UNIT-I

Chapter-2
THE WELDING ARC
1. Definition of Welding Arc.
2. Structure and characteristics.
3. Arc efficiency.
4. Arc blow.
5. Electrical Characteristics of arc.
6. Types of Welding Arcs.
7. Mechanism of arc initiation and maintenance.
8. Role of electrode polarity on arc behaviour and arc stability.
9. Analysis of the arc.
10. Arc length regulation in mechanized welding processes.

1. Definition of Welding Arc:

 An arc is an electric discharge between two electrodes which takes place through

an electrically conducting hot ionised gas known as plasma.

 A welding arc is a high current low voltage electric discharge operating generally

in the range of 10 to 2000 amperes and at 10 to 50 volts.

An electric arc used for welding is called the welding arc and is usually between a thin rod

(or wire) and a plate it is therefore bell shaped, as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a).

Figure-2.1 Arc Characteristics

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Structure and Characteristics of Welding Arc:

A welding arc is a high current low voltage electric discharge operating generally in the

range of 10 to 2000 amperes and at 10 to 50 volts. In a welding circuit the arc acts as a

load resistor.

Broadly speaking the welding arc consists of a mechanism for emitting electrons from the

cathode which after passing through ionized hot gas merge into anode. For analysis, the

welding arc is usually divided into five parts viz. the cathode spot, the cathode drop zone,

the arc column, the anode drop zones and the anode spot. The voltage drops across the

cathode and the anode drop zones are quite steep while the voltage drop across the arc

column is more gradual, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b). From the figure it is evident that the arc

voltage (V) is a sum of the cathode drop (Vc),column drop (Vp)and the anode drop (Va).

It can thus be expressed as:

V = Vc + Vp + Va……. (2.1)

Though a welding arc is normally bell shaped but consderable fluctuation in its shape may

take place in those welding processes where the rod electrode (called just the electrode in

the rest of the text) is consumable, for example, in shielded metal arc welding and gas

metal arc welding. To have a comprehensive knowledge about the behaviour of a welding

arc it is essential to know the characteristics of its different zones.

The Cathode Spot:

It is that part of the negative electrode wherefrom the electrons are emitted. Three types

of cathode spot modes have been observed.

These are:

(a) Mobile cathode spot mode,

(b) The thermionic cathode spot mode, and

(c) The normal mode.

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In a mobile cathode spot mode one or more very small cathode spots appear at the

cathode surface and travel at a high speed of 5 to 10 m/sec, and usually leave behind a

visible trace. The behaviour of a mobile cathode spot is dependent on the material on

which it forms. For example, on aluminium multiple spots which generate complex series

of branched tracks are observed while on copper the trace left behind is commonly single

without any branches as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Mobile Cathode Spot

The oxide film on the surface of the metal is loosened by the movement of a mobile

cathode spot and sometimes a layer of the metal is also lost. This characteristic makes a

mobile cathode very important for use in industry particularly for welding aluminium and

magnesium. The current density in such a cathode spot is of the order of 102 to

103 A/mm2.

In the thermionic mode the cathode spot forms at the tip of a sharply pointed tungsten
or thoriated tungsten rod used with argon shielding. The cathode spot remains fixed in

position and has a current density of the order of 102 A/mm2. It is visible either as a bright

spot or can be located by the convergence of the arc column to a point at the cathode

surface.

In the normal mode the cathode spot does not form any well-defined spot. For example,

with a low carbon coated steel electrode the cathode spot appears to envelop the entire

molten tip of the electrode. A similar type of cathode spot is observed in gas tungsten arc
welding with argon’ shielded rounded tip tungsten electrode, as shown in Fig. 2.3.

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 Fig. 2.3 Normal Mode Cathode spot

Argon shielded tungsten arc operates either with the well-defined cathode spot of the

second type or ill-defined cathode spot of the third type and the volt-ampere characteristic

in the two cases are different.

