would be
able to put across the Nazi message well
 One week before the election, on 27th February the Reichstag
building was set on fire
 It is not known who started the fire but it is though that it was
a Dutch communist called Marinus van der Lubbe- they claimed that
Marinus van der Lubbe
the Communists were about to stage a takeover

Why was the Enabling Act important for Hitler?

 Following the Reichstag fire, Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to sign the Decree
for Protection of People and State because he felt that the government was
at risk
 This suspended basic civil rights and allowed the Nazis to imprison their
political opponents
 At the March 1933 elections the Nazis won 288 seats despite having banned
all Communist leaders from voting
 Even though he had a majority, Hitler was disappointed because he needed
2/3 of the vote to change the constitution
 The next step was to get Hindenburg to sign the Enabling Act which meant
that Hitler would have full time powers for the next four years
 By doing this Hitler effectively created a dictatorship

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 How did the Nazis remove opposition to their regime?
 With the Enabling Law Hitler was in a position to bring German society into
line with German philosophy
 This meant that every aspect of the German citizens
life was controlled by the Nazis
 On 2nd May 1933 all trade unions were banned so the
Nazis said that a national community had been
created
 The Nazi Labour Front was set up to replace not only
trade unions but also employers groups
 Employment depended on the ownership of a work
book- criminals would be sent to prison for political Enabling Act
re-education
 The first concentration camp was Dachau in March 1933
 The communist party had been banned after the Reichstag fire and its
property had been confiscated
 The remaining political parties disbanded themselves voluntarily
 This meant that within a few months Hitler had achieved
political control over the whole country
 Hitler also broke down the federal structure of Germany
with each state having its own parliament
 In January 1934 Hitler centralised the country for the
first time since its creation in 1871
Dachau Concentration Camp

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 Life in Nazi Germany

What measures were used to control the workforce, control the

economy and reduce unemployment?
What was the role of women?
How did education and youth movements control the young?
How successful were these policies?

What measures were used to control the economy, reduce unemployment and
control the workforce?
 By January 1933 when Hitler was Chancellor of Germany they had
experienced more than three years of depression
and so Hitler introduced lots of measures to try and
reduce unemployment
 RAD (National Labour Service) was set up to
provide men from 18-25 with manual labour jobs
 They had to serve in RAD for 6 months and lived in
camps, wore uniforms, received low pay and also
had to work
 Hitler spent a lot on job creation schemes such as
building autobahns and other public work schemes
like the construction of schools and hospitals
 The economic minister used deficit spending to try
and boost the economy like trying to increase
Hitler helping to create the
public spending without causing inflation Autobahn
 When Goering had introduced the four year plan they wanted to try and
increase self-sufficiency for the country
 The official figures for unemployment did not include:
 Jews dismissed from their jobs
 Unmarried men who had to join RAD
 Women who were dismissed from their jobs
 Opponents of the Nazi regime in
concentration camps
 Hitler was determined to reduce unemployment so
conscription was reintroduced
 The KDF was set up to try and improve the leisure
opportunities of German workers by introducing
leisure trips and holidays
 They also introduces better lighting in the
workplace
 DAF was the replacement for trade unions:
Logo for the DAF
 Supposed to represent interests
 Strikes were banned an wages were decided by the Labour front
 Workers were given high wages
 They had to become a member

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  In 1938 the DAF organised the Volkswagen scheme giving workers the
opportunity to save up and buy their own car- at the end no one had a car
and none of the money was refunded

What was the role of women?

 Women had made significant progress:
Women over the age of 20 were given the
right to vote
 Many took up careers in professions such
as the civil service and they earned the
same as men
 Socially they went out unescorted and
were fashion conscious
 The Nazis had very different ideas. Their ideal
woman:
 Did not wear makeup
 Was blonde and heavy hipped A Nazi poster showing the
 Wore flat shoes and a full skirt ideals of a German woman

 Didn’t smoke or go to work

 Did all the household duties including cooking, cleaning and bringing
up the children
 The Nazis brought in a series of measures to change the role of women:
 Massive propaganda campaign
 Loaned money to couples to try and persuade women to leave their
jobs
 Hitler’s mother awarded medals
to women with large families
 A divorce was possible if the wife
could not have children
 A woman could donate a baby to
racially pure SS men
 Instead of going to work, women were
asked to stick to the 3k’s- kinder, kuche, One of the medals given out by Hitler’s
kirche mother

 Also, the Nazis thought that if they got women to leave their jobs then there
would be more work available for men
 Schoolgirls were trained from home and discouraged from going on to higher
education
 From 1937 the Nazis had to change their policies because Germany was
rearming and they needed more women to go out to work
 By 1939 there were fewer women working than there had been under the
Weimar Republic
 Women were encouraged to keep healthy and discouraged from slimming as
this was seen as bad for childbearing

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How did education and youth movements control the young?
 Everyone in Germany had to go to school until the age of 14 and after that
schooling became optional
 Boys and girls went to separate schools
 Teachers had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler
and promise to promote Nazi ideals in the
classroom
 Textbooks were rewritten to fit the Nazi view of life
and Mein Kampf became a standard text
 The curriculum was changed to prepare students
for future roles- this meant that women learnt a lot
of skills to be used in and around the home whilst
boys were trained up so they could become more Poster to promote the Hitler Youth
physically fit
 Lessons began and ended with the students saluting and shouting Heil Hitler!
 The Nazis also wanted to control the youth in their spare time- achieved by
the Hitler Youth:
 All other organisations were banned
 From 1939 membership was compulsory
 By 1939 there were 7,000,000 members

How successful were these policies?

 Although many young people joined the Hitler
youth, it was not popular with some people
 Some challenged the Nazi idea by playing their
own music and growing their hair long
 One group was called the Edelweiss Pirates

The Edelweiss Pirates

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 How did Nazi political policy affect life in Germany?

What was the police state?

How did the Nazis extend their control over central and local
government?
How were propaganda and censorship used?

What was the police state?

 The Nazi police state operated through the use of force and terror
 The SS, SD and Gestapo were the
main organisations and they were all
under the control of Heinrich
Himmler
 The SS had been formed in 1925 to
act as Hitler’s personal body guard
 Himmler had built up the SS until it
had established a clear visible
identity- they all wore black
 After the Night of the Long Knives
the SS became responsible for the
Officers at a concentration camp
removal of opposition to the Nazis within Germany
 The SD had the task of maintaining security within the country and the party
 The Gestapo was set up in 1933 and in 1936 it came under the control of the
SS
 It could arrest and imprison those suspected of opposing the state- the most
likely destination for suspects would be a concentration camp
 Even though the Nazis controlled the Reichstag Hitler wanted to make sure
that all laws were interpreted in a Nazi fashion
 All Nazi views were upheld in courts and in 1934 a new people’s court was
set up- all judges were Nazi and Hitler could alter the sentences if he wanted
to
 By the end of 1934 Hitler controlled the
Reichstag, army and legal system- meant it was
almost impossible for people to escape the grip
of the Nazis
 The SA and SS ran a number of new
prisons called concentration camps- first one
opened in Dachau in April 1933
 Prisoners were classified by wearing a
different colour triangle on their sleeve
 Prisoners were used for slave labour-
Uniform worn at a concentration camp especially for manufacturing weapons

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How did the Nazis extend their control over central and local government?
 With the passing of the Enabling Bill in March 1933 Hitler reorganised the
political system so that all of it was
under the control of the Nazis
 The cabinet was kept on by Hitler
but it soon lost all influence
 Many civil servants had not been
keen on democracy and so they
were happy to transfer to the Third
Reich
 In 1939 it was made compulsory for
all civil servants to be members of
the Nazi Party People outside the Reichstag

 In the Nazi state all power came from Hitler- he was in supreme authority
 31st March 1933- all state parliaments were closed down- reorganised so the
Nazis had a majority in all state parliaments
 The Reich chancellery took over much of the work of the cabinet and the
Reichstag was slowly losing momentum
How were propaganda and censorship used?
 All aspects of the media were censored and
manipulated by Goebbels. He used a variety of
methods:
 All non-Nazi newspapers and magazines
were closed down- failure to comply
meant being sent to concentration camp
 All radio stations were placed under Nazi
control- Goebbels made sure that radios
were cheap so every home could have
one
 Cinema performances were given a 45-
minute official newsreel which glorified
Hitler
 Mass rallies were held annually
 Posters were cleverly used to put across
The cover of Hitler’s book Mein
the Nazi message- the young were Kampf
particularly targeted
 Books were also censored and all Jewish books set on fire
 The art and sport were also used by the Nazis
 Hitler hated modern music so it was banned- jazz was seen as racially inferior
 Theatre was to concentrate on German history and theatre tickets were
made cheap so lots of people could go and see shows
 All paintings showed:
 The Nazi idea of a simple life
 Hard work as heroic
 The perfect Aryan

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 How did Nazi racial and religious policy affect life in Germany?

What was Nazi racial policy?

How and why did the Nazis persecute the Jews?
How did the Nazis change relations with the Catholic and
Protestant churches?

What was Nazi racial policy?

 Central to the Nazi policy was the creation of a pure
German people- Hitler thought that the Aryans were
the superior race and he tried to use the bible to back
up his idea
 The Nazis believed that the Germans were a superior
race- had to have blonde hair and blue eyes
 Jews and Slavs were seen as subhuman- scheming
and went along with the evils of communism
 Hitler believed that Germanys future would be full of
Aryans and this depended on:
 Selective breeding
 Destroying the Jews
 Selective breeding meant preventing anyone who did Ideal Nazi family
not conform to the Aryan type from having children

How and why did the Nazis persecute the Jews?

