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South Central Modern Language Association

The Rhetoric of Power in Juan Manuel's "El Conde Lucanor"


Author(s): James A. Grabowska
Source: South Central Review, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 45-61
Published by: Johns Hopkins University Press on behalf of South Central Modern Language
Association
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TheRhetoric
ofPowerinJuanManuel's
El CondeLucanor
JamesA. Grabowska
ofMinnesota
University

One ofthebenefits ofan oralliterary traditionis itsflexibility.A singer


or jongleurcould changeor modifymythsand legendsaccordingto the
perceivedneedsofhisaudience.Withthedevelopment ofliteracy andthe
relianceon fixedmodesofdiscourse(whichin turnfixedtraditions and
theirinconsistencies) duringthe MiddleAges,the flexibility of orality
disappearsandallegoresis replacesitas a meansto(re)interpret fixedcultural
tradition. thedominant
Allegoresis, methodofliterary figuralinterpretation
to this day, servesto explainproblemsor inconsistencies thatbecome
apparentin a written textand in turnleadsto further investigation ofthe
originalproblemanditsproposedsolution.In otherwords,thegrowthof
thewritten wordeffectively fixedtraditions in textsand encouragedcom-
plaintsagainstperceivedinconsistencies betweentheideal (expressedin
thetext)and theactual.According toJanetColeman,literacy causedsocial
changethrough rebellion and complaint ratherthan"through silentevolu-
tionand selective remembering" associatedwiththeoraltradition.1
Therebellionand discomfort ofsocietiesintransition duringtheMiddle
Ages gave rise to collections of sermon handbooks and collectionsof
exempla in the vernacular as well as inLatin. and
Clergy laymanalikeused
thesecollections to teachcitizenshow to behavein relationto theirGod,
theirking,andtheirlords.Thetwoordersmostinfluential inthedevelop-
mentofvernacular preaching, the Dominicans and the Franciscans, com-
piled collections such as the Liber Ad
Exemplorum UsumPraedicantium,
ExemplaCommunia, ExemplaDeodati,GestaRomanorum, Alphabetum Nar-
rationum, andtheDialogusCreaturaru. In Spainsimilar handbooksabound
in seculartitlessuchas theBocados deoro,Calilae Dimna,Disciplina clericalis,
Ellibrodelosbuenos Libro
proverbios, delosengaNos, Barlaam yJosafat,Sendebar,
Librodelosgatos,Exemplos muynotables, and theCondeLucanor.Theexem-
plary talesmixed sacred and secular talesthatwereorganizedso as tomake
thematerial easilyaccessible tothe reader. Theordinatio ofthesecollections
was generally based on an alphabetical arrangement which employedkey
words to whicha givenexemplary tale could be applied;forexample,
Abstinentia. Whatis important to noteis thatnotonlywas thecontentof
theexemplum important butalsothephysicalstructure andordering ofthe
compilation. Thestructure ofthetextas muchas thetaleitself was designed

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46 SouthCentral
Review

tofacilitate
understanding.
Universitiesandthescholasticmovement taughta different
form ofstudy
fromtheoldermonastic tradition
ofreadingasspiritual
exercise.Scholastic
readingemphasized reasoning and consultationofauthorities thatre-
quireda more orderly and accessible
presentationof thetext. Ordinatio
developed during thethirteenth andfourteenthcenturieswiththeredis-
coveryofAristotelian and
logic, the structure
oftextsreflected
theneedfor
in
precision the ordering of knowledge. Specifically,
compilations were
dividedintobooksandthoseintochapters withrunning titles.Thetext
wasalsoequippedwitha tableofcontents tofacilitate The
accessibility.
SpanishcollectionConde Lucanor,completedin1335bynobleman donJuan
Manuel,manifests manyoftheseaspectsofordinatio, and,liketheother
itsform
collections, is crucial
tounderstanding thetext.
Thepurpose ofthisshortstudyistoidentify anddiscusstheideological
foundationsofexemplary talesbyexploring therhetoricofpowerinJuan
Manuel'stales.2Myanalysis focuseson BookOne,whichdemonstrates
howthewriter JuanManuelwas ableto communicate specificideasor
notionsaboutgoverning andmaintainingsocialprestigetoa specific
group
ofreadersina specificway.Thefunctional relationshipbetween form and
contentor narrativestructure (narrative rhetorical
scripts, devices,and
andcommunicative
fiction) content for
(scripts behavior, historical
devices,
and situations)is whatinterests mein thispreliminary study.
A closeexamination ofthetextofEl CondeLucanor indicatesthatthrough
the rhetoricofpastoralpower,Juan Manuel hoped to maintain royalpower
on a societallevel. By utilizingpastoralpowerand the implications of
forthesalvationof others(a Christian
self-sacrifice of
ideology spiritual
means),JuanManueljustifies theuse ofroyalpower(theideologyofsocial
materialends). Royalpoweris used to describethe statusquo of the
fourteenth-century Castiliansocial orderin whichsacrificeis not de-
mandedforthepreservation ofthethroneperse butratherforthemainte-
nanceoftheexisting socialorder.3JulioValde6nBaruque,in an outlineof
the historicalperiodduringwhichJuanManuel completedmuchofhis
literaryproduction, has shownthatduringthisperiodthenobilitycon-
stantly for
fought greater participation inthegovernment ofthekingdom.
According to Valde6n Baruque, these were
conflicts based upontheestate
structureoffourteenth-century Castiliansocietyand theinternalcontra-
dictionsstemming fromtheinherent inequalityofthesystem.Akintothe
perceivedheavenly socialorder, civilsociety dividedintothreesocial
was
strata:oradores,defensores,and labradores.4 Each one ofthesegroupswas
a
assigned specific setof rights and duties which servedto integrate each
classwiththeother.None couldfunction completely withouttheaid of
the others. The nobility, to whomthe defenseof the community was
and extracted
entrusted,ruledlocal communitiesand even entireterritories
fundsfromthese communitiesand territories forthe purpose ofmaintain-
ing theirstandardofliving.5Alreadyin the fourteenth century,expansion

