Paris Agreement under the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change

Parties
Signatories
Parties also covered by European Union ratification

Drafted 30 November – 12 December 2015

Signed 22 April 2016

Location New York

Sealed 12 December 2015

Effective 4 November 2016[1][2]

Condition Ratification/Accession by 55 UNFCCC

parties, accounting for 55% of global
greenhouse gas emissions

Signatories 195[1]

Parties 170[1](complete list)

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French,

Russian and Spanish

Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris), Paris climate accord or Paris climate agreement is an
agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing
with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020. The language of
the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 196 parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the
UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015.[3][4] As of November 2017, 195 UNFCCC
members have signed the agreement, and 170 have become party to it.[1] The Agreement aims to respond to
the global climate change threat by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius
above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees
Celsius.[5]
In the Paris Agreement, each country determines, plans and regularly reports its own contribution it should
make in order to mitigate global warming.[6] There is no mechanism to force[7] a country to set a specific target
by a specific date,[8] but each target should go beyond previously set targets.
In June 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump announced his intention to withdraw the United States from the
agreement, causing widespread condemnation both internationally and domestically. Under the agreement, the
earliest effective date of withdrawal for the U.S. is November 2020.
In July 2017, France’s environment minister Nicolas Hulot announced France’s five-year plan to ban all petrol
and diesel vehicles by 2040 as part of the Paris Agreement. Hulot also stated that France would no longer use
coal to produce electricity after 2022 and that up to €4 billion will be invested in boosting energy efficiency.[9]

Content[edit]
Aims[edit]
The aim of the convention is described in Article 2, "enhancing the implementation" of the UNFCCC through:[10]
"(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and
to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this
would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change;
(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and
low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production;
(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient
development."
Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible". The
agreement has been described as an incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment.[11][12]
The Paris deal is the world's first comprehensive climate agreement.[13]
Nationally determined contributions[edit]
Global carbon dioxide emissions by jurisdiction.

The contributions that each individual country should make in order to achieve the worldwide goal are
determined by all countries individually and called "nationally determined contributions" (NDCs). [6] Article 3
requires them to be "ambitious", "represent a progression over time" and set "with the view to achieving the
purpose of this Agreement". The contributions should be reported every five years and are to be registered by
the UNFCCC Secretariat.[14] Each further ambition should be more ambitious than the previous one, known as
the principle of 'progression'.[15] Countries can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions.
The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate Change
Conference serve—unless provided otherwise—as the initial Nationally determined contribution.
The level of NDCs set by each country[8] will set that country's targets. However the 'contributions' themselves
are not binding as a matter of international law, as they lack the specificity, normative character, or obligatory
language necessary to create binding norms.[16] Furthermore, there will be no mechanism to force[7] a country to
set a target in their NDC by a specific date and no enforcement if a set target in an NDC is not met. [8][17] There
will be only a "name and shame" system [18] or as János Pásztor, the U.N. assistant secretary-general on climate
change, told CBS News (US), a "name and encourage" plan.[19] As the agreement provides no consequences if
countries do not meet their commitments, consensus of this kind is fragile. A trickle of nations exiting the
agreement may trigger the withdrawal of more governments, bringing about a total collapse of the agreement. [20]
Effects on global temperature[edit]
The negotiators of the Agreement, however, stated that the NDCs and the 2 °C reduction target were
insufficient; instead, a 1.5 °C target is required, noting "with concern that the estimated aggregate greenhouse
gas emission levels in 2025 and 2030 resulting from the intended nationally determined contributions do not fall
within least-cost 2 °C scenarios but rather lead to a projected level of 55 gigatonnes in 2030", and recognizing
furthermore "that much greater emission reduction efforts will be required in order to hold the increase in the
global average temperature to below 2 °C by reducing emissions to 40 gigatonnes or to 1.5 °C".[21]
Although not the sustained temperatures over the long term which the Agreement addresses, in the first half of
2016 average temperatures were about 1.3 °C (2.3 degrees Fahrenheit) above the average in 1880, when
global record-keeping began.[22]
When the agreement achieved enough signatures to cross the threshold on 5 October 2016, US President
Barack Obama claimed that "Even if we meet every target ... we will only get to part of where we need to go."
He also said that "this agreement will help delay or avoid some of the worst consequences of climate change. It
will help other nations ratchet down their emissions over time, and set bolder targets as technology advances,
all under a strong system of transparency that allows each nation to evaluate the progress of all other
nations."[23][24]
Global stocktake[edit]

Map of cumulative per capita anthropogenic atmospheric CO2 emissions by country. Cumulative emissions include land
use change, and are measured between the years 1950 and 2000.

