Okavango Delta Management Plan: Hydrology and Water Resources

Government of Kingdom of Denmark Government of Republic of Botswana
Ministry of Foreign Affairs National Conservation and Strategy Agency

Danida Department of Water Affairs (DWA)
Ref No: 104.Botswana.1.MFS.8 Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre
Okavango Delta Management Plan

Hydrology and Water Resources
Recommendations for
Improved Hydrologic Monitoring
May 2004
Scanagri Denmark A/S

DHI Water and Environment
Hedeselskabet
CSIR
Liebenberg and Stander
Engineering Hydrological and Environmental Services
Okavango Delta Management Plan Hydrology and Water Resources
Table of Contents
1 Introduction............................................................................................................1
2 DWA Monitoring Programme and Context for ODMP.....................................2
3 Important Features in Monitoring Design...........................................................3
3.1 Hydrological and biophysical processes......................................................................... 3
3.2 Experience and lessons learnt from previous monitoring attempts ................................ 6
4 Monitoring Programme Objectives......................................................................8
5 Overview of Existing Monitoring Network .........................................................9
6 Assessment of Surface Hydrology Monitoring ..................................................10
6.1 Network status .............................................................................................................. 10
6.1.1 Water level measurements...................................................................................... 12
6.1.2 Discharge measurements ........................................................................................ 13
6.2 Dataflow, databases and data availability..................................................................... 13
6.3 Proposal for upgrading and rehabilitation .................................................................... 14
7 Assessment of Sediment Transport Monitoring................................................21
7.1 Existing monitoring ...................................................................................................... 21
7.2 Proposal for sediment transport monitoring ................................................................. 21
7.2.1 One year initial study at Mohembo ........................................................................ 21
7.2.2 Horizontal distribution and assessment of riverbed material.................................. 22
8 Assessment of Groundwater Hydrology and Water Quality Monitoring ......23
8.1 Monitoring network status............................................................................................ 23
8.2 Dataflow, databases and data availability..................................................................... 24
8.3 Proposal for groundwater monitoring........................................................................... 25
8.3.1 Delta peripheral monitoring holes .......................................................................... 25
8.3.2 Delta monitoring holes ........................................................................................... 27
8.3.3 Sedimentology ........................................................................................................ 29
8.3.4 Discussion............................................................................................................... 29
8.3.5 Costing for drills..................................................................................................... 30
8.4 Implementation ............................................................................................................. 30
9 Assessment of Water Quality Monitoring .........................................................32
9.1 Existing monitoring and assessments ........................................................................... 32
9.2 Need for Water Quality Monitoring ............................................................................. 33
9.3 Proposal for Water Quality Monitoring........................................................................ 34
Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring i

10 Assessment of Hydroclimatic Monitoring..........................................................38

10.1 Network status ............................................................................................................. 38
10.2 Proposal for upgrading and rehabilitation.................................................................... 38
11 Remote Sensing supporting Hydrologic Monitoring ........................................40
12 Cost Estimate........................................................................................................41
13 Implementation Strategy .....................................................................................43
13.1 Formation of task force................................................................................................ 43
13.2 Specification, final site selection and equipment procurement.................................... 44
13.3 Installation, operation and training .............................................................................. 45
13.4 Data dissemination....................................................................................................... 46
13.5 Timing and work schedule........................................................................................... 46
14 Summary and Recommendations.......................................................................48
15 References .............................................................................................................54
Appendix
1 Discharge at Mohembo and Boro Junction and Precipitation.
2 Water level observations at selected stations.
3 Existing discharge measurement sites.
4 Existing water level measurement sites.
5 Existing precipitation measurement sites.
6 Existing sites where Data Collection Platforms (type STS) are installed.
7 Potential upgrade sites for automatic water level data loggers and precipitation gauges.
8 Surface water stations, tentative list.
9 Recommendations to upgrade the surface water monitoring network
10 Proposal and cost estimate for a monitoring/piezometer drilling programme using EUREKA
porta-rig
11 Planned methodology for groundwater recharge monitoring (Piezometry)
Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring ii

1 Introduction
This working paper contains a review of existing monitoring within hydrology and
reommendations on improving the data collection and data management of hydrology and water
quality in the Okavango Delta in the context of the Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP).
The review and recommendations are made as part of the DANIDA supported assistance to the
Department of Water Affairs (DWA) under the umbrella of the ODMP.
The paper was prepared in September/October 2003 and a first draft distributed to the
Hydrology and Water Resources Technical Committee under the ODMP in November 2003.
The Committee met on 30th January 2004 to discuss the findings and the further approach to
embarking on the implementation phase. Reflections on the comprehensive process and
valuable information were received enabling a refinement of the recommendations for final
approval in May 2004.
This working paper is prepared by Steen Øgaard Dahl and Ole Smith both members of the
project team (Hedeselskabet – DDH Consulting) based on information and support from the
DWA staff in Gaborone and Maun. Background information on groundwater has been gathered
by national consultants Israel Mabua and Margaret Joan MacFarlane, who have also assisted in
drafting the conceptual approach in improved groundwater monitoring (included in Chapter 8
and Appendicws 10 and 11). The national consultant Francis Sefe has compiled and evaluated
the hydrology data, and participated in discussions on surface water monitoring.
Recommendations for Improved Monitoring 1

2 DWA Monitoring Programme and Context for ODMP

Water is the lifeline to the Okavango Delta. Data on hydrologic and climatic parameters are
essential to assess the functionality and long term trends in the delta and the wise use of the
wetland and surrounding area, all part of the 65,000 km2 Ramsar site.
As the responsible agency for national water resources planning and development, the
Department of Water Affairs (DWA) has an important obligation to provide reliable,
comprehensive and systematic information of the hydrology essential for the Okavango Delta
Management Plan (ODMP). The review of the existing monitoring programme and proposals
for upgrading the programme within the DWA shall be seen in this context.
The monitoring programme can also contribute to the OKACOM investigations (Permanent
Okavango River Basin Water Commission) to accommodate the legitimate water needs in the
entire catchment in a sustainable manner.
The review of the monitoring programme has focused on ways to establish long term data series
of relevant parameters and further improve the existing monitoring carried out by DWA.
Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 2