 Hitler and the Nazi party were not the first people to think of the Jews as
being different- they were treated as outsiders
 They were persecuted because:
 They had different customs-
Christians blamed them for the
death of Christ and they have been
persecuted ever since
 Hitler had spent a lot of time in
Vienna where they have a strong
theme of anti-Semitism
 He blamed them for the
hyperinflation in 1923 and the
Depression of 1929
 He was determined to create a pure
racial state- didn’t include Jews who Jews had to wear the star of David on their
sleeve
were living in Germany
 The persecution of Jews did not begin immediately- Hitler needed to make
sure that he had the support of most German people
 Young people were encourage to hate Jews and lessons and textbooks put
across anti-sematic views
 In November 1938 Jewish children were expelled from German schools

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  8th November 1938 a young Polish Jew
walked into the German Embassy and shot a
police man- he was protesting against the
treatment of his parents
 Goebbels used this to organise protests which
involved attacks on Jewish property, shops
and synagogues
 The events of 9-10 November became known
as Kristallnacht or the Night of Broken Glass
 Many Germans were disgusted at this event-
the Nazis portrayed it as a spontaneous act of
vengeance Jewish shop after Kristallnacht

 Hitler blamed the Jews and decreed the following:

 Jews were fined for the damage
 Can no longer have jobs
 Jewish children can no longer attend Aryan schools
 The persecution continued in 1939:
 Wanted other countries to take Jews as refugees
 They had to give up precious metal and jewellery
 Forced to live in small houses called ghettos

How did the Nazis change relations with the Catholic and Protestant churches?
 Nazi ideals were the opposite of those taught in Christianity
 Hitler did not immediately persecute the church because Germany was a
Christian country and he knew that he would lose support
 Many people saw Nazism as the protection against Atheism
 The Catholic Church was seen as a threat because:
 They owed their allegiance to the Pope before Hitler
 There were Catholic schools and youth clubs
 They supported the Centre Party
 Hitler decided to work with the Catholic Church
but within a few months he had broken his agreement
 Many Protestants opposed Nazism because it
conflicted so much with their own beliefs
 They set up their confessional church and the
leader was arrested in 1937 and the church was banned
 The National Reich Church was a church set up for
the Nazis and they gave the German greeting Heil Hitler
 Church schools were abolished and the Nazis
aimed to influence people by closing down youth groups
and promoting the Hitler Youth

Diagram showing the differences

between the Nazi and Catholic churchs

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 How was life affected during the war years?

What was life like during the early years of the war,
1939-41?
What was life like during the later war years, 1942-45?
How were the Jewish people treated during the war
years?

What was life like during the early years of the war, 1939-41?
 The Second World War brought great change to the lives of the German
people
 At first, the War had little effect on the people living in Germany- there was
little suffering in the cities
 Hitler was made even more popular
 Rationing was introduced as early as 1939 and the result was that more
people had a healthy diet
 Members of the Hitler Youth carried out tasks that would
benefit the war effort
 It was not until the mass air raids of the Allies in 1943
onwards that mass evacuation took place
 They had been recruiting more and more women into
industry in the years after 1937 because they were needed
to fill jobs that men were leaving
 Goebbels made good use of propaganda during the war in
an effort to maintain morale and ensure support for the
war effort:
 German posters were put all over the place to try
and persuade people to keep happy
 Bombing of German cities was used to increase Poster trying to persuade
support people to join the war effort

 Others campaigned to urge people to save fuel and work harder

What was life like during the later war years, 1942-45?
 Goebbels appointed Speer as the minister for production and he overcame
problems by:
 Taking over control of the war economy
 Small firms were closed down and all production moved to bigger
factories
 He had the support of Hitler who believed that he
would overcome problems
 They had to introduce rationing at the start of the
war so there would be enough food to go around
 There was illegal trading in the black markets
Allied bombing in Germany
although many of them were closed down
 Allied bombing had devastating effects on Germany:
 Cities were destroyed and many people killed

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How were the Jewish people treated during the war years?
 The outbreak of was changed the Nazi view of Jews in three ways:
 Allowed more extreme treatment of Jews without world intervention
 Areas for emigration were removed
 Nazis had to come up with more extreme solutions
 The first solution was the ghettos- conditions were appalling and many
people died
 After the invasion of Russia in June 1941 the Jews were forced to dig their
own graves before being shot
 The final solution was the extermination camps- upon
arrival at the death camps the Jews were divided into
two groups:
 Fit people were given work
 Others were sent straight to the gas chambers
 By the time the camps were liberated in 1945 up to
6,000,000 Jews had been killed
Auschwitz, one of the most
famous death camps

~ 19 ~
~ 20 ~
 The Wall Street Crash

What were the long-term and immediate reasons for the Wall
Street crash?
How did speculation, weaknesses in the US economy and the
events of October 1929 bring about the crash?
What were the immediate effects of the crash?

The Wall Street Crash:

 At the end of October 1929 the value of shares traded on the US Exchange
fell sharply
 This lead to the biggest economic crisis the world has ever known and as a
result the rest of the world plunged into depression

Long Term Reasons for the Crash:

 The first signs of trouble came in the housing market in
Florida in 1926 because there was a rush to buy property
in the 1920’s
 Property values went up and many people saw a way to
make a profit by buying a property and then selling it
later
 In other parts of the USA the sale of new houses had
started to slow down by 1926 as there had been too
much building and not enough buying
 The value of property went down and house building
slowed sharply so now there were fewer jobs in
construction and less need for the decorative elements in
a house
 Too much food was being produced and so farmers could The front page of a newspaper after
not get a good price for what they were producing the Wall Street Crash

 By the summer of 1929 all signals were pointing down and this downturn
came because:
 The government was failing
 There was a weakness in the banking system
 The second long term reason by that the government did not believe in
controlling the economy through law and supervision
 The Republican Party was committed to low taxes and little government
regulation
 As a result there was little government control of the economy because the
taxes were already low
 The Federal Reserve Bank was weak whereas the Republican Party was
traditionally strong
 A third long-term reason was that many small banks were run by a local
family and they did not have big cash reserves
 Throughout the 1920’s small banks had been collapsing but this soon became
a lot worse
~ 21 ~
  Big bankers in the USA were taking big risks which is how they were doing so
well and they were keen to invest large amounts in loans to Germany under
the Dawes Plan of 1924
Immediate Reasons for the Crash:
 New York was being challenged as the
financial centre of the USA by bankers
because they were keen to get the biggest
share of the profits
 They invested heavily during 1928 and
1929 so the value of shares rose
dramatically
 Speculation is when the shares that
someone buys will be worth more the next
day Graph to show the effect of speculation

 For a while the speculation seemed to work brilliantly because it was also
ordinary American people who joined in
 In the USA the shares were the responsibility of the Federal Reserve Bank

Black Thursday:
 On Wednesday 23rd October
1929 6 million shares were
traded but things got worse
the following day (nearly 13
million shares traded)
 On the following Monday the
slide continued and ended on
Tuesday 29th October when all
the biggest US companies
went down People queuing outside banks on Black Thursday

 Over the next week the losses were 10 times more than the government
would spend in a year!

The Immediate effects of the Crash:

 The billions of losses didn’t just affect the big
companies but lots of American people also had
their savings wiped
 Many people needed jobs but they couldn’t
because all the businesses had closed down so
they were not available
 Also, because people had less and less money
they were buying less and less so they couldn’t
afford to buy things which meant that more jobs People as a result of the Wall Street
Crash
were lost
 Farms were repossessed and many farmers found themselves out of work
 Drought and over-farming caused the earth to become eroded and storms
ruined the land between 1930 and 1936

~ 22 ~
 Farmers that were lucky enough to have own the farm were prepared to give
more credit but the prices that they could get for their farm began to fall and
they could tell that it would be hard for them to rebuild their lives
 The reputation of the government suffered badly because of this hardship
and there was a great deal of criticism
 As Germany relied on loans from the US they were plunged into crisis again

~ 23 ~
 Depression and the Policies of Hoover

What were the economic and social effects of the depression?

What were the attitudes and policies of Hoover including, Hoovervilles
and the Bonus Marchers?
How did the government attempt to reduce the effects of
unemployment?