Electron Emission Mechanisms:

Electron emission from the cathode can be by anyone of the several mechanisms such as

thermionic emission, auto-electronic or field emission, photo-electric emission, and

secondary emission.

a. Thermionic Emission:

It involves the liberation of electrons from the heated electrodes. As the temperature of

the electrode is raised, the kinetic energy of the free electrons increases to a point where

they can escape from the surface of the negative electrode at the cathode spot into the

field-free space outside in the face of attraction by the positive ions left behind on the

cathode.

The emission of electrons from the carbon and tungsten cathodes is believed to be

thermionic in character, but most other metals boil at temperatures well below that

required for thermionic emission.

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b. Auto-Electronic Emission:

This type of electron emission is produced by sufficiently strong electric field, that is when

the voltage across the electrodes is so high (of the order of 104 volts) that the air between

them is ionised under its influence and the electric discharge ensues with the emission of

electrons from the cathode surface.

c. Photo-Electric Emission:

It occurs when energy in the form of a beam of light falls on the cathode surface and

results in increased kinetic energy of electrons and thus results in their emission from the

cathode into vacuum or another material. Such a mechanism of electron emission is

utilised in generating X-rays.

d. Secondary Emission:

It refers to the emission of electrons under the impact of rapidly moving ions. When the

velocity of incident ions exceeds the orbital velocities of electrons in the atoms of the

material of the cathode it results in expulsion (or emission) of electrons.

In welding processes the electron emission is either of the thermionic type for example in

gas tungsten arc welding, plasma arc welding, and carbon arc welding or it is of auto-

emission type in conjunction with auxiliary means of ionising the air gap between the

electrode and the work-piece such as for shielded metal arc welding, submerged arc

welding and gas metal arc welding.

The emission of electrons from a cathode spot is dependent upon the excitation energy or

the work-function of a material which is defined as the energy required, in electron volts

(eV) or Joules, to get one electron released from the surface of the material to the

surrounding space. Ionisation potential, which is defined as the energy per unit charge in

volts, required to remove an electron from an atom to an infinite distance, also plays an

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important role in sustaining an electric discharge. Both the parameters for most of the

materials involved in welding are given in table 2.1.

Table-2.1 Electron Work function and Ionisation potential of Pure Metals (J.F. Lancaster)

The Cathode Drop Zone:

It is the gaseous region immediately adjacent to the cathode in which a sharp drop in

voltage occurs. The combined size of the cathode drop zone and the anode drop zone is of

the order of 10 2 mm which is nearly equal to the electron mean free path. The voltage

drop in the cathode drop zone for the argon shielded tungsten electrode has been found

to be about 8 volts at 100 amperes and it increases as the current decreases.

The Arc Column:

It is the bright visible portion of the arc and has a high temperature and a low potential

gradient. The temperature of the arc column depends upon the gases present in it and the

amount of welding current flowing in the circuit. Usually the column temperature varies

from 6000°C for iron vapours to about 20,000°C for argon shielded tungsten arc. At such

a high temperature all molecular gases present in the column get split into atomic form

and the atoms themselves are further dissociated into electrons and ions. However, the

number of electrons and ions in any given volume of the arc remains the same thus
keeping the arc electrically neutral.

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As the average ion is about one thousand times heavier than an electron therefore the

electrons are far more mobile and hence carry most of the current across the arc column.

The potential gradient in the column is lower than that across the cathode drop zone or

the anode drop zone and it generally varies between 0-5 to 5 volt/mm for argon shielded

tungsten arcs whereas for shielded metal arc welding it is normally around 1 volt/mm.

The welding arc is almost invariably between a rod or a wire electrode and a flat or wide

work-piece. This, irrespective of the electrode polarity, results in a bell or a cone shaped

arc with the apex of the cone at or near the tip of the rod electrode. Due to this constriction

of the arc near the rod electrode, it has the highest energy density there but because of the

cooling effect due to the proximity of the electrode the maximum temperature is at the

core of the column.

