MICHAEL ANGELO M.
VALDEZ | STEM-11 about the nature of objects and persons, (3) for
ASSIGNMENT IN
PRACTICAL RESEARCH
KINDS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
 There are four kinds of research designs. These
designs are: (1) historical, (2) descriptive, (3)
experimental, and (4) case study. In historical
design, the study is focused in the past (what
was); in descriptive design, the study is focused
in the present condition (what is); experimental
design, is on the future (what will be); and case
study design, is for the put, present, and future.
Historical Design
 Nevins (1978) defines history as "any integrated
narrative or descriptive past events or facts
written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the whole
truth. Biblical research is an example of Nevins'
definition of historical research.
 In l976, Funk and Wagnalls give the meaning of
history as "branch of knowledge concerned with
past events, especially those involving human
affairs.
 On the other hand, Good and Scates (1972)
defined history as the "search for knowledge and
the truth."
 In other words, historical research is a scientific
critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events
using the critical method in the understanding
and interpretation of facts which are applicable
to current issues and problem.
 Historical research is both science and art. It is
scientific and the narration thereof is an art.
History differs from the natural/ sciences
because it is based upon the reports of
observations which cannot be repeated,
althou11h similar events may occur. Unlike in
natural science, it is based on experimentation.
Descriptive Design
 In descriptive design, the study focus at the
present condition. The purpose is to find new
truth. The truth may have different forma such aa
increased quantity of knowledge, a new
generalization or a new "law”, an increased
insight into factors which are operating, the
discovery of a new caU$81 relationship, a more
accurate formulation of the problem to be
evolved, and many others.
 Descriptive researches are valuable in: (1)
providing facts on which scientific judgments
may be based, (2) providing essential knowledge
closer observation into the practices, behavior,
methods and procedures, (4) playing a large part
in the development of instruments for the
measurement of many things, (Instruments that
are employed in all types of descriptive research
as data-gathering instruments are
questionnaires, tests, interviews, checklists,
score cards, rating scales, and observation
schedules), and (5) Formulating of policies in the
local, national, or international level.
Experimental Design
 Experimental design is a problem-solving
approach that the study is described in the future
on what will be when variables are carefully
controlled or manipulated. Experimental design
can be a basic, applied, or developmental
research. This type of research involves the
7Ms, namely: manpower (competent), money,
methods, materials, machinery, moment of time,
and marketing.
 Experimental research is given priority by
research institutions in giving of research grants-
in-aid because research outputs can be
converted into SMEs (Small and Medium
Enterprises), thus, help housewives, rural folks,
out-of-school youths, unemployed adults and
graduates augment their income, alleviate
poverty, and improve their quality of life. More
so, it helps the austerity measures of the
Philippines.
 Experimental design has distinct limitations
when used in the fields of education, sociology,
and psychology.
 Even if the experiment is conducted in the field
or laboratory, it is expected to reveal cause and
effect relationships. The problem is to know the
conditions under which an event occurs and to
observe the whole transaction closely so that
one can be reasonably sure that causation is
present.
 To conduct an experiment means to try in order
to see what happens. In other words, in an
experiment, it involves trial-and-error method
until the result is successful.
 Experimental design is a research wherein a
researcher manipulates and controls one or
more independent variables for variation
concomitant to the manipulation of the
dependent variable.
 Experimental design is the most prestigious
method for advancing Science and Technology
as well as Research and Development because
it is production-oriented. This is the only design
wherein invest - harvest principle can be
 attained. In other words, if a researcher invests
or gain money from research, he is likely to
harvest or gain money from his research outputs.
Hence, his research output be sold commercially
to have return of investment (ROI) so that the
research budget will not be exhausted; more so,
help the economic recovery and austerity
measures of the Philippines.
Case Study Design
 A case study design is a problem solving
technique wherein the study is described from
the past, present, and future. Some writers
categorize this under the descriptive method. But
it is more distinct if this technique is placed in
another design which is independent from the
other.
 Case study design is an intensive investigation
of a particular individual, institution, community,
or any group considered as a unit which includes
the developmental, adjustment, remedial, or
corrective procedure that suitably follows the
diagnose of the causes of maladjustment or of
favorable development.
 This design is usually applied by guidance
counselors, midwives, nurses, physicians,
psychologists, and educators.