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JamesA. Grabowska 47

due tothereconquest hadreacheditslimitinterms ofthepopulationofthe


reconqueredterritory. The effect of thisexpansion anddepopulation was a
reduction inincomeforthenobles,whointurnwouldimportune thekingfor
themoneyand concessions necessary to maintain theirhouseholds.6 Thus
propergovernment at all levels was of greatconcern formembers of the
socialelitelikeJuanManuel.
An analysisoftherelationship betweenrhetoric and powerintheConde
Lucanor illustrateshow thefictional representationofcultural, legal,reli-
gious, and issues
political can inform readers about the manner in which
fourteenth-century representative characters handled a of
variety serious
historical issues. JuanManuel'stexthighlights importantpowerrelation-
shipsbetweennoblesand theirconstituency, thereby demonstrating how
aristocrats likedonJuanManuelrespondedtothedifficult andfrustrating
responsibility ofteachingothershow to governwelland maintain power
and social privilege.The fullimportof "self-government" is telling:in
fourteenth-century Castiliansociety, socialprivilegeentailedtheaccumu-
lationofhonor,wealth,and thesalvationofthesoul.
The textualevidenceofhow JuanManuelcommunicated specific ideas
about governingand maintaining socialpoweris overwhelming. Book
One containsfifty talesinwhichJuanManuelemploysthesamestructure
fifty times.7The firstbook of CondeLucanorcontainsthe scriptof fifty
fictitious meetingsbetweenCountLucanorand his counselorPatronio;
fifty scriptsofunscripted encounters, potentialsituations,through which
thereaderlearnstheproblems thatfacea noblemanand how thoseprob-
lemsareresolved.Here,thetermscript to twoconditions:
refers a written
textas opposedto an oraltext,as wellas a representation oflife,a fiction-
alizedaccountofa real-life situation.Thefirst assumesimportance because
itfixesa messageand themannerin whichitwas composed,whichdoes
notprecludevariousinterpretations ofthemessagebutservesthepurpose
oflinkingformand meaning.In thecaseofEl CondeLucanor, fifty myths
and talesarefixedin a bookwithina framework designedto controlthe
interpretation ofthosetalesand myths.8 JuanManueladamantly controls
transmission andreception as he arguesthatheis notresponsible forerrors
in copiesofhistextwhichmaydistort ormutatemeaning.According tothe
nobleman, theonlycorrect textis thatwhichhe himself has amended,and
it is theoriginaltextwhichhe controls.Don Juanexhorts his readersto
checktheoriginalcopyofhisworkbeforepassingjudgmentWhathe has
written hasa specificpurposeanda specific form whichhehimself amended
tobe surethatwhathe chosetoputinthetextwasinallwayscorrect. Juan
Manuel added yetanotherdisclaimer: ifafterreadingthecorrected text
thereis a questionas tovalue,thereadershouldblameJuanManuel'slack
ofwisdomandnotblamehisintention. In one sentencethenoblemantells
the reader to blame JuanManuel's lack of understandingin the case of
faultycontent.JuanManuel recordsthe suggestionas a challengesincein
thenextsentenceGod himselfknows thatthenoblemanintendsto educate

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48 South CentralReview

the uneducated. JuanManuel does not doubthis own rhetoricor the


lessonshe meanstoimpart, andinthecaseofskepticism, hisoriginalscript
and God serveas theauthorities forformand meaning.
Theotherconditionassociatedwiththescriptis thatofa representation
ofa life-likesituation.In orderfortherhetoric ofJuanManuelto obtain,it
mustbe meaningful inactualdailysituations.Thescript presents situations
as iftheywerespontaneousactivity.Thenarrative structure, however,is
rathercomplex:Patronioand Lucanor observethe charactersin the
counselor'stale;thecharacter Don lohan observesPatronioand Lucanor;
thenarrator observesthetale,Count,counselor, and Don Iohan; and the
readerobservesthemall. Whilethecharacters areawarethattheyobserve
anothercharacter, presentationof the scriptoccursin such a way as to
appearunrehearsed.The scriptsseemimmediateeven thoughtheyare
delivered inpasttensebecausejudgments andobservations aremadeas the
taleunfolds.Eachobserver inthe chainis privy tothe spontaneous activity
ofanothercharacter, andthisactivity,presented as genuine,is meaningful
precisely becausetruewisdomcomesfromexperience.Everyobserverin
thechainwatchessomeoneelse experience a fictional situationpresented
as veritable.Experience the
proves validity of each script.
Anomniscient narratorpresentstheinitialscript tothereader,introduces
thecharacters ofCountLucanorandPatronio, andestablishes a timeperiod
inwhichthesecondscriptoccurs:"AcaesSiovnavez que el condeLucanor
estauafablandoen su poridatconPatronio, su consegero" (33). Thenarra-
tor generallypresentsonlythe mostnecessarytimeinformation using
generaltermssuchas "Ithappenedonce"or"Onceagainithappenedthat"
in orderto establisha chronology presentedas a real-time event. Atthe
sametime,untilPatroniobeginshis exemplary tale,thenarrator controls
thedialoguebetweenthecountand counseloreventothepointofreveal-
ingwhattroubles Lucanor:"etdixolcommoestauaen grantcoydadoeten
grandquexa de vn fechoque queriafazer"(45). The narrator does not
controlPatroniootherthanto reporthis exactwords:"--Sennorconde
Lucanor--dixo Patronio-,muchomeplazeriaque parasedesmientesa vn
exienplo de vna cosa que acaesSio"(45). Withinthe scriptin whichthe
countandhiscounselor areintroduced, Lucanorpresents Patronioa sketch
ofa situationthatwillaffect eitherthehonor,estate,orwell-beingofthe
countand thenasksforadviceonwhatto do. Patronioscriptsfifty stories
in whichhe proposesa parallelto CountLucanor'sproblem.Attheclose
of the shortdramarecountedby Patronioto CountLucanor,thereader
returnsto thescriptin whichthecounselordrawsa conclusionand the
masterbenefits fromthelesson.Thesecondscript, liketheexemplary tale
withinit,is closed.Theomniscient narratorappearsattheendofthesecond
closure again to recordthe resultsof Patronio's advice, to add don Juan
Manuel's approbation of the lesson and the accompanyingverses with
which he is credited,and to conclude the overall narrativeframewith a
units of threescriptsinto a unified
singleline which servesto tie the fifty