3 Important Features in Monitoring Design

Consideration and design of any monitoring programme shall take its offset in the function and
key processes in the hydrologic dynamics and the interference to the ecosystem (time wise and
spatial variation) with due consideration of the likely human impacts.
It is not the intention to make a comprehensive overview of the perception of the delta functions
from the numerous authors and researchers who have studied the complex interactions in the
delta but a few key features have to be kept in mind in the monitoring design. These are
summarised in this section of the report.
3.1 Hydrological and biophysical processes

The catchment area of the Okavango River is part of the Makgadikgadi Basin. The basin can be
subdivided into several sub-catchments and depression pans that seldom have direct hydraulic
contact with one and another (Turton, 2003). The Boteti river catchment directs occasional
outflows (seldom and irregular in recent times) of the delta to the Makgadikgadi Pans. The
Magwagqana spillway may during very high floods conduct water towards the Kwando-
Linyanti and Chobe river system, which forms part of the Zambezi River. Thus at times the
Okavango River is interlinked with the Zambezi River basin.
A sketch of the delta area and temporary outflow pathways are depicted in figure 3.1 and key
data on the catchment areas are summarised in Table 3.1.
Catchment area Size
Okavango River catchment area upstream of the Delta 413,550 km2
Okavango Delta (the Ramsar Core area) 15,844 km2
Boteti River sub-catchment south of the delta 10,920 km2
Deception, Ntwetwe and Sowa Pan (catchment area south of the 284,979 km2
delta area proper)
Total catchment area of the Makgadikgadi basin 725,293 km2
Table 3.1 - Major river systems in the Makgadikgadi basin and catchment areas (data
from Turton, 2003)

Figure 3.1 – Sketch of the delta area and surrounding pans (from Murray, 1997)
The Okavango Delta demarcated as a Ramsar site comprises 65,000 km2 in total, including the
15,844 km2 core area of the delta proper. The peripheral areas of terrestrial ecosystem are thus
some four times larger than the wetland site itself.
The Okavango River enters Botswana as a single broad river approximately 200 m wide and
with depths of around 4 to 5 metres. The river meanders through the floodplain of the Panhandle
before it branches into the alluvial fan of the delta. The delta consists of permanent swamps
sustained by the base flow from the Okavango River, semi-permanent channels and seasonal
swamps relying on the annual flood from the Okavango River and intermittently flooded areas
inundated to various degrees during periods of high rainfall in the region. Ecological zones and
habitats can be recognised in the delta. In the delta numerous lagoons and oxbows are found and
more that 150,000 islands that vary in size from a few metres to kilometres. The sub-stratum of
the delta comprises thick layers of sand deposits interspersed with silt layers.
The inflow to the delta from the Okavango River is on average approximately 10,000 Mm3 per
annum, while direct rainfall to the delta accounts for approximately one quarter of the water
budget. Evapotranspiration is the determining factor for the loss of water from the delta
although the exact amount is debatable as well as the recharge of the groundwater, making these
crucial parameters two uncertain terms in the water balance equation.

The annual variation in water flow upstream of the delta (Mohembo in the Panhandle) and the
southern part of the delta (eg at Boro Junction upstream of the confluence with the Thamalakane
River) is illustrated in figure (3.2). The inflow variation at Mohembo (the hydrograph) is fairly
gentle over the year. Flooding of the delta slowly propagates southward and the peak reaches
the distal part at Maun some 3 to 4 months later - if the inflow and rainfall has been sufficient.
800
700
600
500
Q [m3/s]
400
300
200
100
0
1978 1979 1980 1981 1982
71.12 Mohembo, discharge 74.12 Boro Junction, discharge
Figure 3.2 – Variations in flow at Mohembo and Boro Junction in the period November
1977 to January 1982 (example).
The water level variation in the Panhandle is up to 2 m but the variation in water level in the
permanent swamps is not very distinct and in parts of the delta is as low as 10 to 15 cm over the
year. This is due to the water spreading out over a large area in the alluvial fan (Figure 3.3).

3.00
2.75
2.50
2.25
2.00
1.75
H [m]
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul
1992 1992 1992 1992 1993 1993 1993 1993 1993 1993 1994 1994 1994 1994
71.12 Mohembo, waterlevel 74.12 Boro junction, waterlevel
72.15 G aenga, water level
Figure 3.3 – Water level variation at Mohembo, Boro Junction and Gaenga, in the period
April 1992 to July 1994. Y-scale is 3 meter. Variations at 2.8 m at Mohembo, 1.2 m at Boro
and only 0.1 m at the Eastern delta station Gaenga (example).
The sediment transport into the delta in combination with dense vegetation in the inundated
floodplain, temporary blockages in channels due to build up of weeds, new tracks made by
hippopotami, peat fires in blocked and inactive channels, etc make the flow pattern dynamic and
ever changing. Tectonic disturbances altering the weak gradients are believed to add to the
dynamics of the water distribution in between the eastern and western channels.
In general, the flowing waters in the delta are fresh (low in salts) but in stagnant water pools,
peat and soil matrices in islands, salt accumulates through the processes of evaporation and
transpiration from the vegetation. The role of vegetation is a central and complex mechanism in
preventing the delta becoming a saltpan. Some of the mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 3.4
and Figure 3.5.
The monitoring programme of the hydrologic features has thus to take account of the
pronounced heterogeneity of the area (patchiness). The extreme variations and dynamics in the
processes are in no way fully understood. The monitoring programme of DWA is aimed at
keeping the broad hydrologic functions under observation and not entering into a detailed
assessment of process dynamics which are beyond a systematic and routine monitoring
approach.
3.2 Experience and lessons learnt from previous monitoring attempts

Considerable effort has over time been expended on monitoring programmes on hydrologic
parameters and for years intensive monitoring of surface waters has been carried out. The lesson
learnt from previous and present monitoring is that logistic difficulties are significant and shall
be taken into account in the setup of additional monitoring. Transport in the delta area with
vehicles (4x4) or by boat is time consuming and for periods even impossible.