 The case study method is not only limited to
conditions of maladjustment such as behavior
problem, underprivileged community,
substandard institutions, but also to normal or
well-adjusted individuals, well-organized
communities, or school which aid in
understanding the normal situation or well-
adjusted condition.
USES OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
The uses of historical research are as follows:
1. Historical research is useful in searching through
the past for solutions to contemporary problems
and needs;
2. It is used to throw light on the present;
3. It gives people a sense of continuity of the past
to the present;
4. It enables the communities to grasp their
relationship with the past to the current issues;
and ·
5. It chronicles events of enduring worth which
confer upon the individual consciousness of
unity and the feeling of importance of human
achievement.
SOURCES OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
 There are two sources of historical research.
These are: (1) primary sources, and (2)
secondary sources
Primary Sources
There are two major primary sources of historical
research. These are: (1) documents, and (2)
remains.
1. Documents. These include school directives,
court decisions, executive and other official
records, personal materials, newspapers and
periodical.
Examples of school directives are orders,
memoranda, circulars, constitution, laws, and
charters.
Executive and other official records are
proceedings of administrative officers and
bodies, reports of school surveys, annual
reports, and courses of study, course
syllabi/outlines, catalogues, and prospectuses.
Personal materials include autobiographies,
biographies, legal instruments executed by
individuals such as contracts, wills, and deeds.
2. Remains. These include the physical plant,
equipment, apparatus, teaching aids and
devices, picture of buildings or furnishing, forma
of diplomas and certificates, textbooks and
reference books.
Secondary Sources
 The secondary sources are histories of
education, bibliographies, encyclopedia and
many others.
 In some historical studies, it is necessary start
with secondary sources if primary sources are
not yet available. For instance, in making up a
list of old Mathematics textbooks, encyclopedia,
available articles and bibliographies on the
subject which are secondary sources may be
needed aside from other Mathematics textbook
as primary sources
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
 There are nine types of descriptive research.
These are (1) descriptive-survey, (2) descriptive-
normative, (3) descriptive-statue, (4) descriptive-
analysis, (5) descriptive-classification, (6)
descriptive-evaluative, (7) descriptive-
comparative, (8) correlational survey, and (9)
longitudinal survey.
1. Descriptive-survey. This type is suitable
wherever the subjects vary among themselves
and one is interested to know the extent to which
different conditions and situations are obtained
among these subjects. The word survey signifies
the gathering of data regarding present
conditions. A survey is useful in: (1) providing the
 value of facts, and (2) focusing attention on the
most important thing to be reported.
From the data gathered, the researcher
tabulates, analyses, and interprets the data,
then, he proves that the facts gathered are of
value to the researcher in particular and to the
subjects in general.
In descriptive-surveys, it is necessary to
determine the psychological and social aspects
of research by way of application or
implementation of evidence to recognize
between facts and influence. The data from a
descriptive-survey when used as basis for
inferences that may aid in solving practical
problems, is of value to the researcher rather
than the principles and laws applied in
conducting an experiment in the laboratory.
2. Descriptive normative survey. Good and
Scates (1972) stressed “the term normative is
sometimes used because surveys are frequently
made to ascertain the normal or typical condition
for practice, or to compare local test results with
a state or national norm.”
In descriptive –normative survey, the results
and findings of the study should be compares
with the norm.
3. Descriptive-status. This approach to problem-
solving seeks to answer questions to real facts
relating to existing conditions. This is a technique
of quantitative description which determines the
prevailing conditions in a group of cases chosen
for study.
Several descriptive-status studies stress
current conditions with the assumptions that
things will change. They cover many traits or
characteristics of the group.
4. Descriptive-analysis. This method determines
or describes the nature of an object by
separating it into parts. Its purpose is to discover
the nature of things.
In chemistry, descriptive analysis means the
determination of the kind, quantity, and
proportions of constituents forming a compound
or substances.
In other words, the researcher should
determine the composition, structure,
substructure that occur as units within larger
structure. He also determines the individual parts
and units integrated into an internal system. He
should consider the forces that hold them
together, and the strains that tend to destroy the
system apart. He analyzes on what on what
makes the system work and regulate.
5. Descriptive-classification. This method is
employed in natural sciences subjects, namely:
Biology, Botany, Zoology, Phycology,
Ichthyology, Conchology and the likes. The
specimens are classified from phylum to
species.