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JamesA. Grabowska 49

whole:"Etla estoriadesteexienploes estaque se sigue"(48). Thisprocess


is repeatedforeachofthefifty episodesofBookOne, and itformspartof
JuanManuel'splanfortherhetorical manipulation ofhisreaders.
In each ofthefifty exempla the relations which Juan Manueldevelops
betweenhimselfas authorand his readersor listenerscan be examined.
Eachtalein thecollection servesto givebirthto a response,guaranteed in
advanceby theanalogybetweenthesocialpredicament ofthenobleman
who listensin theframestoryand thefictional situationofthecharacters
in thetale itself.Patronioreviseseach oraltalehe borrowsin orderto
reduceas muchas possibleitspotentialdiscrepancies, to concealitsexem-
plary gaps, to show itsmoral coherence and the practicalsolutionsofthe
message.In thelanguageofsemiotics, withoutPatronionothingexiststo
unitethesignifier tothesignified; no inherent symbolic relationshipexists
betweentheexemplary taletoldbythecounselorandtheproblem facedby
thenobleman.Patronio'sexemplarity sponsorstheoraltale'spotentialor
ideal. The tale is framedto manifest thoseexemplary conditionsof its
narrative aboutwhich,outsidetheframe, itis usuallyneutralorsilent.
In theCondeLucanor, no taleis toldmerelyforthesake oftelling.The
traditionaltale chosento be framedalwayshas moraland social im-
plications. Thereare correspondences betweenhistoricaland fictional
situations and socialorpoliticalelements thatareotherwise dissimilar.By
itself,the oraltalehas no fidelity to theprobabilities of Lucanor'sown
predicament of doubts;if fidelity is createdit is onlydue to Patronio's
framed elaboration. Patronio's strategy istotransfer theinternalcoherence
ofthetraditional storypattern to the predicament of Lucanor andmakethe
connection so compelling thattheanalogybecomesevidentand meaning-
fulbothto Lucanorand,outsidethefiction, to readersor listeners.Each
frameis so constructed thatitreducestheveryartistic elements oftheoral
tale thatmightbluntthehighlights ofits exemplary function.Veryfew
exemplary tales in the collectioncontainany dialogueof consequence
(which would givepowertoanothercharacter) otherthanPatronio'sadvice
and his tellingof the exemplary tale to illustrate thisadvice. The only
persons who are
"say"anything Patronio and the omniscient even
narrator;
CountLucanorframes hisutterances in theformofquestions.His expla-
nationofa particular socialsituationleads to hispetitionforadvice. The
artisticfunction oftheframed versionofthetraditional storypattern is to
penetrate a nobleman's predicament and to the
bring very outcome of the
difficultycloser to Lucanor's real situation, thus degeneralizing the oral
storypattern to sucha degreethattheframed talesucceedsin actualizing
it.
In each exemplary tale,thereaderoverhearsa privateconversation be-
tweenCountLucanorand Patronioin whichLucanorasksadviceon how
to respond to a situationpresentedto him in greatsecrecy. The private
conversation,once overheard,is no longer privatebut the factthat it is
described as such leads the reader to believe that the informationbeing

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50 SouthCentral
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passedon orallyis ofgreater importance. In addition,thespeakers'social


status(a countandhiscounselor) makesthepossibility ofoverhearing such
"privileged" information all the more valuable, doubly valuable since the
petition for the advice and the circumstances by which the petition becomes
necessaryare bothtransmitted secretly.Thosewho wield socialpower
speakin privateof important things.Thus thetextexposes"classified"
information. The exemplum receivesmorecredibility withthisnarrative
technique.
In eachofthefifty talesCountLucanorasksforadvicebeforemakinga
decisionaboutpersonalaffairs.SinceLucanorhas not takenaction,no
damagehas been doneto eitherhonor,estate,or socialposition,and the
readerveryquicklydeducesthatthefirst lessonon howto governwellis
always tobe prepared and well-informed. Proofthatthisisindeedthecase
is established whentheframeis closedat theend ofeach episodeas the
narrator reports thatLucanorheedstheadvicehe receivesandprofits from
it.
In thefirst tale,forexample, Lucanorrevealsthata mansayshe wantsto
selland giveall ofhisgoodstothecount.ThesuspiciousLucanoraskshis
counselorto advisehim.Patroniorecognizes thefabrication thathasbeen
presentedto CountLucanor and tells him that what is apparently to his
benefit isinreality a testof his friendship and therefore He
dangerous. goes
on to demonstrate thedangerofthesituation throughan exemplary tale.
a
Patroniotellsof kingwho, deceived byothers, growssuspicious hisof
favoriteand sets out to test him under circumstances similarto those
presented to Lucanor in the frame story. The kinghints thathe is tiredof
his station and would like to leave it for a hermit-like life. He therefore
proposes to leave his and
wife,child, subjects put and them in the handsof
his favorite. When the favorite mentions his good fortune to his own
counselor, he is warned that he has been deceived and is about to fallinto
a trapand is in greatdanger. The favorite recognizes the truth of these
words and worksto remedythe situationby deceivingthe king into
believingthathewishestogowithhimandcontinue toservehimwherever
he maygo. He succeedsin hisdeceptionand thekingagainbelievesthat
his favorite is trueto him. In theframestoryPatroniosummarizes the
tale
exemplary by telling Lucanor that the situationproposed to him is a
testandthathe shouldgoandtalktothemanwhoproposestosellandgive
himall ofhis estateto lethimknowthathe onlywisheshimwelland that
he neitherintendsto damagehishonornorcovetsanyofhispossessions.
Thenarrator reports thatLucanortakesPatronio'sadviceand everything
goes wellfor him. The narrator theninserts thefactthatJuanManuelalso
foundthetalevaluableand composedtwoversesto summarize itsworth:
"Nonvos engannedes, nincreadesque,endonado,/fazeningunomnepor
otrosu danno de grado" and "Por la piadat de Dios et por buen consejo,/
sale omnede coytaetcunplesu deseo" (37-38).The firstreiteratesPatronio's
advice while the othereulogizes good advice in general.

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A. Grabowska
James 51

There are narrativeindicatorsin the framedstorywhich referonly to


Lucanor's social problems. There are also otherreferenceswithinthe tale
which the informedreadercan learnto identify.The king's favoriteis put
to the testas a resultof the envy and deceitof others. Envidiaand cobdigia
are terms that have both moral (religious) and social (economic) im-
plications. Religiouslythey are cardinal sins to be avoided. Those who
envytheking'sfavoriteare morallywrongto do so and place theirsouls in
grave danger. Having been deceived by courtiers,the king subjects an
innocentman to a test(anotherdeception)whichhas (after)life-threatening
consequences. The favoriteis also temptedby the richesand power ofthe
king and is in danger oflosing not onlyhis social positionbut his place in
heaven. Throughthe moralrhetoricemployedby Patronio,Lucanor, and
readers outside the textare convincedthattheymustalways be alertand
protecttheirpropertyand honorfromthosewho would covetit. Protection
includes the use of deceptionto guard one's position,power, and life. At
the same time,envy and covetousnesshave social implications:what the
jealous courtierswant and what temptsthefavoriteis social advancement
This desire, too, has grave consequences, and Patronio's framingof the
storyreinforcesthe notion thatone should be contentwith his social role.
To desireto change thatrole is wrongbecause one's social role and respon-
sibilitiesare based on a divine order,not just a human one. It is not only
wrong forthe courtierswho desiresocial advancement,itis also wrong for
the king who intimates,albeit only as a means to testhis favorite,thathe
wishes to leave his social role foranother. Again,spiritualgood is used to
defendsocial position.
In orderto testhis favorite, thekingdevelops a fictionalscenarioin which
he leads the favoriteto believe thathe wishes to leave his throneand look
forGod. Patronioexplainsthat"entreotrasrazones muchas que fablaron,
comengolvn poco a dar a entenderque se despagaua muchode lavida deste
mundo et que paressia que todo era vanidat" (34).
Contemptforworldly
possessions is the firststep toward a closer relationshipwith God, and as
Patroniodevelops thisscenario,he has thekingbecome even more
specific.
The kingshallleave all earthlypossessionsbehind forthelaudable
purpose
of doing penance forhis sins and earninga place in heaven. If the
king's
proposalwere viewed in ptirelyreligioustermsand not in social,economic,
or politicalterms,itwould be sound. Accordingto theFranciscans,the
king
would earn his heavenly reward; however, in Dominican
teaching,the
king'sactionswould be totallywrong. Maria Rosa Lida de Malkielsupports
thisidea:
S
.la Inquisici6n, porlosdominicos,
dirigida imputabaalas herejias
.
el propender a la disoluci6nde la sociedad.La imputaci6n parecetan
infundada.
. perola pobrezaabsolutaque predicaban losfraticelli,
la renunciaa la propiedadindividualen favorde la comunidad
evang6lica. . . equivaliaa una condenaimplicita del ordensocial
establecido.Comoreacci6n a lasherejias,la Iglesiase empefia contodo