The Economic Effects of the Depression:

 From the last few months of 1929 the production of goods fell badly
Year Percentage Unemployed
1928 7%
1929 4%
1930 8%
1931 16%
1932 23%
1933 25%
 By the start of 1933 one in four Americans had no job
 In the country areas things were no better and farmers could hardly get any
money for their food and their life savings disappeared
 Banks who stayed afloat managed to recall their loans and who took money
off people who they had lent to

The Social Effects of the Depression:

 Florence Owen Thompson had worked as a pea
picker and had to sell the tyres of her car to buy food for
herself and her 7 children
 Sometimes people who couldn’t afford to buy fuel
for their cars had to use horses instead to pull them
 Rough sleepers had become a very common sight
and they tended to be found near charity soup kitchens
 Unemployment hit the black community harder
than any other and in early 1931 there were 38% of the
population unemployed so relationships were put under a
lot of pressure
 This meant bad news for the communities because
Florence Owen Thompson
the gap between the rich and poor had become even wider
so dangerous tensions were building up
 When banks collapsed all the people who had saved with them were ruined
because all their savings were lost
 Bankers and banks became so detested that even bank robbers became
popular- most famous were Bonnie and Clyde who robbed many banks
during the Depression years

~ 24 ~
Attitudes and Policies of Hoover:
 The sharp rise in unemployment also led to a
sharp rise in the number of homeless people and
they moved about searching for work
 The temporary homes were known as
Hoovervilles which was unfair to Hoover but
many people said it was the result of his attitudes
and policies
 The Hoovervilles were made of driftwood,
cardboard or tents and these too were not far
Herbert Hoover
from the soup kitchens
 In the same year (1932) unemployed men who had fought in WW1 organised
a huge march because they wanted to ask Congress if they would be paid
their bonus for their services
 Congress rejected the request but some remained – they were later driven
off by gunfire and tanks
 A few years later, Roosevelt offered them work but Congress agreed to pay
them their bonuses in full in 1936

Attempts to Reduce the Effects of Unemployment:

 It was not that the government did nothing
about the crisis but they did try to make things better
 In 1930 Hoover proposed the Smoot-Hawley
Tariff Act which raised the amount of money that
anyone importing overseas goods into the country
had to pay
 The aim of this act was to try and persuade
people to buy more American made goods and so
therefore to protect the farmers
 In 1931 he started to build large dams which
Signing the act
created jobs in construction and offered cheap
electricity
 In the same year he set up the RFC to try and help banks struggling with loans
 Hoover was determined to keep the costs of these schemes as low as
possible and in July 1932 he signed the relief and reconstruction act which
gave the RFC the opportunity to lend money to the state to help with
unemployment
 The first signs of recovery came in 1933 and was slow- it came too late to
save the political reputation of Hoover though

~ 25 ~
 Roosevelt and the New Deal

What were the reasons for Roosevelt’s success in the 1932

election campaign?
What were the main features of the New Deal?
What were the Hundred Days, fireside chats, banking reform
and Alphabet Agencies?
What was the Second New Deal?

The Reasons for Roosevelt’s Success in the 1932 Election Campaign:

 Hoover was the candidate for the Republican Party
for the elections of 1932 and was willing to serve a
second term
 The Democrats chose Roosevelt as their candidate-
he had tried various schemes to try and reduce
unemployment and many of these had been
successful but he wanted to try them out on the USA
as a whole
 As a democrat he was more inclined to do more on
public spending and wanted to impose higher taxes Franklin Roosevelt
on those who worked
 Hoover wanted to offer the people the same as he had at the start of the last
campaign and for most this meant more misery whereas Roosevelt promised
hope in the midst of despair
 He made it clear that his government would be prepared to spend heavily on
large public works to try and relieve the poverty- he did not seem daunted by
the challenge
 The elections were held in November 1932 Roosevelt won because:
 Hoover had failed to help people during the depression
 Roosevelt had succeeded in bringing down unemployment
 He was a new voice nationally because people believed that his vision
could be achieved

The Main Features of the New Deal:

 The New Deal promised by Roosevelt was a
complex set of measures and had three main goals:
 To offer relief to the unemployed
 To reform the banking system
 To set the US economy on the road to
recovery
 On the 4th March 1933 Roosevelt took office and
Roosevelt talking about the deal
started to work for better straight away
 There was a national sense that the government was actively involved in
fighting the Great Depression

~ 26 ~
The Hundred Days:
 Roosevelt met with Congress
almost every day for the first 100 days
of Presidency and Congress passed
every law that he proposed
 These hundred days were so
filled with activity that they have
become a measure of Roosevelt’s
effectiveness
 Reform of the banking system
Roosevelt with Congress during the Hundred Days came first and all banks were closed on
the 5th March 1933 and on the 9th
March a new banking act was passed
 On the 14th March the economy act was passed and this cut money from the
non-emergency budget
 In May 1933 Roosevelt turned his attention to rural areas and set up the TVA
and AAA

The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA):

 The TVA was set up in 1933 to help farmers
because:
 The quality of the soil was poor
 There was over-farming
 A lack of crop rotation
 Floods and wind erosion
 It was established as a federal authority to
provide services to help out people in the
poverty-struck region of the USA Poster for the TVA

 The increased awareness of flood control helped people to improve the soil
and increase crop yields
 Landowners didn’t like the TVA and nor did traditional farmers because they
didn’t want to use modern methods of farming
 The biggest change was the provision of electric power generated by the TVA
to help them light their farms and also clean drinking water helped to reduce
disease

The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA):

 A new law passed in May 1933 was designed to
keep up the prices that farmers could get for their food by
lowering the amount they could get for it
 As it was established in May crops had been
planted and were growing
 Large landowners did well out of the AA and
Poster for the AAA earned a lot of money form the scheme

~ 27 ~
The Fireside Chats:
 These were radio broadcasts given by
the FDR on a regular basis to the
American people
 They were informal and important as a
way of getting their message across to
millions of Americans in their home and
were very popular
 They were popular because Roosevelt
seemed to be talking to the people-
congress was willing to pass all the new Broadcasting the Fireside Chats

laws because they could see that the FDR had enormous support

Banking Reform:
 The emergency banking act called for the re-opening of stronger banks under
US supervision
 The FDR used the fireside chats to try and urge people to put their money
into the banks
 Money flowed back into the banks and the immediate banking crisis was
over

The Alphabet Agencies:

 This was the name given to most New Deal Agencies between 1933-35
because put together they had the used up every letter of the alphabet
 The first, and better known, were set up in 1933 and some example include:
 The AAA to control growing of crops
 The CCC was set up to provide work for the unemployed
 PWA provided employment on large scale public works
 The TVA was set up to help the poverty-stricken area

The Second New Deal:

 A series of measures designed to further reduce
poverty and unemployment
 The WPA aimed to provide jobs and also provided
adult education classes so that they could get a
job
 Roosevelt believed that the act of 1935 was the
cornerstone of the New Deal and it laid the
foundations of the welfare state
Badge promoting the new deal
 State funded pensions were introduced for the
first time
 The Republicans made fun of the New Deal because they thought that its
ideas were silly

~ 28 ~
 Reactions to the New Deal

What was the opposition to the New Deal?

Who were the Supreme Court, Republicans, Huey Long and Dr
Francis Townsend and why did they oppose the new deal?
What were the successes and failures of the New Deal?

Opposition to the New Deal:

 A majority of Americans were enthusiastic about Roosevelt and the New Deal
seemed to be the right way to confront the depression
 There was some opposition however and it came from a variety of sources

The Supreme Court:

 The Supreme Court is the highest court in the USA
and its main task is to uphold and protect the rights of
American citizens
 Judges are called justices and when they are
appointed, the appointment lasted for life
 Because of this, many of the judges had been
appointed by the previous government so some of them
Seal of the Supreme Court
opposed the New Deal
 In May 1935 a case reached the Supreme Court and it was called the
Schechter Poultry Cooperation
 It involved NIRA and so when they decided on the punishment it was serious
for the New Deal because NIRA was one of the cornerstones of the New Deal
 It didn’t turn out to be a hard blow but it did show that the Supreme Court
was in a mood to declare the New Deal as unconstitutional
 When he could (1937) Roosevelt replaced the judges with younger ones
because they were more likely to support the New Deal

The Republicans:
 The Republican Party had been
badly beaten in the election but
for all of 1933 and 1934 they did
not oppose the New Deal but
they didn’t vote for any of the
laws
 They did not like the scale of
government involvement in
public affairs because it
reminded them of socialism not
Congress and Roosevelt
communism
 As time went on, their opposition became stronger and stronger
 It was not until 1937 that Congress became really uncooperative with
Roosevelt
 In the 1938 elections the republicans benefited from the results
~ 29 ~
Huey Long:
 He was a governor of the southern state of Louisiana
and was elected to Congress in January 1932
 Long was a member of the democratic party, same
as Roosevelt, but he became more and more critical
of the New Deal as time went on
 He believed that the New Deal left people more
disadvantaged and this belief led to him being a
very strong speaker
 He put forward a share our wealth programme
which would distribute some of the resources of
wealthy people and gave it to the poorer areas of
Huey Long
society

Dr Francis Townsend:
 In 1933 Townsend was a physician and he
proposed a plan, giving old age pensioners pensions for
the first time
 The plan was generous and all the money was
raised through taxes
 The movement for the pensions started in
September 1933 when he wrote a letter to his local
newspaper and the success that he had led him to look for
an associate
 In 1935 they had to open bigger offices and even
had enough money to open their own newspaper
 Roosevelt rejected the plan because it was too
generous and expensive- he didn’t want to lose his
business supporters
Francis Townsend  His determination to push this issue forward made him
one of the most effective opponents for the new deal

Success and Failures of the New Deal:

 The New Deal was a success to the
extent that it retuned the economy
to a strong position and the
economy looked healthier
 Also, throughout the time of the
New Deal, there was a 40%
increase in public spending
 Critics would argue that the policy
did not totally remove
unemployment because the deal
Jobs created as a result of the New Deal
only provided millions of short-term jobs

~ 30 ~
Success of the New Deal:
 Reform of the banks made sure that the banks didn’t collapse
 The economy was recovered from a position of shrinkage and loss to one of
steady growth
 Roosevelt offered hope in a place of despair
 The government provided jobs for millions of people and all things made
were valuable investments for the future

Failures of the New Deal:

 A new recession in 1937 indicated that the New Deal had not solved the
underlying problems
 Unemployment remained high despite all the schemes
 Many of the jobs created were only temporary
 The new deal was very costly for the US taxpayer

~ 31 ~
 The Impact of War on the USA

What were the reasons for economic growth in the early 1940’s?
Why were the Japanese American’s treated badly during the Second World
War?
What was the treatment of black Americans during the Second World War
like?
What was the contribution of women to the war effort?