6. Descriptive-evaluative. This design is to
appraise carefully the worthiness of the current
study.
7. Descriptive-comparative. This is a design
where the researcher considers two variables
(not manipulated) and establishes a formal
procedure to compare that one is better that the
other.
8. Correlational survey. This is designed to
determine the relationship of two variables (X
and Y) whether the relationship is perfect, very
high, high, marked or moderate, slight or
negligible.
Perfect positive correlational value of 1.0
seldom happen, same with perfect negative
correlation. In perfect correlation, all the
individual performance in X and Y have same
positions. In perfect negative correlation, all the
individual performances in X and Y have
opposite positions.
9. Longitudinal survey. This involves much time
allotted for investigation of the same subjects of
two or more points in time.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. Single-group design. This design involves a
single treatment with two or more levels.
2. Two-group design. In this design, two
comparable groups are employed as
experimental and control groups or two
comparable groups are both experimental
groups.
3. Two-pair group design. This design is an
elaboration of the two-group design wherein
there are two control groups and two
experimental groups.
4. Parallel-group design. This is a design in which
two or more groups are used as the time with
only a single variable (control group)
manipulated or changed. The experimental
group varies while the parallel group serves as
control for comparative purposes.
5. Counterbalanced or Latin square design. This
design is also called “rotation design.” It involves
an exchange of two or more treatments taken by
the subjects during an experiment. The
arrangement employed in the design is Latin
square in which each variable is a form of square
occurring once in each roe or column. This is
also called quasi-experimental design.”
6. Complete Randomized Design (CRD). This is
a design in which a group of test plants or
animals is studied only once but subsequent
 treatment is applied to determine the cause of
change. There is no control in this design but the
subjects will undergo randomization procedures.
7. Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBDJ). This experimental design uses a
group of test planta and animals as subjects of
the study which are studied once but subsequent
treatments applied are replicated to determine
the cause of change. There is control in this
design and the subjects will undergo
randomization process.
8. Correlational design. This experimental design
is used to determine the relationship of two
dependent variables, X and Y, on how they are
manipulated by the independent variable.
9. Pre-test-Post-test design. This design involves
the experimental group and the control group
which are carefully selected through
randomization procedures. Both groups are
given pretest at the beginning of the semester
and posttest at the end of the semester. But the
control group is isolated from all experimental
influences.
SAMPLING
 Sampling is applicable if the population of the
study is too large especially the 7Ms -
manpower, money, materials, machinery,
methods, moment, and marketing of the
researcher - are limited. It is advantageous for
him to use sample survey for it is economical
rather than total population.
 However, the use of total population is advisable
if the number of subjects is less than 100. The
population is equal to or more than 100, it is
advisable to get the sample in order to be
effective, efficient and economical in gathering
data, provided however, that the sample is a
representative cross-section of the population
and is scientifically selected.
 Sampling may be defined as the method of
getting a representative portion of a population.
The term, population, is the aggregate or total of
objects, persons, families, species, or orders of
plants or animals.
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
The advantages of sampling are as follows:
1. It saves time, money, and effort. The
researcher can save time, money, and effort
because the number of subjects involved is
small. With only a small number of subjects to be
collected, tabulated, presented, analyzed and
interpreted, the use of sample gives a
comprehensive information of the results of the
study.
2. It is more effective. Sampling is more effective
if every individual of the population without bias
has an equal chance of being included in the
sample and data are scientifically collected,
analyzed, and interpreted.
3. It is faster, cheaper, and economical. Since
sample is only "drop in a bucket," the collection,
tabulation, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data are rapid and less
expensive due to small number of subjects and
few copies of the questionnaires are used.
DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
 By and large, there are researchers who have no
idea in determining the sample size scientifically
in a given population especially if population is
large, for instance 100 or more. They arbitrarily
choose the majority criterion (50 percent plus
one) as sufficient sample for their study. Others
may choose a proportion lesser or greater than
the majority criterion or 51% of the population
and some may use percentage. But these ideas
are not scientifically-oriented.
 As mentioned, sampling is advisable if the
population is equal to or more than 100. It is not
applicable if population less than 100. The use
of total population is advisable if population is
less than 100 due to categorization. It is
necessary to have a larger number in each
categorization of samples to arrive at reliable
results.