The global stocktake will kick off with a "facilitative dialogue" in 2018. At this convening, parties will evaluate
how their NDCs stack up to the nearer-term goal of peaking global emissions and the long-term goal of
achieving net zero emissions by the second half of this century. [25]
The implementation of the agreement by all member countries together will be evaluated every 5 years, with
the first evaluation in 2023. The outcome is to be used as input for new nationally determined contributions of
member states.[26] The stocktake will not be of contributions/achievements of individual countries but a collective
analysis of what has been achieved and what more needs to be done.
The stocktake works as part of the Paris Agreement's effort to create a "ratcheting up" of ambition in emissions
cuts. Because analysts have agreed that the current NDCs will not limit rising temperatures below 2 degrees
Celsius, the global stocktake reconvenes parties to assess how their new NDCs must evolve so that they
continually reflect a country's "highest possible ambition".[25]
While ratcheting up the ambition of NDCs is a major aim of the global stocktake, it assesses efforts beyond
mitigation. The 5 year reviews will also evaluate adaptation, climate finance provisions, and technology
development and transfer.[25]
Structure[edit]
The Paris Agreement has a 'bottom up' structure in contrast to most international environmental law treaties
which are 'top down', characterised by standards and targets set internationally, for states to
implement.[27] Unlike its predecessor, the Kyoto Protocol, which sets commitment targets that have legal force,
the Paris Agreement, with its emphasis on consensus-building, allows for voluntary and nationally determined
targets.[28] The specific climate goals are thus politically encouraged, rather than legally bound. Only the
processes governing the reporting and review of these goals are mandated under international law. This
structure is especially notable for the United States—because there are no legal mitigation or finance targets,
the agreement is considered an "executive agreement rather than a treaty". Because the UNFCCC treaty of
1992 received the consent of the Senate, this new agreement does not require further legislation from
Congress for it to take effect.[28]
Another key difference between the Paris Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol is their scopes. While the Kyoto
Protocol differentiated between Annex-1 and non-Annex-1 countries, this bifurcation is blurred in the Paris
Agreement, as all parties will be required to submit emissions reductions plans. [29] While the Paris Agreement
still emphasizes the principle of "Common but Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capabilities"—the
acknowledgement that different nations have different capacities and duties to climate action—it does not
provide a specific division between developed and developing nations.[29] It therefore appears that negotiators
will have to continue to deal with this issue in future negotiation rounds, even though the discussion on
differentiation may take on a new dynamic.[30]

Mitigation provisions and carbon markets[edit]

Article 6 has been flagged as containing some of the key provisions of the Paris Agreement. [31] Broadly, it
outlines the cooperative approaches that parties can take in achieving their nationally determined carbon
emissions reductions. In doing so, it helps establish the Paris Agreement as a framework for a global carbon
market.[32]
Linkage of trading systems and international transfer of mitigation outcomes (ITMOs) [edit]
Paragraphs 6.2 and 6.3 establish a framework to govern the international transfer of mitigation outcomes
(ITMOs). The Agreement recognizes the rights of Parties to use emissions reductions outside of their own
jurisdiction toward their NDC, in a system of carbon accounting and trading. [32]
This provision requires the "linkage" of various carbon emissions trading systems—because measured
emissions reductions must avoid "double counting", transferred mitigation outcomes must be recorded as a
gain of emission units for one party and a reduction of emission units for the other. [31] Because the NDCs, and
domestic carbon trading schemes, are heterogeneous, the ITMOs will provide a format for global linkage under
the auspices of the UNFCCC.[33] The provision thus also creates a pressure for countries to adopt emissions
management systems—if a country wants to use more cost-effective cooperative approaches to achieve their
NDCs, they will need to monitor carbon units for their economies. [34]
Sustainable Development Mechanism[edit]
Paragraphs 6.4-6.7 establish a mechanism "to contribute to the mitigation of greenhouse gases and support
sustainable development".[35] Though there is no specific name for the mechanism as yet, many Parties and
observers have informally coalesced around the name "Sustainable Development Mechanism" or
"SDM".[36][37] The SDM is considered to be the successor to the Clean Development Mechanism, a flexible
mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol, by which parties could collaboratively pursue emissions reductions for
their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions. The Sustainable Development Mechanism lays the
framework for the future of the Clean Development Mechanism post-Kyoto (in 2020).
In its basic aim, the SDM will largely resemble the Clean Development Mechanism, with the dual mission to 1.
contribute to global GHG emissions reductions and 2. support sustainable development.[38] Though the structure
and processes governing the SDM are not yet determined, certain similarities and differences from the Clean
Development Mechanism can already be seen. Notably, the SDM, unlike the Clean Development Mechanism,
will be available to all parties as opposed to only Annex-1 parties, making it much wider in scope.[39]
Since the Kyoto Protocol went into force, the Clean Development Mechanism has been criticized for failing to
produce either meaningful emissions reductions or sustainable development benefits in most instances.[40] It
has also suffered from the low price of Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs), creating less demand for
projects. These criticisms have motivated the recommendations of various stakeholders, who have provided
through working groups and reports, new elements they hope to see in SDM that will bolster its success. [33] The
specifics of the governance structure, project proposal modalities, and overall design are expected to come
during the next[when?] Conference of the Parties in Marrakesh.