Reasons for Economic Growth in America during the early 1940’s:

 Unemployment fell in the USA from 15% to
1% in 1944 and there was a sharp rise in the
wealth of the country
 In March 1942 the government passed the
war powers act which meant that the
government could pass whatever laws they
felt were best for the country
 It established the war production board which
Graph showing the number of people
was given the task to make sure that all things unemployed from 1929-40
made were working to benefit the country
 There were a number of reasons for economic growth:
 Lots of people had already fought in WW1 and they were willing to do
so again
 Factories were busy making things to benefit the war
 Busy factories meant lots of new jobs and so big businesses did well
 Society in the USA, especially after the summer of 1942 was almost
completely directed to support the war effort and so all things including war
bonds contributed to economic growth

The Treatment of Japanese Americans:

 On 7th December 1941 the Japanese attacked the US fleet in Pearl Harbour
and it brought the USA into war
 This meant that all Japanese Americans
were treated with suspicion and about 110,000
were interned in the USA and had to go to War
Relocation Camps
 Roosevelt signed an Executive Order in
February 1942 which meant that the authorities
could exclude people who they considered a
threat
 The Supreme Court upheld this as being
Photo showing the attack on pearl Harbour part of the constitution
 It was not until after the war ended that
the President apologised to the Japanese Americans for the harsh treatment
that they had to endure

~ 32 ~
  Some Japanese American soldiers were fighting with the US army in France
but whose families had been moved to the relocation camps

The Treatment of Black Americans during the Second World War:

 In 1942 a young black workers called
Thompson wrote a letter to the leading
black newspaper of a day
 He asked if it was ok that black
Americans were fighting in the army but
not being treated with equal rights back
at home
 The US army didn’t give equal rights to
their black soldiers
 The newspaper took up a campaign that
they called Double V:
 This stood for double victories-
both at home and overseas
 The director of the FBI thought that the
Poster used to promote the campaign
campaign was treasonous and tried to
have the black press closed down
 Until the end of the war in 1945 they had to be careful not to print anything
that might be seen as hostile to the US war effort
 Racial tensions in the US exploded in the summer of 1943 because there was
three days of rioting in the black population
 Many people were arrested and over 500 people were injured

The contribution of Women to the War Effort:

 Rosie the Riveter became famous in the USA
during the war- she was a propaganda character
who appeared on posters about the war
 Women were needed to work in factories
making weapons because men were out fighting so
the women had to fill their spaces
 This changed women’s attitudes towards
their right at work- greater equality in pay was one
of the outcomes
 Women served in WASP the air force for
women and by doing this, they allowed men to be
able to complete combat duties
 The wartime economic boom created more
jobs which women had traditionally done
Poster about Rosie the Riveter
 For many women, keeping the home going
had to be combined with a job because or else they would not have had an
income
 The birth rate soared from 1941

~ 33 ~
~ 34 ~
 The Rowlatt Act, the Government of India Act 1919 and the Amritsar Massacre

What was the impact of the First World War on India?

What were the Rowlatt Acts?
What was the government of India Act, 1919?
What is Hartal and what effects did it have?
What were the effects and consequences of the Amritsar Massacre?

The impact of the First World War on India:

 Indian troops fought in the First World War
trenches- almost 1,000,000 Indians were involved
 64,000 Indians were killed
 After December 1915, the Indian army were sent to
fight in the Middle East
 The declaration of War meant that as India was part
of the British Empire she had to fight
 Members of the INC asked the question: “If India
had to fight with the British army, shouldn’t they be Indian soldiers who fought in
WW1
able to govern themselves?”
 The INC were the main group arguing for Indian independence from Britain
 India under British rule stretched from the far south to the Himalayas
 Ghardar= revolution
 The Germans wanted to hurt Britain by encouraging revolution in her empire
 They started to support groups such as the INC who wanted to become
independent
 One of the groups was the Ghardar party- a group of Indians living in America
 Another group called the Berlin committee later renamed itself the Indian
Independence Committee
 It had little support in India

The Rowlatt Acts:

 Revolutionary groups could have been dealt with, but members of the
Government of India wanted wartime powers to stay in place because they
felt safer
 They thought that revolutionary groups would be less
powerful
 Reforms promised that Indians would be able to decide
on the new laws
 They had just witnessed the Russian Revolution and it
brought about fear about what might happen to them
 Sir Sidney Rowlatt chaired an enquiry investigating
revolutionary conspiracies
 1918- report published stating that the dangerous
Sir Sidney Rowlatt areas of conspiracy should use the emergency powers act

~ 35 ~
  The Rowlatt Act came into use in March 1919 and allowed the Government
to arrest and put in prison (without trial) anyone who they thought was
planning a revolution
 The act also meant that judges didn’t need a jury to try people
 This act was only passed because the British had a majority- no Indian voted
for the act
 The British members of the council were very unpopular
Government of India Act, 1919:
 Act passed in London by Parliament- made the reform law
 The effect of this reform was to give Indians more
say in their own affairs and was valid for 10 years
 In practice it allowed the Indians a majority on
things like education and health- meant there was
more Indian involvement
 Reforms in the law alarmed many people from
the British government
 They were worried because of the timing of the Deciding on the Rowlatt Acts
Rowlatt Act, even though they were in control of
defence
 In INC thought the act was disappointing and that is wasn’t fair for the
nationalists because it suggested slow progress towards self-rule

Hartal:
 Means strike action
 Gandhi led protests against the Rowlatt Acts- he organised a strike where
people stayed off work and fasted
 In the Capital there was peaceful protests
but in the Punjab it was more violent
 Gandhi was alarmed and called off all
protests
 In the Punjab many people had converted
to Sikhism and were known for their fighting
skills- they had fought against the British in the
1840’s and after that many joined the army
 Largest city in the Punjab is Lahore- where
People protesting against the Rowlatt Acts the golden temple stands

The Amritsar Massacre:

 Protests against the Rowlatt Acts still
continued in the Punjab
 10th April- 2 leaders of the INC were arrested
and held in secret under the Rowlatt Act and
this brought about more trouble so the
authorities put the army in control of the
streets
Amritsar- where the massacre happened

~ 36 ~
 On the 13th April a group of people gathered to celebrate a Sikh festival- they
didn’t know that all public meetings had been banned
 Some nationalists saw this as a chance to protest and the troops were called
in- they opened fire and 379 people were killed and over 1000 injured
 An enquiry into the Massacre was launched and the leader of the army was
forced to resign but he later retired
 There was still a lot of support in British India but also a lot of outrage
 Many people questioned if Britain would be able to stay in India because the
Massacre became quite a notorious event and is still used to quote British
brutality

~ 37 ~
 Gandhi and Congress, 1917-29

What were Gandhi’s aims and methods?

What was the result of Civil Disobedience?
What were the attitudes to the Muslims, British people and the
Untouchables?

Gandhi and his aims and methods:

 He was born in the Indian state of Gujarat in
October 1869
 His father was the Prime Minister of a small state
and it was ruled by an Indian Prince
 He was clever and trained as a barrister in India
and London
 At 26 he went to South Africa as a Lawyer
 It was here that he developed the skills and
methods in campaigning for legal and civil rights
 This meant that it was good for when he went
back to India
 He returned to India in 1915- determined to join in
the struggle for independence from the British
 The first prominent campaigns he led were in 1918
 Because the villagers were treated badly by the
Mahatma Gandhi
government and taxes were too high
 The taxes were on property and income and this was increased even though
they were in the middle of a famine
 When the villagers could not pay thugs were sent into seize property
 Gandhi set up an ashram (community) and organized demonstrations against
what he saw
 When he was arrested huge crowds gathered around the court and he was
released
 So were all the other people who had been arrested as well
 The payment of taxes was suspended for 2 years
 Gandhi was internationally famous as a leader- he had forced the British to
alter their plans
 Supporters called him father and gave him the title of great soul
 His aims were ambitious but simple
 He, firstly, wanted to have conditions in which the British would withdraw
from India
 Wanted to organise a determined and efficient campaign but he needed
greater resources so that Britain would find it hard to overcome
 The second aim was to achieve independence without violence between the
communities
 The third aim was to tackle poverty