Figure 3.4 - Diagram illustrating some processes in the permanent swamp vegetation
(from Murray)
Figure 3.5 - Schematic floodplain-island groundwater interaction in the Okavango Delta

explained by McCarthy & Ellery, 1994
Manual measurements at the field stations in the delta face risks from wildlife. Remotely
operated data collection platforms (DCP) are constantly subject to the threat of damage from
wildlife and theft of vital parts. Fieldwork has to face drawbacks and it will be too optimistic to
expect a smooth operation of the fieldwork even with thoughtful planning. However there is
room for improvements in procedures.
The lack of skilled staff in maintenance of advanced equipment, lack of staff to run the
laboratories, data processing and interpretation is another constraint that has to be balanced with
the vision of establishing a comprehensive monitoring programme.

4 Monitoring Programme Objectives

The overall objectives and the principles for the monitoring programme for the Okavango Delta
are reflected in the objectives and principles stated below. The objectives have guided the
review and recommendations:
1. The monitoring programme shall add to sound and reliable hydrologic data to be
provided by DWA and to be used for the integrated hydrologic model within and
beyond the project period, and for other stakeholders active in the management of
the delta
2. The monitoring programme shall make possible documenting long term trends in
the hydrology, sediment transport and basic water quality parameters caused by
natural dynamics as well as man induced impacts
3. The monitoring programme shall focus on the most likely pressures and future
impacts from upstream the delta and changes within the delta with respect to
- changes in land use upstream (agriculture, erosion, sediment transport and
catchment changes)
- increased water abstraction for irrigation and water demand upstream in Angola
and Namibia including dam construction and alterations in sediment transport to
the delta
- increased water abstraction from the delta area (fringe area) itself
- concerns of climate changes
- concerns of in-stream flow requirements (environmental water requirements) ie
what is required in terms of water inflow to the delta in order to sustain the delta
function
- water pollution from activities upstream of the delta and likely impact within the
delta
4. The monitoring programme shall be within the scope of DWA’s activities and be
carried out as a systematic and ongoing programme
5. The programme shall be a balance between the cost and the usefulness of the data
for the future
6. The monitoring shall not have the character of research – that is left for other
institutions to carry out.

5 Overview of Existing Monitoring Network

The coverage of surface water measurement stations in the delta is dense. More than 60 water
level sites with gauge boards have over the years been established in the delta and some 9
stations are (or have been) equipped with mechanical paper chart recorders. Discharge is
measured at nearly 30 sites with a varying frequency.
A total of 8 remotely operated Data Collection Platforms (DCP) is installed in the delta in 1995,
but unfortunately hardly any reliable data have been gathered. The majority of the stations is
presently out of function. The DCP stations are equipped with water level recorders and
raingauges. Furthermore 2 DCPs in the delta have several extra sensors for hydroclimatic
measurements.
In Mohembo an extra DCP is installed (SADC-Hycos) and this station is measuring several
water parameters and hydroclimatic parameters. Data are available from the internet.
Precipitation is also measured by the Department of Meteorological Services (DMS) at
Mohembo, Maun, Shakawe, Gumare, Nokaneng and Sehitwa, all in the fringe area of the delta.
Regular groundwater monitoring is mainly confined to wellfields in the southern part of the
delta around Maun.
An overview of the stations and parameters can be found in Appendices 3 to 6. Owing to a
number of discrepancies between various data sources having different spelling of geographical
names, misunderstanding of ID numbers, etc there are some inconsistencies and missing
locations in the overview. These are highlighted and the DWA Modelling Unit is in the process
of rectifying the names, correct locations and ground truthing the existing locations with
geographical coordinates.

6 Assessment of Surface Hydrology Monitoring

This chapter comprises an overview of the present status of water level and discharge
measurements in the delta and an outline for improved surface hydrology is proposed. Basically,
monitoring of surface water hydrology comprises water level (stage) readings, discharge (flow)
measurements and parameters used for calculating the discharge (cross section and water
velocity) and all stages of data gathering from fieldwork, data entry, data handling, storage,
interpretation and derived values, etc.
A dense network of surface hydrology stations enables a description of regional water level
variations both of long term trends and within the season (short term), and also the discharge
distribution in a lengthwise and crosswise direction of the delta. Furthermore, information on
river cross sections is of importance when river routing has to be modelled. Finally overall
water balances on inflow and outflow require systematic flow measurements.
The Okavango Delta has been subject to intensive water level and discharge monitoring during
the past decades. Gauge boards totalling at least 60 locations are fairly well distributed
throughout the delta although long and systematic time series of water level readings are far less
than the number of gauge plates. Likewise discharge measurements have been made
periodically throughout the delta totalling at least 30 locations. Discharge measurements also
suffer from gaps in monitoring and a large number of the discharge stations has only few annual
readings. For the time being less than 10 stations have long time series with a dense number of
annual readings also covering the recent years.
Of utmost importance to the interpretation of discharge measurements and flows in the river
system and channels in the Okavango Delta is the fact that hardly any locations in the delta
have a well confined river cross section containing the full flow. Part of the discharge in a river
valley cross section will trickle through the floodplains comprising vast areas of reed, papyrus
and other aquatic vegetation. The proportion of bypass discharge depends on the actual water
level (flood versus dry season) and thus hampers interpretations.
Examples of variations in flow and water level are presented in Appendices 1 and 21. The
variation is depicted for three stations in the delta (discharge on the left axis and water level on
the right axis). The upper plot includes data from Station 7215 Gaenga in River Ngoqa, Station
7445 Xakue in Boro River and station 7565 Txaba (or Dxaba) at the Santantadibe River. It is
obvious that the Boro River has the largest annual variation in both discharge and water level
while the two stations in the north eastern and eastern part have minor variations only.
6.1 Network status

Knowledge of the hydraulic function of the delta is crucial in designing the monitoring network.
The major river in the delta is the Boro River system, also named Jao River in the upstream part.
The Boro River consists of a variety of channels dividing and converging on its way to the
Thamalakane River, which routes the water through Maun. Before the confluence, some flow is
diverted to the Xudum system, which routes water to a confluence upstream lake Ngami, south
west of Maun.
1
Note: The data and the times series have not been subject to exhaustive data check and validation – this
is ongoing