The region wherein the constricted column meets the electrode is called the arc root. The

temperature distribution in the arc column for a 200 ampere argon shielded tungsten arc

is shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Temperature distribution in an arc column

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The flow of current in the arc column results in the development of electromagnetic

forces. Now, it is also well known that two parallel conductors carrying current in the

same direction attract each other.

If the current is conducted by a gaseous cylinder it can be considered as consisting of a

large number of annular cylindrical conductors hence there is mutual attraction between

the different gaseous cylinders with all the forces acting inwards due to high current

density at the core of the conductor.

These constricting forces are balanced by a static pressure gradient established in the

gaseous conductor with zero pressure at the outer periphery and a maximum along the

axis.

However, in the present case, due to the cone shape of the arc the electromagnetic forces

acting on it have two components with the static pressure having the two opposing

components one of which is along the arc axis and is the cause of formation of plasma jet

that flows with a velocity of about 104 cm/sec towards the workpiece. The axial plasma

velocity decreases as the arc periphery is approached, as shown in Fig.2.5.

Fig.2.5 Plasma Jet Velocity Pattern at the cross section of an arc

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In a steady state the plasma jet has a streamline flow with the flow velocity approximately

proportional to the welding current. Fig. 2.6 shows the pattern of gas flow lines and

velocity lines in a 200A carbon arc. A considerable amount of heat energy is believed to

be conveyed to the workpiece through convective currents of plasma jet.

Fig. 2.6 Gas flow lines and plasma velocity line patterns in carbon arc welding

When the current flow in the arc is not symmetrical it results in the setting up of magnetic

forces which deflect the arc column. If this occurs in a welding arc it is known as arc blow

and often results in unseemly and misplaced welds.

The Anode and the Anode Drop Zone:

On reaching the anode the electrons lose their heat of condensation. However, unlike
cathode spot, it is rare to observe a well defined anode spot and the current density is also

low, as is shown in Fig. 2.7 for a 200A argon shielded tungsten cathode and copper plate

anode. The current carrying area of an anode is slightly smaller than the widest spread of

the arc at the anode end, and the mean current density is also quite low.

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 Fig. 2.7 Current distribution at the cathode

The voltage drop in the anode drop zone of this type of arc appears to b6 between 1 to 3

volts. The depth of anode drop zone is of the order of 10-2 to 10-1 mm. When the rod

electrode acts as the anode, then it occupies the lower hemi-sphere of the molten droplet

at the tip of the electrode. However, for low pressure plasma jet the anode appears to

envelop the molten droplet.

The total heat input at the anode is due to the condensation of the electrons as well as

conduction and convection due to the plasma jet In DC arc with non-consumable

electrode like that of tungsten or carbon, the anode heat is greater than the heat liberated

at the cathode as shown in Fig. 2.8.

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 Fig 2.8 Effect of Welding current on cathode and anode heats.

With the increase in welding arc length the arc voltage increases and, therefore, for

current above about 100A the heat input increases with increase in arc column particu-

larly for cathode spot mode as shown in Fig. 2.9. However, with the increase in column

length the column width also increases and that results in a still lower current density at

the anode and thus the anode becomes more diffused.

Fig. 2.9 Volt-Ampere Characteristics for Argon-shielded tungsten arc

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Arc Efficiency:

From the description of the characteristics of different parts of a welding arc, it is possible

to determine arc efficiency, mathematical treatment of which follows:

From equation 2.1 we have

….. 2.2

Now, the total heat energy developed at the anode, qa is given by the sum of the energy

received through the electrons and the energy gained by passing through the anode drop

zone, i.e.,

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 2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

Problem 1:

Find the arc efficiency for GTAW process if the welding current is 150 amperes and the

arc voltage 20 volts. Assume a cathode drop of 8 volts and anode drop of 3 volts with 30%

of the arc column energy being transferred to the anode. Take arc temperature as 15000K.
Work function, ɸ0for tungsten = 4.5 eV and Boltzmann’s constant = 8.62 x 10-5 eV/K.