~ 38 ~
  He wanted to develop traditional crafts and skills so that India could become
self-sufficient
 The first aim was achieved in 1947 and he didn’t achieve the second, the
third went down a very different path to that of what he was expecting
 The method he effectively used was developed in the protests that he
organised
 While working as a young lawyer he realised the pressure of British public
opinion of politicians
 He saw that this would be the key to decisions about British India
 When he was in South Africa he found that governments would rather give in
than fight
 Gandhi knew that the government
would always be stronger because it had
the support of the police and the army if
necessary
 He thought that peaceful protest
would win in the end
 His basic philosophy can be
summed up by saying insistence on truth
 It meant a type of protest that
Gandhi leading a protest
was determined but not violent
 Campaigns that he ran often involved peaceful marches- they were often
covered in newspapers and there were lots of opportunities to protest
outside police stations
 This method of protest became the main one used by Ghandi and his
followers
 His followers believed in this but it was often violent because protests could
quickly get out of control
 As soon a Ghandi heard about violent protests he called them off but
because of this it meant that his second aim was never achieved
 The third aim, to make India self-sufficient, meant that India would always
have what it needed
 The state of Gujarat was famous for its cotton mills but this was ruined by the
cotton mills in the UK
 Ghandi used a hand loom and encouraged his followers to do the same- he
also tried to persuade them to only buy goods made in India and not from
Britain
 This is why the hand loom is in the centre of the Indian flag

Civil Disobedience:
 In December 1921 the Indian National Congress asked Ghandi to take the
lead in the campaigns for independence
 Congress put all their resources behind him but he never became an official
leader
 In 1922 he led a campaign in a town in the United Provence by Delhi but a
mob set a police station of fire so Ghandi called off the protests

~ 39 ~
  His call came too late for him to prevent being put into prison and he was
sentenced to 6 years for sedition but he only served two

Attitudes to the British, Muslims and Untouchables:

 Ghandi went to London as a young man
and he trained as a barrister- he stayed for
several years and got to know Britain very
well
 This was useful because he was more
knowledgeable in that area than many of
the members of congress in India
 It gave him a well-informed attitude about
the British and his campaigns demonstrated
the understanding of how to apply political
pressure in the right place and time and
this meant that he was able to achieve
favourable decisions on Indian matters
from the government in London
 He didn’t dislike the British people and he Gandhi whilst working as a barrister
actually admired much about them
 He did though, think they had done wrong to think they could continue to
rule India as they had done for so long
 He wanted to use non-violent ways to make Britain leave India
 The Muslims to Britain had seemed like a war type group and they were
respected for this
 Ghandi’s biggest fear was that the tensions in the Hindu majority and Muslim
minority would break out into violence
 He was a Hindu but he made no distinction between people based on their
religion or status
 When his followers seemed to be encouraging violence he abandoned them
 He believed that it was the time for all Indian’s to work together to achieve
independence
 Tensions between the Muslim and Hindu community were fragile and it
would not take much to provoke an outbreak of violence
 In January 1948 Ghandi was shot and killed by an assassin from a Hindu
nationalist party
 Muslims made up about a quarter of the population
in British India but they were ‘concentrated’ in some
areas
 India’s Muslims did not recognize any social system
 The groups that Hindus were born into were like
this- priests (Brahmins), warriors (Kshatrias), the
merchants (Banias) and the peasants (Sudras)
 The Hindus born outside the system were called the The Untouchables
untouchables

~ 40 ~
 The congress campaigned against the untouchability and Ghandi was
committed to the campaigns aims
 Hindu society was divided by this system and the untouchables did the jobs
such as sweeping and cleaning
 They were sometimes called the harijans but this has been considered
patronising

~ 41 ~
 Key developments in the 1930’s

What was the Simon Commission and what did it do?

What were the events and consequences of the Salt marches?
What were the Round Table conferences?
What was the government of India Act designed to do?
What were people’s attitudes to Jinnah and the Muslim league?

The Simon Commission:

 Commission to review the
effectiveness of the arrangements
announced
 1927 the British government
announced a commission that they
would go to India to get the
information to compile a
reportIndian nationalists were
angry when they found out that no
Indian person would be part of the The protests against the Simon Commission
commission
 It was to be made up of 7 members of British parliament and the chairman
was Sir John Simon
 When they arrived in India (February 1928) the Indian National Congress
organised a nationwide strike because of the lack of Indian representation on
the commission
 There were large protests but fortunately the police responded strongly
 The worst incident happened in the major city of Punjab
 Lala Lajpat Rai was beaten severely and he never recovered from his injuries
 The report suggested that the provinces of India should become self-
governing
 Its findings were the basis of the Government of India Act in 1935

The Salt March:

 The Government of India issued a tax on any salt that was produced in India
 Indian nationalists suspected that it was to protect the export of British salt
as well as to earn a bit more money
 12th March 1930, Gandhi set out on
a journey to Dandi- he planned to make
salt from the salty mud on the beach
without paying the salt tax
 It was a protest against the rules
imposed on India by the British and was
meant to be peaceful
 Many joined the march before it
People on the Salt March led by Gandhi reached Dandi- almost a month later

~ 42 ~
  There were many demonstrations and Gandhi was arrested on the 5 th of
March
 The government made no immediate concessions over the Salt Tax but for
lots of Indians the campaign meant that they joined the struggle for
independence
 These protests showed the millions of people across India were prepared to
risk the consequences from the police
 Gandhi had now become a great leader and many people called him Great
Soul

Round Table Conferences:

 The Simon Commission had been received with a lot of hostility so the
British Government arranged a series of round table conferences
 These were supposed to bring together all the parties interested in the future
of India
 They were to discuss how to bring them towards independence
 The name suggests that they would be where everyone has an equally
important voice
 They were to be held in London though-
this meant that the turnout was not very
equal
 A shift in British opinion showed that now
it was accepted on all sides that India was
heading for independence
 The British government stated that the
Dominion Status was the logical outcome
of constitutional change First round table conference
 The first conference was officially opened
by King George and it was to last three months until January 1931
 The Chairman was the British Prime Minister and they did invite the Indian
National Congress but they did not attend- many of their leaders were in jail
 Leaders of India’s Muslims did attend
 Although the Indian National Congress wished to be seen as representing the
interests of all communities this was not how it was always perceived
 In March 1931 the Viceroy had a meeting with Gandhi
 The outcome became known as the Ghandi-Irwin pact
 This was an agreement that congress would suspend all its campaigns and
take part in the round conference
 They also wanted to release all nationalist prisoners, withdraw all laws that
stopped the nationalists from campaigning and abandon the salt tax
 Ghandi accepted these terms on behalf of Congress- he attended the Second
Round Table conference and was the only representative
 The conference lasted for 3 months
 Both British officials and Indians present was formal suits and the Indian
prince went round London in his grand car
 Ghandi arrived on foot wearing traditional dress

~ 43 ~
  He stayed in the East end because it
wanted to make it clear that he was a normal
man
 Other delegates did not mistake the
criticism of their grand ways
 At the conference Gandhi argued
against the arrangements for the small
majority of Indians
 2 weeks before the second conference
Gandhi going to the conference the Labour government had fallen and the
value of the pound had also gone down
 Most people left London after the second conference
 The outcome of these two conferences was disappointing because no firm
decisions were made
 The third conference lasted only a few weeks from November to December
and in the absence of the Indians little was decided

Government of India Act:

 The act included:
 The old system of government was to be scrapped
 A new voting system was introduced
 A Federation of India proposed to include all of British India
 There was to be a major reorganisation of India
 The establishment of a Federal Court for India
 The act was full of safeguards to protect British interests
 The provincial governors were left with emergency powers and it seemed
that they would be able take back control if they considered British interests
 The Act was not well received by Indians

Jinnah and the Muslim League:

 He was a trained barrister and he studied law in London

 After he became a barrister he returned to India and
joined the Indian National CongressThe All India Muslim
League was founded in Dhaka in 1906
 Jinnah held back from joining because they were too
focused on fighting but in 1919 he became their
president
 In 1916 Jinnah had been one of the Muslim League
leaders- reached under an agreement called the
Lucknow Pact
 Under this agreement Congress and the Muslim league Jinnah
would work together to put pressure of the Government
of India
 In 1920 Jinnah resigned from the Indian national congress because he
thought that Gandhi’s methods would lead to further tensions

~ 44 ~
 In 1923 Jinnah was elected as a member for Bombay of the new assembly
 He attended the first round table conference but was frustrated by the lack
of progress
 In 1931 he returned to India where he became very ill and when he was
better he returned to London

~ 45 ~
 The Impact of the Second World War on India

Who were Gandhi and Jinnah and what did people think of the
Second World War?
What was the Cripps Mission, 1942?
What was the ‘Quit India’ campaign?
Who was Chandra Bose and what did he do?