 The following formula is presented to have a
scientific determination:
𝑁𝑉 + [𝑆𝑒 2 (1 − 𝑝)]
𝑆𝑠 =
𝑁𝑆𝑒 + [𝑉 2 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)]
Where:
Ss = sample size
N = total number of population
V = standard value (2.58) at 1 percent
level of probability with 0.99 reliability
Se = sampling error (0.01)
p = largest possible proportion (0.50)
 For an illustration of formula, the steps are as
follows:
Step 1. Determine the total population (N) as
assumed subjects of the study.
Step 2. Get the value of V (2.58), Se (0.01),
and p (0.50).
Step 3. Compute the sample size using
formula.
SAMPLING DESIGNS
 Generally, there are two kinds of sampling
designs. These are (1) scientific sampling, and
 (2) non-scientific sampling. In scientific
sampling, each member in the population is
given an equal chance being included in the
sample. In non-scientific sampling, not all of the
members in the population are given an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
Scientific Sampling
 There are six types of scientific sampling design,
namely: (1) restricted random sampling; (2)
unrestricted random sampling; (3) stratified
random sampling; (4) systematic sampling; (5)
multistage sampling; and (6) cluster sampling.
1. Restricted Random Sampling. This type of
sampling design involves certain restrictions
intended to improve the validity of the sample.
However, the design le applicable only when
the population being investigated is
homogeneous. Restricted random samples
drawn from a homogeneous population are likely
to arrive at accurate values of the population
characteristics.
2. Unrestricted random sampling. This is the
best random sampling design due to no
restrictions imposed, and every member in the
population has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample.
Restricted or unrestricted random sampling
is chosen by using either of the two techniques,
namely: lottery, or table of random numbers.
In lottery technique, each individual in the
population is assigned a number which is written
on a piece of paper. The pieces of papers are
rolled and placed in a box and mixed thoroughly.
The rolled papers are drawn from the box one at
a time. This technique is useful when the
population is small.
In table of random numbers, it consists of
digits so selected that no systematic relation
exists between any sequence of digits in the
table, regardless of whether the table is read
vertically, horizontally, right or left, or in any other
way. To draw a sample by using a table of
random numbers, a· technique must be used for
assigning a number to each individual in the
population. Moreover, table of random numbers
technique is applicable to a large number of
population.
3. Stratified Random Sampling. This type of
design divides first the population into two or
more strata. For each stratum, the sample items
are drawn at random.
4. Systematic sampling. In this type of design the
individuals in the population are arranged in a
methodical manner, for instance, alphabetical or
chronological (age, experience or academic
rank), and the 11th name may be selected in the
construction of the sample.
5. Multistage sampling. This design is done in
several stages. It can be two-stage, three-stage,
four-stage, five-stage, and many others
depending on the number of sampling to be
used. In this design the population individuals
are grouped into a hierarchy of units, and
sampling is done consecutively.
6. Cluster Sampling. In this type of scientific
sampling design, the population is grouped into
clusters or small units. For instance, blocks or
districts, in a municipality or city composed of
population individuals and are selected either by
random sampling or systematic sampling. This
design is advantageous when individuals in the
blocks or districts belong to heterogeneous
group.
Non-Scientific Sampling
 In nonscientific sampling, not all of the
individuals in a population are given equal
chance of beiog included as sample, hence,
subjectivity occurs.
 There are three types of nonscientific sampling,
namely: (1) purposive sampling, (2) incidental
sampling, and (3) quota sampling.
1. Purposive Sampling. This type of nonscientific
sampling is based on selecting the individuals as
samples according to the purposes of the
researcher as his controls. An individual is
selected as part of the sample due to good
evidence that be is a representative of the total
population.
Generally speaking, statisticians do not use
this type of sampling design because not all of
the individuals are given equal chance to be
included in the sample since the criteria are
based on the purposes of the investigator.
2. Accidental Sampling. This type of sampling
design is "applied to those samples which are
taken because they are the most available."
(Guilford and Fruchter, 1973). The investigator
simply takes the nearest individuals as subjects
of the study until the sample reaches the desired
size.
3. Quota Sampling. This type of design is popular
in the field of opinion research because it is done
by merely looking for individuals with the
requisite characteristics. The sampling
technique is usually prepared by the main office
with instructions to the field researchers to
gather data from samples that meet the
prescribed criteria or characteristics.