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52 SouthCentral
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su pesoen la defensade la sociedad . . . y en taldefensala ordende


los predicadores es su mis activovocero,tantoen la especulaci6n
teol6gicacomo en la predicaci6n
popular.9
Dominican teachingcould be applied to the secular social orderas well
as to the religious,and JuanManuel found supportforhis argumentsin
these principles. It has alreadybeen noted thatdon JuanManuel was an
active supporterof the Dominican orderand its orthodoxy.He would be
likelyto see anymovementthatrejectedtheexistingsocial orderas danger-
ous and would include a warningabout such an orderwithinhis exemplary
tales. An excellentexample is tale 42: "De lo que contes&ioa vna falsa
veguina" (331). Rhetorically, JuanManuel supportstheDominicanphilos-
ophy of status quo and rebukes thevoices ofindividualismthatare sound-
ing in the later Middle Ages.
The way the storyis framedin tale 1,thekingdeceives his favoriteabout
his departurewhile not reallycontemplatingsuch action. His scenariofor
penance and redemptionis a hoax but the favoritedoes not know this.
Patroniorelateshow the favoritereactsto thenews:
Quando el priuadodel reyestole oyo dezir,estrannogelo mucho,
deziendolmuchasmanerasporquelo no deuiafazer.Etentrelasotras,
que fariamuygrantdeseruigio
dixolque si estofiziese, a Dios en dexar
tantasgentescommoaviaen el su regnoque teniael vienmantenidas
en paz eteniustigia,etque eragiertoque luegoque eldendese partiese,
que avriaentrellosmuygrantbolliqio etmuygrandes contiendas, de que
tomaria Diosmuygrant deseruiqio muygrant
etla tierra dapnno. . 10
The idea ofthe his
kingleaving kingdompuzzles the favoriteand the reason
he gives the king fornot pursuingsuch a course is that,farfrompleasing
God and earninghim a place in heaven, he would be doing God a great
disserviceby placing his soul in jeopardyratherthan in a stateof grace. A
decision to affectone's spiritualityhas materialas well as spiritualconse-
quences. In thiscase, such a decision is shown to be false. Not only is the
king'sproposal a hoax to tricktheking'sfavoritebutpotentiallyareal social
error.Once again themessageis thatthestatusquo mustbe maintainedin
orderto avoid a ruptureof the social system,thatthose who are born into
a social station should live their lives in that station and therebyearn
salvation,a message thatis repeatedto one degreeor anotherin each ofthe
succeedingforty-nine tales.
In JuanManuel's sentengia at the end of the exemplarytale,what seems
to be a eulogy to good advice becomesthesummaryofhis goal to maintain
a staticand unchangingsocietyand quell thenote ofindividualismthathas
been sounded by such ordersas the Franciscans:"Por la piadat de Dios et
porbuen consejo,/sale omnede coytaetcunplesu deseo" (38). Bythegrace
ofGod and good advice,one escapes affliction and fulfillsGod's desire. The
refraindoes notfocuson good advicebut on thecompletionofGod's desire,
the maintenanceof the existingsocietalstructure.Man avoids a troubled
lifethroughacceptanceofhis worldlyrole. A truefriendcovetsneitherhis

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A. Grabowska
James 53

neighbor's goodsnorhisposition; hecontents himself withworking within


hisownbirthright andearning salvation byliving his lifeas proscribedby
hisestate.
Patronio imposes onhislistener Lucanor and,indirectly, onthegeneral
audience, a socialandreligious awareness regarding the count's predica-
ment,Thisis theexemplary function oftheframed tale. Thereadercan
extract thesocialandpolitical attitudes(withtheir economic implications)
ofJuanManuelinthesemoralexamples an
through analysis oftherhetor-
icalartofthetexts.TheartofdonJuanManuelproduced an historically
identifiable contradiction:within theprivacy ofLucanor's visittoPatronio,
thecounselor's oralmessage ofcaution andstability tohisprot6g6 glosses
overthecontradiction ofidentifying worldly andspiritual gains.With
clever meansofrhetorical concealment, hetranscends thecontradiction by
notrevealing theapparent orpotential opposition betweenmeansand
ends.Simultaneously, within thestructured discourse oftheframed visit
andoralmessage, theauthor hidesnothing and,on thecontrary, allows
readers toseeeverything thatmight becontradictory inwhatthetutor says
andthenobleman hears.
Ironically,thisauthor whoseekstohidehismessages rhetoricallyexposes
thedanger ofkeeping secrets orhiding information from others. Inchapter
32,Lucanoragainpresents a problem andasksforadvice.He hasbeen
approached insecretby a man whotellshimthathehassomething tooffer
thatwouldgreatly benefithimbutthatinorder todiscover thisinformation
Lucanormustnottellanyone, forto do so wouldplacehishonorand
in
position danger. Lucanor placesneither honornorestate injeopardy by
taking immediate actionbut first prepares himself for
byasking advice, and
ironicallyreveals tobe truebeforehand whathiscounselor is abouttotell
him.Lucanor doesnotkeepanything secret butinstead seeksoutPatronio.
Hiscounselor relates
thestory ofa Moorish kingfooled bythree tricksters.
In theexemplary tale,thetricksters telltheKingthatthosewhocannot
seetheclothes thatthetricksters profess tobe abletoweavearebastards,
andbastard sonsofMoorscannot be inheritors (267).Thekingdoesnot
fearillegitimacy butmistakenly seestheclothing as a meansofincreasing
hiswealthandposition. Thedesireforincreased wealthandpoweratthe
expense ofhissubjects motivates thekingtohousethetricksters andpay
themtomakethe"magic" cloth.Thepoweroftheimaginary clothandthe
ofnotbeingable to see it arenota secret,so whentheking
implications
sendshis chamberlain
toviewtheweavingofthecloth,he reports having
seenit.Otherswhomthekingsendsclaim tohave"seen"theclothalsofor
fearoflosingtheir
socialstatus
andtheir
goods.Thekinghimselfthengoes
toviewthecloth.He, liketheservants
beforehim,does notsee thecloth,
butthrough
fearoflosingwhathehas,decidestokeepsecret
thefactthat
he doesnotsee whatreallydoesnotexist.
The description
oftheclothbecomesmoreand moreelaboratewithits
fictional
weavinguntil
thetricksters
presentthe"cloth"foritscutting
into