Gandhi, Jinnah and Attitudes to the Second World War:

 Lord Linlithgow announced that India was at war on 3rd September 1939 and
this announcement was not well received
 Linlithgow was within his right to make the
decision- he did it without consultation
because the government had not taken full
effect (politically it was a bad decision)
Gandhi’s first reaction was to support the
British Empire and most people in Congress
felt the same way
 On 13th October, Gandhi praised Congress
support and they agreed to support the
War effort if it was promised independence
Gandhi and Jinnah
at the end
 Linlithgow dismissed the proposal and declared that India could expect to
achieve the status of British Dominion after the end of the war
 The safeguards built into the Government of India Act had enabled the
government to use emergency wartime powers- these lasted until 1945
 Jinnah’s personal instinct was to support the war
 There were political advantages for the Muslim League in supporting the
British and rejecting Congress
 Jinnah and the Muslim League were on good terms when the war ended and
Congress would go out in the cold
 The fact that Jinnah had offered to support Linlithgow made him more
confident that he would be able to reject the proposal
 Linlithgow had a price to pay- part of this was a series of campaigns during
1940-41
 Many Congress activists were arrested

The Cripps Mission 1942:

 In late March 1942 the British government
sent a mission to India- known as the
Cripps mission
 The aim was to try and persuade the Indian
National Congress to support the British
War effort
 After Japan had joined the war the support
of Congress was even more important to The Cripps Mission
the British War effort
~ 46 ~
  Cripps was a leading politician who knew many of the Congress leaders but
the mission was a failure because Congress mistrusted British intentions
 Although they trusted in Cripps they had little faith in the government
 After this Cripps retuned to London

‘Quit India’ Campaign:

 Congress broke off discussions with Cripps and in 1942 they demanded
immediate independence
 This was refused and Congress launched the Quit India Campaign- designed
to put pressure on the British
government to it would grant
independence
 It took many forms- all designed
to disrupt the war effort
 The Campaign was petered out
in 1943- all leaders of Congress had
been arrested and they spent the rest of
the war in prison
 Hundreds of demonstrators had
People in the Quit India campaign been killed and punishments included
fines and public floggings

Chandra Bose:
 Born in 1897, Chandra Bose was a prominent leader of the INC but he often
clashed with Gandhi and became isolated
from Congress main stream
 When the Second World War broke out
Bose saw it as his chance to take
advantage of vulnerability in Britain
 He launched a campaign of civil
disobedience but this was only significant
in his home state
 He was put under house arrest but
escaped and fled to Europe
 He gathered support in Nazi Germany but
it was in Japan that he got most backing
 INA was made up of Indian soldiers- they
had chosen to join so they wouldn’t
remain prisoners of war Chandra Bose
 By that time, Japan had fought its way
through Burma and were within striking
distance of India
 Bose was not the only Indian Nationalist to take pleasure in the success of an
Asian Nation defeating western powers

~ 47 ~
 The INA numbered at 43,000 and when they Japanese retreated, they
followed
 Bose is believed to have been killed in a plane crash in 1945

~ 48 ~
 The Growth of Communal Violence

What were the attitudes and problems of the Labour

Government?
What were the Hindu and Muslim differences and clashes?
Why did people demand for Pakistan?

Attitudes and problems of the Labour government:

 In 1945 there was a general election in Britain-
widely expected that the conservatives would win,
but it was Labour who did with a landslide victory
 The new labour government faced many problems
 Britain was now almost bankrupt because of the
war but it wanted to remain a global power
 At the same time, the Labour Party wanted to make
changes to Britain- meant shedding on the Empire
 Attlee (leader of the Labour Party) was ready to look
for a way to give India her independence
Clement Attlee
 The Labour government was mainly senior people
 Attlee, as a young member of parliament, had been part of the Simon
Commission
 He had been faced with angry demonstrations
 Cripps was the president of the board of the trade-
second most important economic post
 His mission failed but he was thinking of Gandhi and
Jinnah
 Both Attlee and Cripps favoured Jinnah as two state
solution- Muslims would be in a separate state
 In 1946 Cripps returned to India as part of the Cabinet
Cripps Mission
 After discussions in Delhi with the government of India they announced the
cabinet mission plan
 They wanted Muslim majority areas to have provinces but both Congress and
the Muslim League rejected the plans
 The Cabinet Mission tried again- proposed to split India into India and
Pakistan
 Congress rejected because they wanted India to remain united
 Jinnah appeared to accept the plan but after it had been rejected he did also

Muslim and Hindu differences and clashes:

 The Muslim League was determined to press for an independent nation
 Jinnah was dismayed by Gandhi’s reaction and announced in July that they
had no option but to press for an independent state
 There was to be a general strike in Calcutta

~ 49 ~
  The city had a large Muslim minority and the plan was to march from various
cities and meet in the middle for a rally
 16th August 1946 there were violent riots between Hindu and Muslim mobs
 100,000 people were left homeless
 The killing that took place sparked off more riots

Demand for Pakistan:

 The name for a new homeland had been
published in a leaflet a year after the third
round table conference
 The name had stuck but the idea for a
separate homeland had been adopted by
Jinnah and the Muslim League
 Jinnah felt there was no option but to
press for Pakistan
 There had been a clear decision and there
was no turning back
 There were riots and if anything, this A map of Pakistan
made the case stronger
 Gandhi was appalled by the violence and went on hunger strike until it had
all stopped
 He was also opposed to partition because he did not feel that it was
necessary for Indian Muslims to have the safeguard of their own country
 The unity was fundamental in his opinion
 For once, the INC did not follow his leadership- they thought that the only
way to avoid a civil war was to have the partition

~ 50 ~
 Independence and Partition

Why did the British decide to withdraw from India?

What was the work of Mountbatten?
What was the British solution of partition?
Why was there further communal violence?

The British decision to withdraw and the work of Mountbatten:

 Lord Mountbatten was appointed Viceroy
of India in February 1947. He was to be
the last Viceroy of India
 The Prime Minister told Mountbatten that
India must not be partitioned. Britain
would give power to the existing Indian
central government and then leave India
 Britain was concerned that India should
be united and strong because there were
fears that the Soviet Union might make
attempts to extend its borders
southwards
 There were similar fears that if the state
of Pakistan were created, it too could not
defend itself against the Soviet Union
 Mountbatten spent the first weeks of his
Lord Mountbatten
post getting to know leading Indian politicians
 He quickly developed good relations with Gandhi and Nehru
 However, his relations with Jinnah were somewhat cold. Jinnah felt that
Mountbatten favoured Congress above the Muslim League
 Mountbatten became convinced that a united India was impossible:
 His first weeks in India showed him how the gulf between the two
parties could not be bridged
 Moreover, he realised the communal violence of 1946 had left bitter
scars
 The consequences of Direct Action were thus a major factor in
Mountbatten’s decision to move towards Partition
 Mountbatten, in conversations with Congress and the Muslim League
had come to realise that the only solution to independence was
partition, a united India was impossible
 The decision also made Mountbatten realise that independence had
to be brought about as soon as possible. He suggested that the date
be 28 August 1947
 If there was no partition, then there would be chaos in India.
 As Mountbatten was arriving at his decision there were riots in several places
across India - the Punjab and the North-West Frontier province
 The communal violence and killings did not diminish despite Gandhi’s pleas
and appeals to ordinary Indians
 Gandhi was now ignored and his dream of a united India was shattered

~ 51 ~
  Mountbatten’s first plan for independence was to allow all states and
provinces to decide their own status
 A new plan had to be put together as Mountbatten became more mindful of
the increasing communal violence
 He wanted to withdraw before there was a complete bloodbath
 The Partition Plan was drawn up in May 1947 and approved in London during
the following month
 It was then announced that partition and independence would be granted on
14 August
 This was a little earlier than planned and Mountbatten hoped to reduce
communal violence by doing this

British Solution of Partition:

 The Partition plan stated:
 Two countries would
be created - India and
Pakistan
 The Princely states
could choose to join
India or Pakistan or
could, if they wished,
remain independent
People campaigning for partition
 A Boundary
Commission was established to define the borders between the two
states
 The leaders of the Princely states met Mountbatten in July and were unhappy
with their treatment
 They were told that they should join either India or Pakistan – whichever they
were closer to geographically
 Most felt that they had been given insufficient time to determine their fate
 The decisions of the Boundary Commission (also known as the Radcliffe
Commission after the head of it) left:
 About 5,000,000 Muslims in India
 About 5,000,000 Hindus in Pakistan
 Other groups such as the Sikhs, who had argued for special treatment
were ignored altogether
 The location of the Muslim population coincided only approximately with the
areas given to Pakistan
 Many Muslims were outside these areas and many Hindus were within them
 There was uncertainty about the drawing of the boundaries so many Hindus
and Pakistanis sought to enter the new Indian and Pakistani boundaries
before the Partition took effect

~ 52 ~
Further Communal Violence:
 In the summer months of 1947, the
movement of millions of people in
circumstances of chaos, fear and
resentment led to fighting and the
deaths of hundreds of thousands of
refugees
 At least 600,000 people were killed in
the Punjab alone and it has been
Dead bodies after communal violence
estimated that about one million
people were killed during that spate of communal violence
 Independence was granted on 14 August 1947
 India and Pakistan became members of the British Commonwealth
 Jinnah became Governor-General of Pakistan. He died the following
year, having suffered from tuberculosis and lung cancer
 Nehru became the Prime Minister of India.
 After independence, Gandhi tried to persuade the peoples of both
religions to end their violence
 Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948

~ 53 ~
~ 54 ~
 The Impact of the Second World War on Change in Africa

What was the weakening of colonial powers and strengthening of

nationalism doing to African states?
What was the Pan African Movement?
What was US foreign policy towards Africa?
Was was UN policy towards Africa?