Downstream of the Panhandle waters from the Okavango River are routed to the west to the
Thaoge River system that has gradually become blocked over the last decades although water
still trickles through the river system. The other major river system is the Ngoqa river flowing to
the east of the Boro. The Nqoga river system is further east divided into the Maunachira–Khwai
and Mboroga. The latter is diverted into in the Santantadibe and Gomoti Rivers.
#
Muhembo
rivers
Okava
# towns
roads
ngo
Sepupa
#
swamp
Seronga
# N
qo
ga
chira
Mauna
Kh
Ja wa
o i
Etsha 6
#
G
Gumare
om
# ot
i
Bo
ro
Nokaneng
#
Shorobe
Kun
#
e
yer
an
Matlapaneng
ak
#
e
Maun
al
#
am
oge
Th
N Tsau
Tha
# Bo
te
ti
Makalamabedi
Toteng
W E #
#
Sehithwa
#
0 40 80 Kilometers
S
Figure 6.1 - The river systems in the Okavango Delta.

The network of water level stations, discharge stations, precipitation and DCPs (Data Collection
Platforms) is illustrated in Appendices 3 to 6.
Appendix 8 shows the stylised river system, the measurement station, number and name,
coordinates and the gauge zero, and which parameters are measured and type of measurement
system. The table is an outline of the information gathered in October 2003 and updated in May
2004. Comparing various data sources in DWA there are discrepancies in names and numbers.
The Hydrological Model Unit is in the process of making the data identification homogeneous.

6.1.1 Water level measurements

In the Okavango Delta there are located over the years at least 60 water level observation
stations. These are either equipped with automatic recorders (8 DCP and 9 chart recorders) or
they are manual gauge board readings. A few of the gauge board readings are daily and some
are periodic. A fairly high number is not read anymore because of damage, the river section has
been inaccessible due to vegetation blockages or has been dry for years.
The annual water level variation in the delta ranges from only 10 cm at certain stations in the
middle of the delta to several metres both in the Panhandle and at the outlet eg at Boro Junction.
The automatic chart recorders are either of the type OTT (German manufacture) with a
reputation for reliability, or they are chart recorders from the US mark Stevenson. Both types
use the flotation principle to measure water level and data is recorded on paper charts. The
recorders are in general old and spare parts are often absent when the local field staff have to
repair and maintain the equipment. Illustrative examples from gauge boards and automatic
water level recorders are seen in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 – Automatic water level recorder (left) at station 7425 - Kwihum, (Jao-Boro
River) and gauge board 7154 - Duba on the Nqoga River. Both stations are located in the
permanent swamp area.
In 1995 eight DCP measurement stations of the type STS (from Space Technology Systems in
UK) were erected in the delta (and a further 12 stations elsewhere in Botswana). Six of the eight
DCPs were equipped with water level and precipitation sensors only. The last two stations were
extended with other climatic parameters namely air temperature, relative humidity, soil
temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, wind direction, conductivity, and turbidity. The data
are transferred to DMS by satellite and only distributed to DWA if requested.
Water level is measured based upon the pressure transducer principle where cables have been
wired from the station to the riverbank through PVC pipes. The transducers are located in the
riverbank. The transducers compensate the influence of the atmospheric pressure through small
air tubing in the cable. The systems can be very sensitive and precautions have to be made when
operating the transducers.
Despite securing the stations with electric fences several stations have been out of function due
to vandalism and some of the cables to the water level sensors have been dug up the ground by
animals. So far no usable data has been retrieved from the stations due to vandalism shortly
after installation or due to the fact that nobody has requested the data collected by DMS.

Figure 6.3 - The DCP station (left) at Moumo, Boro River in October 2003. The station
was in function until 2002 where the solar panel was stolen. The remaining equipment
seems to be in good order. The DCP station (right) at Xugana, Maunachira River in
August 2003
6.1.2 Discharge measurements

Discharge measurements are carried out with current meter instruments procured from OTT.
The OTT instruments are reputed as reliable and robust. The measurement standard used is the
2-point method (0.2 and 0.8 of the depth). Mean velocity is calculated in the vertical and the
midsection method used to calculate the discharge. At Mohembo the distance between the
verticals is 5 metres as standard and consequently around 20 verticals are measured.
The 2-point method is one off the international standard methods commonly used. To improve
the discharge, additional points in the verticals could be introduced and another calculation
algorithm used but the impact is increased measurement time and more complex calculations. A
computer programme might be necessary.
In the delta, around 30 discharge stations are distributed. At the Mohembo station the discharge
measurements are carried out on a daily basis. Other stations are measured at monthly intervals
or more intensively in periods with floods. A complete overview of the time series is in the
process of being made available and cross checked as part of the hydraulic modelling.
The regional office at Gumare is measuring the sites in the Panhandle and the upper and
Western part of the delta while the Maun office is in charge of the Southern, Middle and Eastern
part of the Delta.
According to information obtained in 2003 at least three current meters are available for the
staff in Maun whereas one is positioned in Gumare.
6.2 Dataflow, databases and data availability

All monitoring is managed by the local DWA offices in Maun and Gumare.
The field personal read the water level and keep the gauge boards levelled to local benchmarks
positioned nearby on solid ground. They also maintain the mechanical water level recorders,
change the chart, wind the clock, etc.
The manual water level readings are entered on standard forms. The final results are forwarded
to the DWA head office in Gaborone. The data from the forms are entered into the HYDATA
database system. Original forms containing raw data are kept in the local DWA office.