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54 South CentralReview

whateverclothingthekingwishes. Afterthe"cutting," thekingdresses


himself inthenon-existent clothandpresents himself tohissubjects.None
ofthemtellwhattheysee exceptfora blackslavewho hasnothingtolose
by speakingthetruth.The slave revealsthe truthto all,and once it is
revealed,all see theking'snakednessforwhatitis: nakedness.
Patroniore-frames thestoryby advisingLucanornotto trusttheman
whourgesthecounttokeepthingssecretonlytotrick him.Lucanorheeds
Patronio'sadviceandprofits from it,andJuanManuel contributes another
verseto summarize thelessonwhichreinforces Patronio'sadvice: "Quien
te conseiaencobrir de tus amigos,/sabe que maste quiereengannarque
dos figos"[Whoeveradvisesyou to keepsecretsfromyourfriends wants
to trickyoumorethantwofigs](270). Theallusiontothefigsma referto
thefallofAdamandEve,whobysomeaccountsateofthefigtree.1 Given
theexistence oftwotypesoffigs,mariscas and chias,similar in appearance,
thoughone was sweetand the otherbitter,an untrainedeye could be
deceivedintobelievingthattheone was theotherand insteadofsweet-
meatstakea biteofbitterfruit12Throughtheverse,JuanManuelshows
thatin eithercase,theeffect ofkeepingsecrets fromproperfriends leadsto
bitter results.
As in thefirst framed tale,theapparentsignsofexemplary tale32 point
of
to thedanger keeping secretsfrom friends. The exemplary tale'sinfor-
mation deals with the social problemfacing Count Lucanor. As in thefirst
tale,there are othermessages, not so apparent, which are conveyedto the
readers in a more subtle fashion. The apparent moral messagesofthetale,
concerning preparedness, knowledge friends, theguardingof se-
of and
cretsare theproductofa highlycontrived convention.The truthofthe
clothis itsartifice,andthemorecomplete theartifice (through theconstant
aggrandizing ofthe nonexistent cloth) the more poignant moralpoint
the
the
concerning pitfalls of blindness, deception, gullibility, andsuccumbing
to socialpressures.
Social pressureto conform or riskloss of statusand wealthleads to
learnedgullibility in thistale,represented byboththephysicalinability to
see the cloththatdoes not existand theverbal/social "cover-up." Juan
Manuelusesthetraditional dichotomy ofappearanceandrealitytodrama-
tize how socialhierarchies are threatened.He portraysan estamental
society where people are born intotheirestateand justify theirposition
through their ancestry. Their social position is made manifest through
physicalappearances.Historically, however, with the beginning of the
increaseofthewealthynon-aristocrats, appearances becomedeceptiveand
giveriseto thedistinction betweenhomes ricosand ricoshomes, thelatter
groupendowedwithhonorand theformer without.13 In thisshorttale,
JuanManueldemonstrates throughfiction a realhistorical problem.The
nobility, theelitegroupofricoshomes, is threatened fromthe outsideby
commerceand opportunism,wit and deception. From the inside it is
threatenedby the king's own gullibility(symbolically,the foolishnessof

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A. Grabowska
James 55

thenobility, thosewho shouldhaveknownbetter).


Patronioframes Lucanor'spredicament intermsoftheking'snakedness.
The fearful king overlooks the reality ofthis nakednessin theexemplary
taleandendsupwearingnothing sothatothers, refusingthrough collective
fearthereality ofillusion,arewillingtoacceptatleastoutwardly anillusion
ofreality.Thenakedkingbecomes,metaphorically, themanwho cannot
coverhisinnerweaknessandtherefore his
exposes inability togovernwell.
Nakednessis meaningful notonlyas moralmetaphor butalso as socio-
politicalreality.Subtly,in theverbalstructure of the framedstory,the
accepted,positivenormofbeingclothedis a doublenegativebecauseit
cannotredresswhatit exposes:a bad governor.Clothesaredescribedas
thenormand theyautomatically producewhatis notnakedness.Naked-
nesssymbolizes pejoratively thatwhichis abnormal.Clothes,then,acquire
a socialmeaningbecausetheyrefer totheking'snakednesswhichtheyboth
negateand affirm at thesametime."Clothed"in his royalty, thekingis
nevertheless nakedand thusexposedas a poorruler.
Thetaleofthedeceivedkingwhoseclothesbarehisbodytohissubjects
is representedverbally in termsofopposites.Clothedandnakednesshave
a negativerelation;theirverbalunityonlyhighlights theirhidden,essential
disunity.Thekingendsup wearingnothing becausehe willnotadmitthat
he sees nothing.Fearcovershis nuditywithnon-existent clothes.Fore-
sightforLucanoris to recognizehis potentialexposureand, by taking
Patronio'sadvice,"cover"himself.Themessageto CountLucanorand to
thereaderis thatforesight is to see thatnothingis nothingand thatthe
of
game secrecy reveals thevulnerability ofnotbeingsurewho oneis.
Conocerseis partand parcelofpowerforJuanManuel. Everyonemust
knowhisrolein societyin orderto fulfill his dutiesand,bylivingas one
should,gainsalvation.In thecaseofthenobility, knowinghowto govern
wellcomprises theirsocialrole:
Si uno es sefiory no se conocecomotalno cumplirA en los deberesde
su puesto . . . . Hay,pues,que conocersea si mismo,que es con-
ocerseseg~insu estadosocial,paraatenersea estey cumplircon los
deberesque a ellocorresponden. Toda la labordidaictica
del Infante
JuanManuelestAcondicionada porese conservadurismo socialde los
estamentos.14
In thecase oftheMoorishking,his courtand his subjects,none ofthem
trulyknewthemselvesand therefore theywereincapableoffulfillingthe
obligations of their social role. The Moorish king portrayedin tale 32
becamethebuttofa joke whichexposed thedisastrous
consequences ofnot
knowing oneself. Foresightand self-knowledgeare inextricablylinked:
neitherone is anythingwithoutthe other. In orderfora nobleman like
Lucanor to be preparedto protectand defendhis honorand estate,he must
firstknow himself. Without both elements,he cannot exercise power
correctlyor governwell.
Exemplarytale 50, about Saladin and the wife of one of his vassals,