The Weakening of Colonial Powers and Strengthening of Nationalism in many African

States:
 Africa is rich in mineral resources
and has lots of different cultures
 During WW2 (1939-45) African
troops saw military action in the
armies of their colonial rulers
 The King’s African Rifles was made
up of soldiers from lots of different
countries and they had fought for
the British
 When the fighting was over in 1945
many African soldiers returned King’s African Rifles
home wondering why they had been to war
 During the Second World War colonial governments had taken measures
against nationalist political groups
 In Kenya the leaders of the KCA were arrested and detained in 1940
 The Legislative council was the parliament of Kenya and it:
 Discussed and proposed new laws
 Oversaw the actions of the colonial government
 At the same time the desire for independence was aroused by the returning
soldiers
 The colonial powers were nearly bankrupt after the expenses of the war and
people doubted that they would be able to keep the colony’s because it was
becoming harder
 The mood in Europe was different in 1945 than it had been in 1939 and
Britain’s most important colony was moving towards independence
 Much of the same happened in France and other colonial powers- the French
were becoming more and more destabilised

The Pan African Movement:

 During and after WW1 a Pan African movement was
established to discuss things that concerned African
nationalists
 The most prominent person involved was William Du
Bois- leading campaigner for civil rights in the USA
 The Pan African Movement began in a small way and
had four meetings before 1939 but none of them were William du Bois

~ 55 ~
 very influential
 After WW2 nationalists saw an opportunity to press for an end to colonialism
because the western powers were depleted
 The fifth meeting was designed to discuss how independence could be
achieved and helped to set and agenda

USA foreign policy towards Africa:

 The USA couldn’t really see any strategic or economic
interests in Africa after 1945
 USA policy towards Africa became more active after
the Cold War in the late 1950’s and they started to support
people who were least likely to support communism
 The USA started to support Mobutu because he
didn’t like communism even though his ideas were
somewhat horrible
 At the end of the Cold War the new priority for the
US states was to support democracy because they thought
Mobutu that it would facilitate long-term stability in African states

UN policy towards Africa:

 The USA contribute the most to the UN
 The UN was concerned about maintaining world peace not just in Africa and
the US involvement did nothing but prevent this from occurring
 Conflict in some countries was becoming more intense and so attention was
turned to these other places
 The UN sent 15 peacekeeping missions to Africa and lots of conflict broke out
because they were desperate to gain
independence
 All of these missions have been used as a
measure of how many countries have
been torn apart by conflict
 They helped to speed up the process of
decolonisation in Africa
 In some ways, their policies may have
made the situation more difficult because
it prevented other countries from
intervening
European colonisation in Africa

~ 56 ~
 Independence Movements in East and West Africa

What was independence like in West Africa?

What were the acheievments of Nkrumah?
What was independence like in East Africa and what were the
achievements of their leaders?

West Africa- independence movements in the Gold Coast and Nigeria:

 1880-1914- European countries established colonies in Africa
 Nkrumah- helped organise Pan African Congress and he had a secretary of
WANS
 He tried to develop links with Communist Party
 1946- WANS published lots of newsletters
 Government was moving towards self-determination and because of this
there were lots of demonstrations
 Despite all this the CPP was very successful in elections and the British
Government announced that they would be leaving Africa
 CPP won election (32 out of 38 seats)
 Nigeria followed a different path to independence:
 In the war Nigerian soldiers served with the British in Morocco so the
war years saw an increased membership with trade unions. This
brought new forces into play and would be brought into cause by
acting collectively
 Nationalist parties, after the war, were split along regional lines and did not
cooperate at all
 The British government decided to impose a federal structure on Nigeria and
gradually this would give self-government to the three regions
 Also gave a central government responsible for the three regions
 Main nationalist political parties all competed for independence
 Each area moved Nigeria one step
closer to independence
 In 1957 the south-west and south-
east became self-governing- followed by
the north in 1959
 A federal government in Lagos
meant that they still had power over
nationwide concerns
 By an act of parliament Nigeria
was declared independent on the 1st of
A map of Nigeria October 1960

~ 57 ~
The achievements of Nkrumah:
 1952 Nkrumah was elected Prime Minister
 Ghana= Warrior King
 1957- Gold Coast led to independence and
so Nkrumah effectively made a
dictatorship
 Nkrumah invited to be secretary of UGCC
and he accepted and arrived at the Gold
Coast, December 1947
 1948- riots by ex-servicemen- cost of living
too high
 Though UGCC was involved- leaders
arrested but he was released soon after- Kwame Nkrumah
people protested outside prison
 He founded CPP

The achievements of Keyatta, Nyerere and Amin:

 Kenyatta was one of the main organisers of the
th
5 pan African congress and came back to Kenya in 46
having spent 15 years abroad
 Was elected President of the Kenyan African
Union he became a leading nationalist and toured the
country building support
 1951- colonial administration called the Mau Mau
began
 20th October 1952- state of emergency declared
due to threat of law and order
 Alongside 5 others Kenyatta was convicted of
Keyatta
being part of the Mau Mau and was given 7 years hard
labour but Kenyatta remained in Prison until 1959
 He was detained in the remote town of Lodwar in the North-west of Kenya
 His political moderation suggests that he was not part of the Mau Mau
 He was released in 1961 and on the 1st June, Kenyatta became the first Prime
Minister of independent Kenya
 His drive and determination was a large factor in winning independence for
Kenya
 Imposing figure and no one has ever challenged as the leader of Kenyan
Nationalism
 Since his death his presence has remained in Kenya and KANU, the political
party he founded, is still the main political party in Kenya today
 He is one of the most prominent figures in the first generation of post-
colonial African leaders
 Kenyatta was conciliatory to Kenyan groups that may have caused him dread
in his new authority
 He tried to persuade white settlers to stay in Kenya although the issue of land
was still and issue with many people

~ 58 ~
  He also tried to convince other political leaders that his policies would be
inclusive ones

East Africa- independence movements in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda:

 The name Mau Mau
seems to be a European
word
 55,000 British troops were
used to counter the
insurgency but no more
than 10,000 were used at
one time though Most of
the burden fell on Kenyan
police and the fighting Mau Mau
went on until 1960
 The official figures for the number of casualties was 11,000
 Before WW1 Germany had a colony in Africa but it was taken away by the
treaty of Versailles
 Nyerere had been active in politics since he was a student and he founded a
school but then had to choose between teaching and politics- he chose
politics
 He was a member of the Legislative council
 The path to independence was smooth because of his calm personality
 He became the first Prime Minister of an independent Tanganyika
 He managed the merge between Tanganyika and Zanzibar with great skill
however, his support for groups still fighting caused friction internationally
 He announced in 1985 that he would retire from politics and he did
 There had been 5 traditional kingdoms of Uganda (Buanda was the richest)
 The country was mainly Christian and much of the country’s economic
activity came from India
 When it became apparent that independence was coming 3 main political
parties came about

~ 59 ~
 Changes in the Congo

What were the reasons for Belgian withdrawal and the subsequent
civil war?
Why did the UN intervene and what effects did this have?
What were the achievements of Mobutu?

Reasons for Belgian withdrawal and subsequent civil war:

 Henry Morton Stanley did an expedition in
1897 and he decided to colonise the area of
Zanzibar because he could see potential
 He ruled the Congo with brutality and
brought about profit to slave traders
 The Belgian government took over the
administration of the Congo in 1908 and it
was visited by missionaries so it mainly
became Roman Catholic
 Most of the schools were founded with Map of the Congo
religious beliefs
 Political parties that were pressing for independence gathered strength
throughout the 1950’s and ABAKO was formed
 They were out of control and the authorities tried to prevent them from
meeting but this provoked lots of rioting in January 1959
 The government announced reforms to bring more Congolese people into
government but this caused further unrest
 Lumumba was arrested and detained but the MNC demanded that he should
be released so he could attend the Round Table Conference
 Independence was agreed but there had to be a transitional period
 The colony became independent on 30th June 1960 and is now known as the
Republic of Congo
 Lumumba spoke in praise of the struggle they had been through and what he
said was not well received by the King of Belgium who was on a visit, but it
pleased the people around him Nationalism
had developed and there were 2 paths it
followed:
 One was towards a united Congo
 The other was a path based on regional
lines
 Almost all Belgians who left the Congo had
important jobs and these now needed to be
filled by people who were less professional
 The Belgians mainly left because people were
pressing for self-government and wanted to Patric Lumumba
have national and regional self-determination
 They did not want to get involved in the violence

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  The situation in the Congo was tense and people could tell it would end in
violence
 Due to this, Lumumba called in the UN to try and sort the situation out

UN intervention in the Congo and its effects:

 In July 1960 the UN agreed that Belgium should be called upon to withdraw
all forces and provide military assistance
 The first UN troops actually
arrived the following day
 Lumumba wanted the UN
forces to put down the rebellion but the
secretary disagreed
 They thought that UN
intervention would breach the charter and
they UN was not allowed to intervene in
UN being taken to the Congo
politics
 Kasai another mineral-rich
area wanted to split from Congo
 Lumumba was dissatisfied with UN response so he turned to the Soviet union
and they airlifted troops
 Many people were killed and the UN were furious that help had been called
for so Lumumba was dismissed
 Lumumba was later executed and a temporary government was put in place
 After his death the situation got worse and the secretary of the UN was
forced to resign but refused
 It later became clear that Katanga had no intention of breaking away from
the Congo and the UN forces launched military operations
 9th September 1961 they attacked the army of Katanga
 The secretary was killed in a plane crash but no evidence was found to
suggest that it was an assassination attempt
 The effects of UN intervention were to:
 End the breaking away of Katanga
 Demonstrate that the UN could act decisively
 Show that the UN would always try to be peaceful

The Achievements of Mobutu:

 Mobutu was the president of Congo for more than 30 years
 He brought about a form of stability to the country and by 1970 had
eliminated all opposition to his rule
 His rise to power was greatly assisted by the US because he wasn’t likely to
spread communism
 They thought he would counter the threat to peace

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 Independence Movements in North Africa

What was independence like in Algeria and Tunisia?

Why did the French withdraw?
What were the achievements of Habib Bourguiba and Ben Bella?