The discharge measurements are noted on specific discharge forms in the field, with information
of the instrument number, start time, end time, water level, distance from the bank, depth in
verticals, depth of measurement point, time of measuring, and rotations. When the measurement
is finished the discharge is calculated at the local office or immediately in the field. No standard
calculation programme is used for this operation and the calculation is made with a pocket
calculator. The final results of discharge, the mean velocity, the cross section area and water
level are forwarded to DWA in Gaborone but all other information is only kept in the paper
forms.
The charts from the mechanical chart recorders are brought to the local office where daily
readings are converted into a second form. These forms are mailed to Gaborone where an
operator manually keys these figures into the HYDATA database for storage.
6.3 Proposal for upgrading and rehabilitation

Based on the assessment of the water levelling, discharge measurements and area distribution of
the stations a set of recommendations is made divided into network coverage, equipment,
measurements and dataflow. Tentative recommendations on the future monitoring network are
detailed in Appendix 9 and summarised below.
Network
In broad terms the existing network of water level and discharge stations is sufficient to cover
the delta dynamics in a reasonable way although a few additional stations at key points could be
desirable, such as those proposed by Dr Naidu. A crucial point in improving the monitoring
programme is to determine the frequency and density of gauge readings and discharge
measurements carried out by the field staff.
At present most of the DWA stations listed in Appendix 8 are in operation - at least in principle,
but data are not available at all stations.
Lack of data on certain stations is either due to long dry periods of the river section or blockage
of the river system making access to the gauge board impossible or other reasons.
Based on a tentative analysis by Francis Sefe (EHAS, 2003) on available readings entered into
the DWA database, the stations with reasonable data coverage within the last 5 years can be
condensed to
• 7 stations with discharge measurements taken frequently (almost daily) and around 14
stations with scattered frequency (or seasonally)
• 13 stations with water level readings are taken frequently
In additional to the existing water level stations presented in Appendix 8 it is proposed to
establish one additional station at Xudum River near the Buffalo Fence.
The existing network of discharge stations and the frequency of measurement will be refined
based on results from the hydrologic model.
Measurement equipment, water level
Firstly it is recommended to make an initial check of the few existing mechanical recorders to
check the status and function. This was not possible during the mission but according to
information received it appears that in general the recorders are not functioning well. It might
therefore be reasonable to build up a new system of automatic water level recorders. The
recorders shall in some areas be able to record an annual water level variation as low as 0.1
metre and in other areas a variation of several metres.

The recorders shall be capable of storing data for at least one year, recording every hour, and
there shall be an easy data collection facility not sensitive to adverse and harsh weather
conditions.
One option would be to use a data logger type measuring the water level by the capacitive
principle. These data loggers are either a 1 metre or 2 metre unit in non-corrosive steel pipes. In
the top of the pipe, the data logger is located and a small lithium battery lasting for around 5
years of operation powers it. These data loggers could be installed inside a normal steel pipe
secured to the gauge board.
The field staff operating this system shall change the loggers monthly by reconnecting the
existing logger, fill in the necessarily forms and make sure that the logger is marked with the ID
of the actual station. In this way all data loggers can be replaced in a scheduled operation and
data can be uploaded to a computer at the Maun office.
The data loggers are easy to install, not very visible and tempting to vandalism and not
expensive compared to other water level systems. The only operational limit is that the range is
a maximum of 2 metres.
A second option could be to continue with the robust floating system. As an example OTT
makes an inexpensive logger with changeable 1.5-volt batteries. A display makes it easy to
operate. The disadvantage with the system is that the field staff have to bring a computer or a
special weather resistant PC notebook to collect the data in the field.
Paper recorders are not recommended even though they are well known as a robust recording
system. The reason is that all transformation of data has to be done manually or by digitising,
which is not available at the local offices.
No remote communication is recommended to the water level stations. The more valuable the
electronic devices installed, the higher the risk of vandalism. Therefore it is recommended to
keep the basis water level measurement as simple as possible, easy to maintain, robust and as
invisible as possible.
Add on flash memory cards to the stations can be an advantage so that they just have to be
replaced at every visit.
Tentative recommendations of some of the technical specifications for a water level logger are:
• Accuracy – 0.01 metre
• Power supply – battery
• Low power consumption
• Data storage – at least hourly recording for one year
• Data transmission – Replaceable Memory Card
• Operational temperatures within the possible range in the Okavango Delta area.
• Data display and keypad present
• Water level adjustment shall be possible without bringing a laptop
• The equipment has to be small due to proposed installation inside a stilling well or at a
gauge board.
• The sensor unit has to be easily replaced with a spare unit.
• The sensor unit has to be robust and not sensitive to shock or humidity.

Finally it is imperative that the water level recording has to be done to datum level and
corrected to the same benchmark. All benchmarks in the area have to be tied to a reference
datum level.
The Department of Surveys and Mapping (DMS) has levelled the majority of the existing gauge
boards in 2004 (almost complete by April 2004). The gauge plate zero and the coordinates are
included in Appendix 8.
As an overall estimate and for budget estimate, a total of 15 automatic water level recorders are
recommended.
DCP stations
Information on DCPs and recommended upgrade is summarised in Table 6.1.
Name River Comments and recommendations
Mohembo Okavango The DCP from Space Technology Systems is not in operation. No
vandalism is reported but there is no output from the station. The parallel
DCP operated by SADC-Hycos transmits data to the office in Pretoria.
There is no reporting of data quality. Data can be obtained from the
website www.sadchyco.pwv.gov.za and it can be seen that the station is
actually in operation (October 2003). A quick review reveals that some
parameters seem reliable while others are dubious. DWA should pay
special attention to the sensors at this station.
Comments: The STS DCP can be removed and equipment in good
condition can be used at other locations as spare parts. The SADC-Hycos
needs a service visit.
Guma Thaoge The DCP is of TYPE A. This station has been vandalised twice shortly
after installation. First the solar panel was stolen and after replacing this,
Lagoon
there was a break-in where the new solar panel was stolen together with
the battery and all cables were cut into pieces.
Comments: The station has to be moved to a nearby lodge. DWA should
inquire of the owner to find out if this can be realised.
Kwihum Boro The DCP is of TYPE B: Vandals irreparably damaged the DCP equipment
a month after installation. The stilling well at the site has not been
vandalised.
Comments: This station has to be relocated and new cables, solar panel,
batteries and some sensors have to be procured.
Gaenga Ngogha The DCP is of TYPE A: This DCP has never been disturbed since it was
installed. The only problem at this site is flooding during high flows but
this is not affecting the equipment in any way, though it is reported that
the field staff get electric shocks from the fence. The raingauge is not in
order and is an older version from SIAP Bologna in Italy. The raingauge
model is phased out and no spare parts are available.
Comments: The site seems suitable and alternative sites are not obvious.
As a tentative strategy it is recommended to keep the station where it is
and some security precautions taken in floods. A new raingauge has to be
procured. The final decision shall be taken based on a site survey.