Adaptation provisions[edit]
Adaptation issues garnered more focus in the formation of the Paris Agreement. Collective, long-term
adaptation goals are included in the Agreement, and countries must report on their adaptation actions, making
adaptation a parallel component of the agreement with mitigation.[41] The adaptation goals focus on enhancing
adaptive capacity, increasing resilience, and limiting vulnerability.[42]
Ensuring finance[edit]
See also: Green Climate Fund
At the Paris Conference in 2015 where the Agreement was negotiated, the developed countries reaffirmed the
commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in climate finance by 2020, and agreed to continue mobilizing
finance at the level of $100 billion a year until 2025.[43] The commitment refers to the pre-existing plan to provide
US$100 billion a year in aid to developing countries for actions on climate change adaptation and mitigation. [44]
Though both mitigation and adaptation require increased climate financing, adaptation has typically received
lower levels of support and has mobilised less action from the private sector. [41] A 2014 report by the OECD
found that just 16 percent of global finance was directed toward climate adaptation in 2014. [45] The Paris
Agreement called for a balance of climate finance between adaptation and mitigation, and specifically
underscoring the need to increase adaptation support for parties most vulnerable to the effects of climate
change, including Least Developed Countries and Small Island Developing States. The agreement also
reminds parties of the importance of public grants, because adaptation measures receive less investment from
the public sector.[41] John Kerry, as Secretary of State, announced that the U.S. would double its grant-based
adaptation finance by 2020.[28]
Some specific outcomes of the elevated attention to adaptation financing in Paris include the G7 countries'
announcement to provide US $420 million for Climate Risk Insurance, and the launching of a Climate Risk and
Early Warning Systems (CREWS) Initiative.[46] In early March 2016, the Obama administration gave a $500
million grant to the "Green Climate Fund" as "the first chunk of a $3 billion commitment made at the Paris
climate talks."[47][48][49] So far, the Green Climate Fund has now received over $10 billion in pledges. Notably, the
pledges come from developed nations like France, the US, and Japan, but also from developing countries such
as Mexico, Indonesia, and Vietnam.[28]
Loss and damage[edit]
A new issue that emerged[citation needed] as a focal point in the Paris negotiations rose from the fact that many of the
worst effects of climate change will be too severe or come too quickly to be avoided by adaptation measures.
The Paris Agreement specifically acknowledges the need to address loss and damage of this kind, and aims to
find appropriate responses.[50] It specifies that loss and damage can take various forms—both as immediate
impacts from extreme weather events, and slow onset impacts, such as the loss of land to sea-level rise for
low-lying islands.[28]
The push to address loss and damage as a distinct issue in the Paris Agreement came from the Alliance of
Small Island States and the Least Developed Countries, whose economies and livelihoods are most vulnerable
to the negative impacts of climate change.[28] Developed countries, however, worried that classifying the issue
as one separate and beyond adaptation measures would create yet another climate finance provision, or might
imply legal liability for catastrophic climate events.
In the end, all parties acknowledged the need for "averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage" but
notably, any mention of compensation or liability is excluded.[10] The agreement also adopts the Warsaw
International Mechanism for Loss and Damage, an institution that will attempt to address questions about how
to classify, address, and share responsibility for loss and damage. [50]

Enhanced transparency framework[edit]