Independence movement in Algeria:

 Many French settlers had made their home in Algeria
because France was a part of Algeria
 1st November 1954 the FLN launched attacks because
they wanted Algeria to become free from French rule
 They began ruthless attacks and so the French response
was fierce back
 They influenced lots of people and targeted those who
were vulnerable such as the Harkis
 The Harkis had been recruited by the French during the
war and they acted as auxiliary police
 The FLN violence led to a violent response and these The Harkis
acts were often ignored by the police
 There was turmoil back in France because they were being humiliated
 Late summer 1956 the FLN carried out a series of violent attacks on Algerian
cities
 On 30th September they exploded bombs in the city centre and Massu called
a general strike in response
 He then turned his attention to rural areas and gave them help and support
but this did nothing to solve the political crisis
 Throughout 1956-57 the FLN became a well organised group of fighters and
they used classic tactics to try and avoid clashes with the police
 The FLN was responsible for thousands of deaths, both Muslim and non-
Muslim
 This crisis led to an attempted coup in May 1958 and this again led to turmoil
back in France
 The French government collapsed and demanded that their wartime leader
became president
 On 29th May 1958 De Gaulle
took power as the last president of
the fourth republic
 He immediately drafted a
new constitution and all Muslims
were to be put onto the election
role and would be able to
participate in the referendum
Pieds Noirs
 Opposition to the war was
growing in France and many people

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 found the events shocking and the stories had a strong effect on public
opinion
 The FLN was gaining support in the UN and de Gaulle changed his opinion
and said that self-determination was the thing to do
 The Pieds-Noirs felt betrayed
 In Algeier’s some Pieds-Noirs were so angry that they put up barricades and
this meant that de Gaulle was prepared to abandon them
 The 19th March was when the cease fire was negotiated and the Evian
Accords stated:
 Pieds-Noirs could have equal rights for 3 years
 Could also participate in cultural matters
 At the end of that time, the Pieds-Noirs would be classified as aliens and lose
their rights
 The French eventually withdrew because they couldn’t keep up their
attempts and it was becoming expensive
 They did so with reluctance because they knew the Pieds-Noirs would feel
betrayed

Independence in Tunisia:
 In Tunisia, the situation was not nearly as violent
as in Algeria
 The assassination of Ferhat Hached played an
important part in the withdrawal of the French
 It was highly suspected that the French Secret
Service was behind the assassination
 The trade unions played an important part in the
campaign for Tunisian independence
 Ferhat Hached had been a prominent nationalist
and trade union leader Farhat Hached

 Bourguiba had been arrested by the French and had spent many years in
different prisons in France
 Whilst he was there he spent a lot of time getting international support to
help support his campaign for independence in Tunisia
 In 1950, he returned to Tunisia but he called for violent protest which meant
that he was arrested again but stayed in Tunisia
 When he was released Tunisia was declared independent on the March 20th
1956

The Achievements of Habib Bourguiba and Ben Bella:

 Habib Bourguiba was the President of Tunisia from July 1957-87 and
remained unchallenged
 During his early years, relationships with France were put under pressure but
they were soon restored
 He was a key member of the Arab League and pursued foreign policies
 He introduced many social reforms and put a lot of money into education
and women’s rights

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 All of his adult life had been devoted to Tunisian Nationalism and in 1957 he
was voted president for life
 Ben Bella was a FLN leader during the Algerian war of independence and was
arrested in 1951 but he escaped
 After Algerian independence he became better known and became president
of Algeria in an uncontested election
 His attempts at various reforms had mixed results from the public but he is
thought to have been one of the leading Arab nationalists of the 20 th century

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 South Africa and the End of Apartheid

What was the Nationalist Party’s system of Apartheid?

Why was there support for this system?
What changes occurred to this system under Botha?
What was the role of Nelson Mandela, the ANC and de Klerk in the
end of apartheid?

The main racial groups in South Africa:

 Whites were called blankes,
meaning ‘white’ in Afrikaans.
English-speakers usually
translated this as ‘Europeans’,
which annoyed Afrikaners
Afrikaners often thought of
the whites as froming separate
nations, although they were
Groups in South Africa
treated as one by the law
 When blacks wrote about whites, they often used the word ‘whiteman’, as
one word
 Bantu, blacks, kaffir (pagan), boys/girls were all names used by whites to
Blacks. They preferred to be called Africans
 Most mixed-race people lived in Cape Province and were the result of black-
white marriages.

National party justifications for introducing apartheid:

 With the enactment of apartheid laws in 1948, racial discrimination was
institutionalized
 In 1948 South Africa had a new
government, the National Party. Elected by a small
majority in a whites-only election, its victory
followed a steady increase in black migration to the
country's towns
 This migration had led to a fear of black
domination among the minority whites - the
Afrikaners, and the English-speaking community,
Plaque about the apartheid
mainly of British descent

Early laws and aims of Apartheid:

 The main aim of Malan’s Apartheid was to extend the white supremacy in
South Africa

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  The apartheid policy was designed to separate black and white South
Africans, to oppress, dominate and control blacks, and in the same breath to
enrich white South Africans at the expense of the oppressed people
 Only the so-called “white” citizens of South Africa were allowed to vote and
participate in government, black South Africans were forbidden
 This was to stop Malan being voted out so that he could keep in full control of
the country
 With the enactment of apartheid laws in 1948, racial discrimination was
institutionalized
 Race laws touched every aspect of social life, including a prohibition of
marriage between non-whites and whites, and the sanctioning of ``white-
only'' jobs
 In 1950, the Population Registration Act required that all South Africans be
racially classified into one of three categories: white, black (African), or colour
(of mixed decent)
 These “coloureds” created a real problem for Malan because they proved
that it was difficult to simply assign a race on an identity card to an individual,
and that it was less clear cut than that

The freedom charter:

 The freedom charter was A
document ratified at the Congress of
the People, held at Kliptown,
Soweto, in June 1955, by the various
member bodies of the Congress
Alliance
 The policies set out in the Charter
included a demand for a multi-racial,
democratically elected government, Flag of the ANC

equal opportunities, the nationalisation of banks, mines and heavy industries,

and a redistribution of land
 Africanist members of the ANC rejected the Freedom Charter and broke away
to form the Pan Africanist Congress.
 In response to the adoption of the Freedom Charter at the Congress of the
People, the Apartheid government in South Africa arrested a total 156 people
 This was almost the entire executive of the African National Congress (ANC),
Congress of Democrats, South African Indian Congress, Coloured People's
Congress, and the South African Congress of Trade Unions
 They were charged with "high treason and a countrywide conspiracy to use
violence to overthrow the present government”

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The problems facing black resistance up to 1960 and why it achieved so little:
 Apartheid transformed South African life
in almost every aspect
 Fear and frustration became a part of
black life. Nonetheless, most people did
not sit back and accept the limits placed
on them even though they may have hid
their views for fear of being punished
From the beginning there was
resistance. The ANC Youth League
(ANCYL), was formed in 1943
Nelson Mandela
 It grew to play an important and
influential role in the African National Congress (ANC), and by 1949 its
leaders, Walter Sisulu , Oliver Tambo and Nelson Mandela , were elected to
the ANC's National Executive
 They propagated the idea that white domination could only be fought
through mass action
 In 1949 there were riots between Africans and Indians which led to 140
deaths. This convinced the political leaders to work together
 At the same time the Youth League had a shakeup of personnel at the top.
Together they took action in the form of strikes, demonstrations and non-
cooperation with apartheid
 They scheduled a national day of protest in June 1950
 The Defiance Campaign in 1952 was the first large-scale, multi-racial political
mobilization against apartheid laws under a common leadership – by the
African National Congress, South African Indian Congress, and the Coloured
People’s Congress
 More than 8,000 trained volunteers went to jail for “defying unjust laws,”
laws that had grown worse since the National Party came to power in 1948
 Volunteers were jailed for failing to carry passes, violating the curfew on
Africans, and entering locations and public facilities designated for one race
only

Nelson Mandela and the Resistance:

 The ANC was active in opposition to apartheid, the South African
government’s former policy of racial segregation
 Until 1960 the ANC advocated nonviolent resistance to government practices
 That year, however, the government killed 69 blacks during a protest in
Sharpeville (see Sharpeville Massacre) and declared a state of emergency
 The government banned the ANC and had many ANC leaders arrested.

~ 67 ~
 Working with the ANC (African National Council) Nelson Mandela apartheid
efforts increased and he himself began to realise that passive resistance was
not winning the fight
 Plans were made to bomb places of significance to apartheid, but these were
always planned to avoid anyone
being hurt or killed
 Nelson Mandela was tried for
treason and at one stage was
acquitted. In 1964 though, he was
sentenced to life imprisonment
 Under apartheid Mandela served
nearly 27 years in prison but he
Robben Island Prison
never gave up the fight
 When Mandela was imprisoned at Robben Island he continued his work and
teachings. In South Africa and around the world, Nelson Mandela's anti-
apartheid messages gained in popularity
 After his release from prison in 1990 Nelson Mandela went on to become
president of South Africa
 Apartheid was officially ended though there is no doubt that much of the
racism is still deeply rooted in the country
 While Nelson Mandela is no longer president, he is highly respected and his
voice is still heard
 As a leader and a peacemaker Nelson Mandela was the leading force in the
battle against apartheid. A battle worth fighting for and a battle won.

~ 68 ~