Xo-Flats Boro The DCP is of TYPE A: This DCP site is one off the most reliable with
respect to human disturbance because the site is difficult to access both by
boat and vehicle. Elephants or buffaloes have trampled the water level
transducer.
Comments: This station can be continued but a stilling well and a new
water transducer has to be procured.
Dxaba Santantadibe The DCP is of TYPE A: The logger unit usually transmits out of its time
slot. The site is good. The water level transducer has been destroyed.
Comment: Stilling well has to be installed.
Xugana Maunachira The DCP is of TYPE B: The DCP is located on the edge of the lagoon.
The site is suitable.
Comments: Construct a stilling well and make a connection pipe to the
river. Make sure that the pipe from the well to the station is well below
ground level preventing animals digging it up.
Moumo Boro The DCP is of TYPE A: This DCP is located at a suitable site. The solar
panel was stolen in 2002. The water level sensor is irreparably damaged
by animals.
Comments: although the solar panel has been stolen this station seems to
be well located. One new solar panel has to be procured. Instead of using
ordinary bolts one could either use torx-bolts or weld the panel to the
frame. This should be considered as a preventive strategy for all DCPs
Notes: TYPE A – DCP stations comprising two remote sensors: Rainfall and Water Depth (measured with pressure transducer).
TYPE B – DCP stations with more than two sensors: Rainfall, water depth, wind velocity, wind direction, combined temperature
and humidity, barometric pressure, solar radiation and soil temperature.
Table 6.1 - Overview of DCP stations and actual status as per October 2003 (based on
interview with Charles Letsholathebe (DWA) and additional comments concluded from
meetings with DWA)
DWA in Gaborone and Maun must have direct access to the data from the DCP stations. The
solution with DMS as sole data provider is not durable and shared data access shall be
implemented with a dual system between DMS and DWA.
DWA has to procure software, field test kit and other devices for the DCP stations securing
proper test and data retrieval to DWA office PCs. The DWA's technical person in charge,
Charles Letsholathebe, should be able to arrange this set up. DWA needs additional personnel
backup for operating the DCPs.
Discharge Measurements.
In general well functioning, regularly calibrated current meters have to be available for the field
measurements. Related equipment such as rods, winches, counters and other devices are part of
the packages. At least one complete set for each field team is necessary, and at least one extra
set has to be accessible within reasonable transport time. Essential equipment and inexpensive
items such as counters should always be included as spares when the field team is operating.

For the time being it seems that there is no reason to change the routines of operating the
discharge measurements although there are more sophisticated instruments on the market, eg
acoustic Doppler profilers for discharge measurements, electronically measurement books, etc.
An attempt could be made at Mohembo to improve the discharge measurements. To enable a
review the discharge measurements have to be scrutinised for minimum, mean and maximum
discharges. One option could be to reduce discharge measurements to every second day. The
days in between could be occupied calculating rating curves.
The recently installed cableway at Mohembo may facilitate more intensive measurements in
additional verticals and still save operation time.
In parts of the delta the fluctuation of the hydrographs is rather gentle and therefore it might be
acceptable with two discharge measurements per month. In other parts the hydrographs are
highly seasonal with low flow or no flow for months where discharge measurements might be
meaningless (or impossible) while flood periods will raise the flow and water level rapidly. This
will require intensive discharge measurements on the rising limb and around the peak with a
frequency of say one to two measurements per week (this is carried out at a limited number of
stations).
The optimal strategy has to be assessed for the individual stations based on time series to be
established as part of the modelling unit. The working document on hydrology data (EHES,
November 2003) will serve as a start on this assessment.
If rating curves shall be established at least daily water level measurements have to be carried
out. It is likely that vegetation in and bypass of adjacent flood plains might influence the
hydraulic conditions at many stations. Standard rating curves might not be usable and as an
alternative dynamic rating curve calculations have to be introduced if continuous daily records
are needed. The assessment will be part of detailing the implementation of the improved
monitoring programme.
Dataflow
It is recommended that the results from the current meter measurements are stored in a database
with profile information, velocity values, instruments, calibration functions and other
information. This will give an excellent opportunity to monitor both sediment deposition and
erosion in the profiles, and it will give a significant quality control opportunity when data are in
digital form.
There are software programs on the market capable of current meter calculations and data
storage and it is recommended to use these and relate it to the HYDATA software and database.
All data shall be subject to routine backup functions carried out as daily operational procedures.
It is also recommended that all field staff involved in monitoring operations shall be acquainted
with the background for the monitoring and a broader understanding of the context of the
monitoring and the further interpretation and use in modelling. In this way the best commitment
of all persons are secured and eventually increase the data reliability.
At the local offices there shall be computer and software facilities so that the staff closely
related to the measurements and the locations are able to carry out quality control of incoming
data as soon as they arrive at the office. The local offices shall transmit electronic discharge data
and water level data to Gaborone within a fixed period (monthly or quarterly).
Existing and readily available data from past recordings in the delta have been subject to
gathering and systemised review in 2003/2004 as part of the Hydrology component. Various
checking procedures and validations have revealed shortcomings and recommendations in