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56 SouthCentral
Review

exploresthetheme ofself-knowledgeandservestoclosethefirst bookof


CondeLucanor.Theanalysisofthistaledemonstrates onceagainhow
foundations
ideological concerningsocialidentityinfluenceanddetermine
thenarrativestructureoftheConde Lucanor. In theframe story,a specific
socialproblem doesnotsparkLucanor's petition foradvice;instead,a
generaldesire
to protecthisestate motivates
(fazienda) hisentreaty.Lucanor
asksforsomething toshowhimhowtoactasheshouldinorder toprotect
thatestate.Lucanor demonstratesforesightbybeingawareandonguard;
helacksthenecessary self-knowledgetofulfillhisdutiesas dictatedbyhis
estate.
Patronioresponds toLucanor'spetitionsaying thatpeopledeceive them-
selvesaboutwho theyareand whattheyknowand thentellsCount
Lucanordirectly thatevenhe hasdeceived himself. Patroniosymbolizes
theestablished which
nobility educatesthenew,andhisindictment isclear:
thosewhohaveentered noble ranksthink too highly of themselves and
need to learntheirplace. He that
explains self-knowledgegained is
through theworksthatonedoesforGodandothers.Botharenecessary
sinceworksdoneinthenameofthisworldresult inthedamnation ofthe
doerinthenext, butwhilethosewhodo goodworksforGodchoosethe
betterpath,theyneglect thephysical worldandGodwantsgoodworks
donein bothworlds.Patronio's messageharksbackto thedifference
betweenricoshomes and homes ricosand theDominican philosophy of
orthodoxy. Those who have honor and livewithin estate
their (ricoshomes)
andfulfillthedutiesimposed uponthembytheir willsavetheir
position
butthosewhoonlyrealize
souls(besuccessful) goodworks forprofit(homes
will
ricos) be damned. By then,
extension, those who follow thepathof
religiousindividualism, likethatpostulated by theFranciscans, err.
Thoughthey arenot damned, theywill not be exalted.Only those who
practicebothreligiousandsocialorthodoxy do God'swillandwillreceive
theirrewards, material inboththisworldand thenext.
and spiritual,
According to Patronio,manythingsdetermine wisdom. Somepeople
appear to be learnedbut do nothave thecommon senseto maintaintheir
socialpositionwhileothershave thesenseto maintaintheirpositionbut
lacklearning.Thosewho,bythewordstheyuse,appeartobe educatedbut
cannotmaintaintheirhouseholdsare as foolishas thosewho keep their
estatesin orderbutareotherwise ignorant because,liketheMoorishking
in32,theydo notknowthemselves: theydo notknowtheirplace.Likewise
therearethosewho havebothlearningand commonsensebutuse them
forillpurposes.In Patronio'sviewtheseillpurposescauseotherstosuffer
because thosewho do good worksforselfishpurposesare dangerous.
Patronioagaincondemnsthosewho wishtoimprovetheirsocialposition
usingthelanguageofChristian Thoserichmenwhothrough
orthodoxy.
wealthchangedtheirstationdid so forselfishpurposesand arelikemad-
men with swords or evil princes with great power: they threatenthe
existing,divinelysanctionedsocial orderwithmundane anarchy.

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A. Grabowska
James 57

Patronio arguesthatthedegreeto whichone knowsoneselfcanbe


determined through anevaluation ofworks doneovera longperiodoftime
andanexamination ofhowtheseworks increase anddecrease one'sestate.
Only those who tracetheirnobilitythrough ancestors would be abletopass
sucha testbecause, forsuchanevaluation toapply, judgment would have
toberendered after an
observing appropriate manner oflivingover a long
periodoftime.Thiswouldexclude therecently titled whowereconceded
theirposition bythekingfora singleactandwho,untiltheconcession of
their wouldhavehadnorealfazienda
title, toloseorimprove. Patronio uses
theexample ofSaladintoprovide theanswer toLucanor's question ofhow
toknowhimself.
Patronio choosesa historical figureforhisfiction, onewhowasgreatly
admired bypeopleofthetime.15 Inthetale,Saladin, thesultanofBabylon,
findshimself forced,duetothesizeofhisretinue, tostayina vassal'shome
whiletraveling; whilethere hefallsinlovewiththevassal'sbeautiful wife.
According toPatronio, Satan,morepowerful thananyking, blindsSaladin
tohisresponsibilities as sultanandcompels himtolustafter thewifeof
another man.In anyevent, Saladin'sloveis so deepthathe searches out
an evilcounselor whoadviseshimtosendthevassalona mission so that
thekingwillbeabletohavewhathedesires. Thewifeofhisvassalrealizes
thatthelovethatthekingprofesses is nothonorable and asksthathe
answeronequestion beforehaving hiswaywithher.Saladinconsents so
sheasksthathetellherwhatthegreatest quality is thata manmayhave.
Saladin,at a loss,cannotimmediately respond andgoesin searchofthe
answer.
Afteraskinghiswisementono avail,thekingdisguises himself as a
jongleurandwithtwoothers goesinsearch oftheanswer tothewoman's
question.Patronio employs thejourney metaphor toillustrateSaladin's
searchforself.Thetextpoints tothefactthatthekingdisguises himself as
a minstrel his
during journey so that he will not be as a
recognized king.
Patronioreiteratesthisfactseveral times. Unliketheruseconceived bythe
kingin thefirst exemplary tale,no implication existsherethattheking
wishestoabandonhissocialposition orresponsibilities, although hedoes
sobyleavinghiskingdom tosearch fortheanswer tothequestion putto
him.Instead, thechange inclothing ispertinent sinceas a minstrel hecan
followhisquestwithout beingrecognized eitheras a socialdeviant oras
an unworthy ruler. Ironically,
Saladindoes not findthe answerin the
Pope'scourtinRome(moralauthority) orinthepalaceofthekingofFrance
orinthatofanyotherking(civilauthority),
andhethenchoosestocontinue
thesearchbecause,as Patroniosays,thetrulygreatmanfinishes whathe
has begun.
The king findshis answer in the home of an old, blind, but very wise
knightwho had served formany years under Saladin. This aged knight
reveals thatthe greatestvirtuea man can have is shame (vergienga).It is
because ofshamethata man dies and througha sense ofshamethathe does