While each Party's NDC is not legally binding, the Parties are legally bound to have their progress tracked by
technical expert review to assess achievement toward the NDC, and to determine ways to strengthen
ambition.[51] Article 13 of the Paris Agreement articulates an "enhanced transparency framework for action and
support" that establishes harmonized monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) requirements. Thus, both
developed and developing nations must report every two years on their mitigation efforts, and all parties will be
subject to both technical and peer review.[51]
Flexibility mechanisms[edit]
While the enhanced transparency framework is universal, along with the global stocktaking to occur every 5
years, the framework is meant to provide "built-in flexibility" to distinguish between developed and developing
countries' capacities. In conjunction with this, the Paris Agreement has provisions for an enhanced framework
for capacity building.[52] The agreement recognizes the varying circumstances of some countries, and
specifically notes that the technical expert review for each country consider that country's specific capacity for
reporting.[52] The agreement also develops a Capacity-Building Initiative for Transparency to assist developing
countries in building the necessary institutions and processes for complying with the transparency framework. [52]
There are several ways in which flexibility mechanisms can be incorporated into the enhanced transparency
framework. The scope, level of detail, or frequency of reporting may all be adjusted and tiered based on a
country's capacity. The requirement for in-country technical reviews could be lifted for some less developed or
small island developing countries. Ways to assess capacity include financial and human resources in a country
necessary for NDC review.[52]

Adoption[edit]
The Paris Agreement was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 (Earth Day) at a ceremony in New
York.[53] After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016, there were enough
countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world's greenhouse gases for the
agreement to enter into force.[54] The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016.[2]
Negotiations[edit]
Within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, legal instruments may be adopted to
reach the goals of the convention. For the period from 2008 to 2012, greenhouse gas reduction measures were
agreed in the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The scope of the protocol was extended until 2020 with the Doha
Amendment to that protocol in 2012.[55]
During the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference, the Durban Platform (and the Ad Hoc Working
Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action) was established with the aim to negotiate a legal
instrument governing climate change mitigation measures from 2020. The resulting agreement was to be
adopted in 2015.[56]
Adoption[edit]

Heads of delegations at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris.

Main article: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference

At the conclusion of COP 21 (the 21st meeting of the Conference of the Parties, which guides the Conference),
on 12 December 2015, the final wording of the Paris Agreement was adopted by consensus by all of the 195
UNFCCC participating member states and the European Union[3] to reduce emissions as part of the method for
reducing greenhouse gas. In the 12 page Agreement,[49] the members promised to reduce their carbon output
"as soon as possible" and to do their best to keep global warming "to well below 2 degrees C" [3.6 degrees
F].[57]
Signature and entry into force[edit]

Signing by John Kerry in United Nations General Assembly Hall for the United States
The Paris Agreement was open for signature by states and regional economic integration organizations that are
parties to the UNFCCC (the Convention) from 22 April 2016 to 21 April 2017 at the UN Headquarters in New
York.[58]
The agreement stated that it would enter into force (and thus become fully effective) only if 55 countries that
produce at least 55% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions (according to a list produced in 2015)[59] ratify,
accept, approve or accede to the agreement.[60][61] On 1 April 2016, the United States and China, which together
represent almost 40% of global emissions, issued a joint statement confirming that both countries would sign
the Paris Climate Agreement.[62][63] 175 Parties (174 states and the European Union) signed the agreement on
the first date it was open for signature.[53][64] On the same day, more than 20 countries issued a statement of
their intent to join as soon as possible with a view to joining in 2016. With ratification by the European Union,
the Agreement obtained enough parties to enter into effect as of 4 November 2016.
European Union and its member states[edit]
Both the EU and its member states are individually responsible for ratifying the Paris Agreement. A strong
preference was reported that the EU and its 28 member states deposit their instruments of ratification at the
same time to ensure that neither the EU nor its member states engage themselves to fulfilling obligations that
strictly belong to the other,[65] and there were fears that disagreement over each individual member state's
share of the EU-wide reduction target, as well as Britain's vote to leave the EU might delay the Paris
pact.[66] However, the European Parliament approved ratification of the Paris Agreement on 4 October
2016,[54] and the EU deposited its instruments of ratification on 5 October 2016, along with several individual EU
member states.[66]

Implementation[edit]
The process of translating the Paris Agreement into national agendas and implementation has started. One
example is the commitment of the least developed countries (LDCs). The LDC Renewable Energy and Energy
Efficiency Initiative for Sustainable Development, known as LDC REEEI, is set to bring sustainable, clean
energy to millions of energy-starved people in LDCs, facilitating improved energy access, the creation of jobs
and contributing to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. [67]
Per analysis from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) a carbon "budget" based upon total
carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere (versus the rate of annual emission) to limit global warming to
1.5°C was estimated to be was 2.25 trillion tonnes of overall emitted carbon dioxide from the period since 1870.
This number is a notable increase from the number estimated by the original Paris Climate accord estimates (of
around 2 trillion tonnes total) total carbon emission limit to meet the 1.5°C global warming target, a target that
would be met in the year 2020 at current rates of emission. Additionally, the annual emission of carbon is
estimated to be currently at 40 billion tonnes emitted per year. The revised IPCC budget for this was based
upon CMIP5 climate model. Estimate models using different base-years also provide other slightly adjusted
estimates of a carbon "budget".[68]