improved data handling are suggested in the report Hydrology Data (EHES, April 2004). The
recommendations are for easy reference for the continued approval procedure and steps forward
in the implementation approach summarised in the following text box:
Recommendations on improved data handling quoted from the working paper prepared by
Prof Francis Sefe – EHES (November 2003/update April 2004):
• The practice of manual gauging means that data cannot be collected continuously throughout any
particular season, unless the site is fitted with an automatic water level recorder. Thus there is always a
long gap between the actual gauging. These gaps are filled with “m” in the database indicating missing
data, which is strictly not correct. It is recommended that some of the gauging sites be automated so as
to provide continuous flow records during the flow season. The selection of such sites should be done
in such a way as to achieve adequate spatial representation. Additional recommendations will be made
in this regard.
• The practice of filling the intervening period between gauged flows by linear interpolation and then
incorporating the interpolated values into the primary database should be stopped. The primary
database should contain the actual field observations only.
• In regard to the above, DWA should institute a programme of routine processing of the primary data to
obtain such secondary or derived data such as rating curves, cross-sections, evaluating outliers and
trends, etc. That is the creation of secondary database, as distinct from the primary database.
• The structure of the information in the database needs to be revised to incorporate the names of the
watercourses. It is not adequate to give only the name of the site only.
• The data entry clerk needs closer supervision of her work.
• Review the primary database and remove all interpolated and estimated values.
• A hydrological research exercise should be undertaken to quantify the flow that misses the Mohembo
gauging station. This will help in devising a correction factor to be applied at the Mohembo gauging
site. This is necessary because it is now too late to move downstream to another site as a permanent
cableway has now been constructed at Mohembo.
• As a matter of urgency, “official” rating curves should be established for all gauging sites in the
database. The process should be under the control of one senior officer and amendments effected
annually after the flow season has ended.
• Zeroes or the words “Ceased-to-flow” or “no flow” should be used to indicate a situation whereby
although the river had water, there was no flow to measure because the water had become stagnant
while the word “Dry” is used to depict a situation of a river drying up completely.
• Periodic training given to the data gathering personnel in the field would go a long way toward the
alleviation of some of the operational difficulties identified. Such training should include instrument
handling and storage techniques.
• Closer supervision of the field staff by senior staff is required.
• There is a clear morale problem at the outstations. There is the feeling by some of the field-based staff
that they have been banished into professional oblivion. This perception is encouraged by the absence
of regular visitation from staff at headquarters.
Re-assessment of the field monitoring programme and remedial action

All persons involved in field monitoring and data assessment in the delta recognise the
difficulties in carrying out the work and at the same time struggle with logistic constraints and
shortages in spare parts for operation and maintenance.
With the improved understanding of the hydraulic functions obtained from the thorough data
assessment (eg data from the last 5 years) and the hydraulic modelling it is recommended to
carry out a general overhaul of the field monitoring logistics and annual planning of the field
staff work. The aim is to assess whether there is room for improved efficiency or ease of time
consuming field work of little value to the monitoring programme. Furthermore, likely pitfalls
in logistics and monitoring routines shall be identified.
The review and overhaul shall be made in close collaboration and dialogue with the field staff
having hands-on experience in all aspects of the data collection. Based on the overhaul

remedial actions shall be implemented in parallel with the new equipment installed. In costing
the improved monitoring programme a budget line is included for various additional equipment
and tools that will ease the logistic constraints and streamline the data reliability and data flow.

7 Assessment of Sediment Transport Monitoring

Sediment transport in rivers is a natural process but can be significantly altered owing to
changes in the runoff regime and land use in upstream catchment areas. Changes in land use and
dams in the upstream Okavango Basin are of particular concern.
The Okavango River has considerable bed load transport of sand but a remarkable transparency
in the river and low levels of suspended solids year round, although pulses of suspended solids
are likely in peak flow periods.
7.1 Existing monitoring

There is no systematic long term monitoring of sediment transport in the Okavango Delta.
Previously, some research studies have been conducted and they can to some extent highlight
the mechanisms in the delta.
A monitoring programme in the Okavango Delta has to ensure that both the long term
monitoring and the ODMP modelling will have reliable data as input.
7.2 Proposal for sediment transport monitoring

The sediment transport monitoring programme is proposed consisting of two parts: i) A one
year intensive assessment at Mohembo supplemented with ii) a one off post flood campaign in
2004 assessing bed material composition (grain size) at around 20 discharge stations distributed
in the delta.
Based on the experience from the one year study the long term programme shall be determined.
7.2.1 One year initial study at Mohembo
It is recommended to launch a monitoring programme on sediment transport (bedload and
suspended solids) at the gauging station at Mohembo to obtain basic data. The monitoring
programme shall enable assessment of the seasonal variation of the sediment transport as well as
estimate of the annual amount of sediment transport.
As discharge measurements are carried out every day at Mohembo and the station is
permanently staffed it will be a moderate task to include bed load and suspended solids
sampling once a month in the dry season and more frequently in the flood period, eg twice a
month. The installed cableway will be useful for this purpose otherwise sampling can be done
from a boat.
Common samplers for suspended sediment in rivers are samplers as DH-76 and DH-74 (Rickly
Hydrological Company, www.rickly.com or other companies supplying equivalent equipment)
or alternatively water samplers (say 5 litre volume) with flaps operated from the water surface
will be adequate for this purpose.
Different procedures can be applied for sampling suspended solids. Because intensive current
measurements are carried out at Mohembo, the EDI-procedure could be an acceptable approach
(Equal Discharge Increment procedure). Through this method the cross section is divided into
several segments of equal water discharge. The method is described in WMO (Pub 686).
Bed load sampling can be carried out with standard bed load samplers (eg US BL-84). The
methods are described in WMO (pub 686). Although it is recognised that bed load transport
estimates based on in-situ measurements are highly uncertain the importance of the data and
information gathered on a long term basis outweighs the uncertainties.