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58 SouthCentral
Review

good and avoidsevil. According to theknight, shameis chiefamongall


virtues.Withthisknowledge, Saladin,no longerdisguisedas a minstrel,
returns tohiskingdomwherehissubjectsrejoiceand celebrate hisreturn.
Afterthecelebration, he callsforthewifeofthevassalwho,afterhearing
thesultan'sanswerto heroriginalquestion,poses another.The woman
asksthesultantoidentify thegreatest manintheworld.Saladinresponds
byindicating himself. She begs that he,thegreatest manin theworld,feel
shameforthewronghe wishesto do herandreleaseherfromthepromise
thatshehasmade. He demonstrates self-knowledge byrealizingtheerror
he hascommitted andbyabsolvingthewomanofherpromise, whereby the
taleendswiththeking,armedwiththeknowledgeofwhoheis,rewarding
thevassaland hiswifewithhonor.
Patronioclosestheframe, summarizing thetalebyoutlining thebenefits
one accrueswithshameandbytellingwhathappenstothosewhohaveno
shame. Boththosewithand thosewithoutshameperform works(fazer).
Lucanorbegantheframe byaskingforPatronio'sadviceso as tomaintain
hisfazienda, hispersonalwealth;fazertakeson thespecific meaningatthe
close of the frameof maintenance of estate. Thosewho perform works
becauseofshamedo good and aresuccessful.Those who perform works
withoutshamedo uglyand evilthings,and maybe successful.Patronio
does notsaythatthosewithoutshameareunsuccessful. Bothtypesmay
achievetheirdesiredends but those without shame will eventuallybe
punished.Theadviceistoknowyourself because byknowingyourself you
willrecognizeothersforwhattheyareand notwhattheypretendto be.
Suchrecognition allowsforself-protection againstthosewho attempt to
takewhatis not theirs.
Theframe storyrevealsthedesiredends:amassing andguarding personal
wealth.Theexemplary taledelineatesthemeans.Shame,dressedas Chris-
tianvirtuein thetaleofSaladin,becomesa guidingtoolforbehaviorand a
metaphorforprotecting whatone has fromthosewithoutshame,those
who, like the three trickstersin tale32,will takewealthfromunwitting
victims.Covarrubias uses a similaranalogyin hisdefinition ofvergaenEas.
He bases the definition on thesixteenth- and earlyseventeenth-century
usage ofvergenza,butthemoremodemdefinition aptlyappliesto what
Juan Manuel has been all
demonstrating along in his tales:
S
. algunos
ay desvergonqados queconmucha libertadpidenloque
se les . a loshombres
antoja honrados los
yvergonqosos, quales muchas
vezesnoosannegarlo que estostaleslespiden;yes lo mesmoque salir
a salteara un camino,porqueaunque lo pidan prestadono tienen
debolverlo.16
ainimo
withouteverintend-
Shamelesspeopletakewealthunderfalsepretenses
ingto return
it;theyrobthosewitha senseofshame.Givingtoshameless
people is allowing yourselfto be robbed,and those who have shame,but
give to the shameless,are foolish: "Avergongarseen valde, quando han

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JamesA. Grabowska 59

respondidoa estostalespidiendoalgunacosa,nescitis quidpetatis."17 The


Latinresponsealludesto thebiblicalstoryofthetwo apostleswho asked
tositatChrist's righthand.Jesus'sresponsewas,"Youknownotwhatyou
ask."18Christfurther explainedthatwhattheapostlesaskedwas nothisto
givebut belonged God. In the case oftheCondeLucanor,
to thosewith
shameareashamedinvainwhentheyrespondinan attitude ofsuperiority
sincewhattheyhaveis nottheirsto give;theydo notoccupya position
sufficientlypowerfulto be able to presumegreatness; theydo notknow
themselves.Whilethe Covarrubias is a sixteenth-century dictionary, the
analogy nevertheless appliesto thelatter part of theMiddle Ages as well.
The fourteenth-century socialsystemwas in a stateof evolution,and
thoseof noble birthwerescrambling to amassmorewealthin orderto
maintain theirpositionovertherisingpowersofthemerchants.19 Accord-
ing to thepremisesofEl CondeLucanor, thosewho have shamerecognize
themselves and all oftheimplications ofsuchrecognition, and theywork
to maintaina way oflifebefitting theirposition.Shameis knowinghow
muchyouhave andprotecting whatyouhavefromthosewhowouldtake
itfromyou.
Patronioconcludesthatthetrulyfoolisharethosewho have heardthis
particulartale of Saladin and the otherexemplary tales and have not
recognizedtheirworth.Thetrulyfoolishhavebeenoffended bywhathas
beensaid. Patroniorecognizes thattherearefoolishnoblesjustas thereare
shamelessonesandidentifies someofLucanor'scompanions as thesefools.
A good noblemanknowshimself and his estate,prepareshimself, and in
thatwaycaneffectively wieldpower.
Lucanorfindsthe lessonto be beneficial, as does the chronicler Juan
Manuel,whohas itincludedin thebookandwritesa verseto sumup the
message:"La vergiienqa todoslos malesparte;/porvergiienq a fazeomne
bien sin arte"';"Shame fightsevil,as it should,/Andmakesit easyto do
good"] (422). Shamepreventsbad thingsfromoccurring, and to have
shameis toknowoneself.Self-knowledge (tener in its
vergiienza) truesense
willpreventone frommakingthefatalmistakeofeitherdesiringtomove
fromone estateto anotheror allowingothersto takewhatyou have,the
malesoftheverse. Shame,whichis self-knowledge, will allowone to do
good unequivocally. To do good, it is not necessary to be quickofwitor
clever(arte).To do good,andtherefore is a
well, simpleand effective way
toprotect oneself.A noblemandoeswellwithinhisestatenotwithtrickery
butbyknowinghimself andprotecting hisposition.
Through cleverwords and wittystories, donJuanManuelsendsa simple
and directmessage:tobe a good governor is toincreaseyourestatewhile
keepingwhat you alreadyhave,but to do thisyou mustbe alertand
opportunistic,remainawareofyoursocialstatus,andhaveverglenza.
The maintenanceof power becomes the moralto each of the storiesand
Juan Manuel infuses both the structureand the story itselfwith this
politicizedversion of morality.Structurally,
JuanManuel blurs the lines