Parties and signatories[edit]

Main article: List of parties to the Paris Agreement
As of November 2017, 194 states and the European Union have signed the Agreement. 169 states and the EU,
representing more than 87% of global greenhouse gas emissions, have ratified or acceded to the Agreement,
including China, the United States (who is intent on leaving) and India, the countries with three of the four
largest greenhouse gas emissions of the UNFCC members total (about 42% together).[1][69][70]
Withdrawal from Agreement[edit]
Further information: United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement
Article 28 of the agreement enables parties to withdraw from the agreement after sending a withdrawal
notification to the depositary, but notice can be given no earlier than three years after the agreement goes into
force for the country. Withdrawal is effective one year after the depositary is notified. Alternatively, the
Agreement stipulates that withdrawal from the UNFCCC, under which the Paris Agreement was adopted, would
also withdraw the state from the Paris Agreement. The conditions for withdrawal from the UNFCCC are the
same as for the Paris Agreement. In the agreement no provisions for non compliance are stated.
On August 4, 2017, the Trump Administration delivered an official notice to the United Nations that the U.S.
intends to withdraw from the Paris Agreement as soon as it is legally eligible to do so.[71] The formal notice of
withdrawal cannot be submitted until the agreement is in force for 3 years for the US, in 2019. [72][73] In
accordance with Article 28, as the agreement entered into force in the United States on 4 November 2016, the
earliest possible effective withdrawal date for the United States is 4 November 2020. If it chooses to withdraw
by way of withdrawing from the UNFCCC, notice could be given immediately (the UNFCCC entered into force
for the US in 1994), and be effective one year later.

Concerns[edit]
Just not enough[edit]

Paris climate accord emission reduction targets and current real-life reductions offered
According to UNEP the emission cut targets in November 2016 will result in temperature rise by 3 °C above
preindustrial levels, far above the 2 °C of the Paris climate agreement.[74] Twenty years after the Kyoto Protocol
fossil fuels are still humanity's primary energy source and energy consumptioncontinues to grow.[75]
According to a study published in Nature in June 2016, current country pledges are insufficient to meet the
Paris Agreement goal of keeping global temperature rise "well below 2 °C". [76][77]
A study published in the August 1, 2017, Nature found that all major industrialized nations are failing to meet
the pledges they made in the Paris Agreement. In addition to failing to meet their reduction pledge amounts, the
countries are not even enacting all the policies that they planned to do in order to meet their pledged reduction
of CO2 output.[78]
Lack of binding enforcement mechanism[edit]
Although the agreement was lauded by many, including French President François Hollande and UN Secretary
General Ban Ki-moon,[61] criticism has also surfaced. For example, James Hansen, a former NASA scientist and
a climate change expert, voiced anger that most of the agreement consists of "promises" or aims and not firm
commitments.[79] He called the Paris talks a fraud with 'no action, just promises' and feels that only an across
the board tax on CO2 emissions, something not part of the Paris Agreement, would force CO2 emissions down
fast enough to avoid the worst effects of global warming.[79]
Institutional asset owners associations and think-tanks have also observed that the stated objectives of the
Paris Agreement are implicitly "predicated upon an assumption – that member states of the United Nations,
including high polluters such as China, the US, India, Japan, Brazil, Canada, Russia, Indonesia and Australia,
which generate more than half the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, will somehow drive down their carbon
pollution voluntarily and assiduously without any binding enforcement mechanism to measure and control
CO2 emissions at any level from factory to state, and without any specific penalty gradation or fiscal pressure
(for example a carbon tax) to discourage bad behaviour."[80]
Limited government role[edit]
World Pensions Council Director-General Nicolas J. Firzli insisted that, in reality, the role of government
signatories would be limited in most instances, and that private sector asset owners would take the lead by
expanding massively their investment in "clean tech, low-carbon ventures" and innovative companies which
pursue socially and environmentally sound corporate strategies, regardless of whether the new US
administration or other governments renege on their commitments.[80]
The inevitable nature of the secular trend towards divestment from polluting fossil fuels was reconfirmed at 6th
annual World Pensions Forum held in Greenwich in February 2017, with all institutional investors in attendance,
including U.S. and Canadian pension funds, agreeing that climate-change conscious, responsible investments
"constitute a [real, ] rising trend: [they’re] here to stay". [81]