Solution:
From eq. 2.2

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 From eq. 2.6

Problem 2:

In argon shielded tungsten arc welding the cathode drop was found to be 10 volts for a

welding current of 120 volts and an arc voltage of 18 volts. Determine (a) the arc length,

if the arc efficiency be 55% with an arc temperature of10000 Kelvin.

Assume column voltage drop is 1.2 volt I mm and that 20% of the heat of the column is

transferred to the anode.

(b) The arc efficiency if the same process parameters are applicable to GMAW process

and the wire electrode is made the anode.

Take work function for tungsten at OK = 4.5 eV and Boltzmann ‘s constant.
K = 8-60 x 105 eV K-1………………………………………………………………………….
Solution:

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 (a) From eq. 2.2 we have

From eq. 2.6 we have

(b) From eq. 2.6 we have

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Types of Welding Arcs:

From the welding point of view the arcs are of two types viz., immobile or stationary

or fixed arc and a mobile or moving or travelling arc. A fixed arc is formed

between a non-consumable electrode arid a workpiece. The arc may be used with or

without filler. In the former case a separate wire is introduced into the arc column and is

thus melted to transfer into the weld pool under the combined action of gravity,

electromagnetic forces and the mechanical force exerted the plasma jet. In a fixed arc

most of the heat going to the non- consumable electrode remains unutilised and in fact

may have to be taken away by the cooling water or the shielding gas. Thus, the thermal

efficiency of such an arc is low and may lie between 45 to 60%. This type of arc is observed

in carbon arc, gas tungsten arc and plasma arc welding processes.

A mobile arc is formed between a consumable electrode and a work- piece. As the filler

wire melts, the molten metal at the tip of the electrode is detached by the action of gravity,

electromagnetic forces, force exerted by the plasma jet and the pinch effect. However, a

retaining force due to the surface tension also acts on the droplet. As the electrode melts

the arc goes on moving upwards along the electrode. The mobile arc is associated with

processes like shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc

welding.

An arc in which the molten metal from the tip of the electrode is transported through it

to become a part of the weld pool is called a ‘metal-arc’. A mobile arc is a metal arc.

Most of the heat going to the electrode in the mobile arc is utilised for melting the metal

and thus used effectively. The thermal efficiency of the process, using a mobile arc, is

therefore high and normally lies between 75 to 90%. The welding processes using mobile

arc are, therefore, thermally more efficient than those using immobile or fixed arc.

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Role of Electrode Polarity in Arc Welding:

Arc welding can be carried out either by AC or DC. If AC is employed there is no question

of electrode polarity as it changes every half cycle. However, if DC is used it is possible to

make electrode either negative or positive.

More heat is produced at the anode therefore in all processes using non-consumable

electrodes it is better to connect the electrode to the negative terminal to keep the heat

losses to the minimum. However, it may not be always possible to do so because, at times,

the cleaning action of the mobile cathode spot needs to be utilised to release the tenacious

refractory oxide layer from the metal, for example, in welding aluminium and

magnesium.

In such cases it is preferable to use AC so as to make a compromise between thermal

efficiency and cleaning action. Thus, gas tungsten arc welding and carbon arc welding

processes normally employ AC power sources when leaning action on the work-piece is

necessarily needed. When such a compulsion is not there than DCEN may be used.

However, for shielded metal arc welding AC welding transformer is quite popular and at

the same time, for the same specifications, it is much cheaper than the DC welding motor-

generator set or transformer cum rectifier set required for obtaining DC supply. Also with

DC welding there is the changer of arc blow which can cause unseemly zig-zag weld of

poor quality.

Due to regular interruption of an AC arc it is not recommended when bare wire is used,

for example, in gas metal arc welding. However, for shielded metal arc welding

appropriate electrode coatings have been developed which facilitate easy initiation and

maintenance of the welding arc.

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When consumable electrode is used, the metal transfer from the wire electrode to the

work-piece is more uniform, frequent and better directed if the electrode is made the

positive. DCEP or reverse polarity is, therefore, popular with GMAW which also provides

necessary cleaning action on metals with tenacious oxide layer such as aluminium.

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