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60 South CentralReview

betweenhistoricized fiction andfictional realitybyusingbothfictional and


historical
characters withinthenarrative.In so doing,he strengthens the
veracityofthe talesto convince the reader oftheir worth in socialterms as
wellas theirapplication to contemporary medievalCastiliansociety.
ThemedievalSpanishestatesociety was a carefullyorganizedandorches-
tratedunitwhichdependedon itsmembers as thebody dependson its
parts.Eachmember had a rolewhichwas definedin termsofsoul,estate,
andhonorandwhichcouldneither be rejectednorchangedbutdepended
on each constituent to live withinhis estateand act accordingly.The
government ofsociety was determined bythisharmony ordiscordofaction
withinone's estate,and in orderforthe powerrelationships to work
"properly"orsuccessfully from theperspective ofdominant ideologies,one
neededtoimparttheappropriate knowledgeofhowtobehave. Don Juan
Manuelexhorts, "Sielpoderes grandpoder,el grandpoderha grandsaber"
(458).Whathasbeendemonstrated inthisinvestigation oftherelationships
ofrhetoricand poweris thatpowercannot be exercised correctly without
a presumedbasis of knowledge and wisdom based on the ideological
foundations offourteenth-century society.Thefifty exemplary talesin El
Conde Lucanor illustratethis and reinforce "politicallycorrect" powerrela-
tionshipsfifty times so that fourteenth-century Castilian societycould
operatesmoothly and could be carefully maintained accordingto thede-
siresofa small of
group historically powerful people likedonJuanManuel
or thefictional of
representative power, Count Lucanor. To divorcethe
framedscriptedtalesfromtheirhistorical age constitutes a dangerwhich
has onlybeen suggestedthroughout thisstudy.Theideologicalfounda-
tionsoftheexemplary talesmayhave a messageforreadersthroughout
but
time, they are most meaningful andpowerful whenunderstood interms
oftheirculture, society,and historical moment.

NOTES
in History1350-1400(London: Hutchinson & Company,
1. JanetColeman, EnglishLiterature
160.
1981),
2. To back myclaimsabout theideologicalfoundationsofpopularand institutionalized rhetoric
of power in the CondeLucanor,I have reliedon relatedstudiesof the historicalperiodduring
whichJuanManuel wrote,such as thoseby Valde6n Baruque,R. B. Tate and JoseLuis Martin.
Two authorswho make the linkbetween fourteenth-century Spanish historyand the fiction
ofJuanManuel throughideologyare JoseAntonioMaravall and Luciana de St6fano;both use
Juan Manuel's fictionalrepresentationsof social relationsto define the Spanish medieval
conceptionof societyand the roles and responsibilitiesof each of its members. The role of
historicalphenomena is also the focus of much of Maria Rosa Lida de Malkiel's research
especiallyas foundin the article,"Tres notas sobre don JuanManuel," Estudiosde literatura
de Buenos Aires,1966). Anotherarea
espaiiolaycomparada(Buenos Aires:Editorialuniversitaria
which has receivedmuch scholarlyexaminationis thatof the sources of the exemplarytales
employedin El CondeLucanor. Here I have availed myselfof studies such as those by Jos6
Manuel Blecua and Reinaldo Ayerbe-Chaux,the latterof whom exploresthe originsof the
exemplarytales in his El CondeLucanor- materialtradicional creadora(Madrid:
y originalidad

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JamesA. Grabowska 61

PorruaTuranzas,1975). Many studiesofthestructureofJuanManuel's worksbysuch scholars


as Kenneth Scholberg,Alan Deyermond,GermanOrduna,JohnEngland,Ermanno Caldera,
Ian MacPherson, Peter Dunn and most recentlyMarta Ana Diz and Anibal Biglierihave
provided interestinginsightsinto the organization,both structuraland linguistic,of Juan
Manuel's fiction.Whilenone oftheaforementioned studiesfocusspecifically on thesocio-his-
toricalfunctionof narrativestructurein relationto communicativecontentin the exemplary
tale, they do informmy model forstudyingthe ideological foundationsof Juan Manuel's
exempla.
All referencesto and citationsfromtheCondeLucanortextare based on don JuanManuel, El
CondeLucanorin ObrasCompletas, ed. Jos6Manuel Blecua (Madrid:Gredos,1983).
3. For a definitionofroyaland pastoralpower I have reliedon Michel Foucault's Afterwordin
Hubert L. Dreyfusand Paul Rabinow,MichelFoucault:BeyondStructuralism and Hermeneutics
(Chicago: The Universityof Chicago Press, 1982),222.
4. Don JuanManuel, El librodelcaballeroet delescudero,ed. don Pascual de Gayangos,Escritores
enprosaanteriores al sigloXV (Madrid:EdicionesAtlas,1952),13.
5. JulioValde6n Baruque, "Las tensionessociales en Castilla,"JuanManuel Studies,ed. Ian
Macpherson (London: Tamesis,1977),183.
6. Ibid.,184.
7. Withoutenteringthe debateas to theactual numberoftalesin thefirstbook or thequestion
of authorshipof tale51, likeBlecua in the Gredosedition,I will leave 51 out of mydiscussion,
although,likethe otherfifty tales,itfitsmyproposedmodelof analysis.
8. Anibal Biglieriprovides a synthesisof scholarshipon the functionof the framein the
exemplarytale especiallyin chapter4 ofHacia una poeticadel relatodiddctico: ochoestudiossobre
"El Conde Lucanor,"(Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and
Literatures,1989).
9. Maria Rosa Lida de Malkiel,"Tresnotassobredon JuanManuel,"Estudiosdeliteratura espaiiola
y comparada(Buenos Aires:Editorialuniversitariade Buenos Aires,1966),97.
10.JuanManuel, CondeLucanor,55-56.
11. Sebastian de Covarrubias,Tesorode la lenguacastellanao espafiola,ed. Martin de Riquer
(Barcelona:AltaFulla, 1989),688.
12.Ibid.
13.JoseAntonioMaravall,Estudiosdehistoria delpensamientoespaiiol(Madrid:Edicionescultura
hispAnica,1967),466-67.
14. Ibid.,460.
15. Blecua notes in the ClAsicosCastalia edition,don JuanManuel, El CondeLucanor,ed. Jos6
Manuel Blecua (Madrid:Clasicos Castalia,1985),thatSaladinwas YusufSalah al-dinwho ruled
Egyptand succeeded thefatimiesforthe caliphate. He participatedin the battlesagainst the
crusades forPalestineand ruledbetween 1160and 1194(257). The Kellerand KeatingEnglish
edition,JohnE. Kellerand L. ClarkKeating,TheBookofCountLucanorand Patronio(Lexington:
The UniversityPress ofKentucky,1977),notes themoregeneralmedievalfascinationwiththe
sultan.
16. Covarrubias,1002.
17.Ibid.
18.Matthew20: 20-22.
19.Valde6n Baruque developsthistopicfromvariousperspectives, but mostinteresting are the
supportbythe"thirdestate"ofthemonarchyand thedevelopmentof"Hermandades"(185-186).
See also JoshLuis Martin,La Peninsulaen la Edad Media (Barcelona: EditorialTeide,
1988),
478-482.
20. Kellerand Keating,BookofCountLucanor,188.

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