The bed load transport sampling should be supplemented with grab sampling of the river bed
material at eg 5 to 10 positions in the cross section at Mohembo at regular frequency and
analysed for grain size distribution.
Analysis of suspended solids and dry weight of the bedload samples is fairly easy and can be
carried out in the Maun DWA laboratory. Grain size distribution analysis is routine in
geological laboratories. Transport of the samples can be coordinated with the water quality
programme (see Chapter 9).
As an initial assessment it is proposed to carry out a one year sediment transport study at
Mohembo in a collaboration between DWA and HOORC. The option has been discussed at the
Technical Committee Meeting in January 2004 (commenting the November version of this
report) and Piotr Wolski, HOORC in May 2004 has reconfirmed the interest. The contribution
from HOORC would be planning and instructions in the methodology and equipment
selection/description, occasional supervision of the field staff, and data interpretation.
The DWA contribution would be field sampling carried out by the permanent staff located in
Mohembo, transport and analysis of samples (suspended sediment analysis, dry weight, grain
size analysis, etc) and manufacture of the bedload sampler at the DWA workshop (or alternative
procurement). The water sampler shall be procured (part of the water quality programme – see
section 9).
Based on a one year sediment transport assessment (full flood period) a long term programme
will be decided. It will be assessed whether downstream stations should be included in bedload
monitoring in flood periods (eg North Gate, Khwai River and Boro Junction) although it is
doubtful the two stations carry significant amounts of bedload transport.
7.2.2 Horizontal distribution and assessment of riverbed material
Data on riverbed material composition (sand, loam, clay) and the horizontal distribution in the
delta is vital for the hydraulic sediment transport capacity assessments by the hydrologic model
(in the second half of 2004). It is recommended to plan and carry out a one off campaign in the
2004 post flood period assessing these aspects. The sampling shall comprise riverbed material
(grab or core sampling) from cross sections in the frequently visited discharge stations in the
delta (around 20 stations).
The sampling is straightforward and can most likely be fitted into the tasks of the field staff
carrying out the routine discharge measurements. The grain size distribution analysis shall be
carried out in a laboratory having experience in soil analysis.
Data interpretation will as part of the hydraulic modelling direct a long term monitoring
programme of sediment transport, in conjunction with the one year initial study at Mohembo.

8 Assessment of Groundwater Hydrology and Water Quality

Monitoring
This section focuses on monitoring groundwater levels and groundwater quality in order to
assess long term variations in groundwater conditions, both in the groundwater resources not
having a direct impact on the local groundwater abstraction as well as from areas of intensive
water abstraction in the fringe areas around the delta.
Substantial parts of the information on the numerous groundwater boreholes and actual status of
the exploration of groundwater resources and various databases have been provided in a
working document prepared by Israel Mabua, (Mabua 2003).
Understanding the functioning of the delta has to face the problem of the extreme variability of
the outflow in relationship to the inflow. Outflow is essential for water supplies along the
Thamalakane and in the Maun area in particular, also for the communities living along the
Boteti, where the recent dry years have caused severe stress on water availability (GOB 2002).
Previous modelling (Dincer et al 1987, SMEC 1990, Scudder et al, IUCN (1993) of the surface
outflow, using over twenty years of rainfall, evapotranspiration and stream flow data, showed
fluctuations in outflow which could not be explained, either by changes in the flow system
within the delta or by data of inadequate quality. Gieske (1997) showed that substantial model
improvement is achieved when both long (10 years) and short term (1 year) antecedent climatic
conditions are considered. In effect, the delta has a long memory. During periods of poor
flooding, the groundwater level goes down progressively (ca 1 m/yr at Beacon Island, without
abstraction) and when good flooding returns, the progress of the flood is inhibited by losses to
the dry substrate, an empty sponge which must be filled before the progress of the flood and
outflow of the delta can express the enhanced inflow. Groundwater data therefore become
essential components of successful modelling.
Although recognition of this need is not new, the task of achieving it within a realistic budget
appears daunting. It is essential for a successful monitoring programme that:
• the selection of sites in limited areas must provide data which are representative
of the delta as a whole; they must be selected to represent specific terrain units
within the delta mosaic
• The selection of sites must be made to address key issues, recognised to be
relevant to the delta as a whole
• Monitoring should use specific techniques appropriate to the issues being
addressed; it should be tiered in terms of technology to constrain costs
Extrapolation of data from the monitored areas depends on its being firmly anchored to terrain
units, identified by studies of satellite images and aerial photos.
8.1 Monitoring network status

Within the area covered by ODMP (essentially the Ramsar border) there exist at least 1074
boreholes according to the National Borehole Archive Database.
The majority of the boreholes is in the southern fringe area and west of the delta (west of
Thaoge River) while boreholes to the eastern part and northeast of the delta are very few.
Boreholes in the delta proper are almost absent (see Figure 8.1).

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Figure 8.1 - Boreholes in the area of the Okavango Delta and fringe area
Monitoring of water levels in some of the boreholes has been carried out by DWA since the mid
1980s and time series are stored in the database WELLMON. The monitoring has to distinguish
at least three definable groundwater aquifers namely a shallow unconfined aquifer, a leaky
semi-confined aquifer and a third underlying aquifer recognised to contain brackish water at
depth. Under extended pumping stress regimes these aquifers seem to interact through leakages
into one another.
The largest numbers of water level monitoring boreholes are installed in well fields surrounding
the Maun area (Shashe river valley, Thamalakane, Kunyere, Gomoti and Boro area) and time
series can be established from 1985. The monitoring of water levels in this area is a mixture of
impact from local abstraction of groundwater resources and overall fluctuations of the
groundwater replenishment due to climatic variations.
From the various groundwater studies it is deemed possible to gather and present an overview of
spatial variation in rest water levels (RWL).
8.2 Dataflow, databases and data availability

Data from well field monitoring are entered in the database WELLMON installed at the DWA
Maun office.

All water chemistry data provided from any groundwater resource study is entered in the
AQUABASE and the main determinants are cations, anions, TDS, Conductivity (EC) and pH.
8.3 Proposal for groundwater monitoring

It is proposed to launch a groundwater monitoring programme comprising a well considered and
thoroughly planned approach based on the concept of i) monitoring groundwater in the
peripheral area of the delta; ii) monitoring groundwater in the delta area and the broad valley
tracts in the southern part subdivided into various typical terrain units. The conceptual outline is
discussed below.
8.3.1 Delta peripheral monitoring holes
The west side of the delta has a semi-continuous line of settlements. Existing boreholes are
shown in figure 8.1. Following assessment of the data history and present status of these holes,
it is proposed that a regular monitoring programme be designed to capture changes in water
levels and quality along this desiccated western boundary. Existing boreholes not used for
abstraction (due to various reasons) might be converted to pure monitoring wells although the
approach might entail some concerns. A small number of new monitoring holes may be required
to fill any geographical gaps, particularly to the east of the settlement line where drying out is
recent.
This should provide a north-south gradient scenario, ie a progressively more distal scenario,
together with short east-west transects from the line of settlements in towards the ‘retreating’
delta. The need for new boreholes is tentatively estimated at five supplementing existing
boreholes that might be dedicated as future monitoring boreholes. The boreholes shall be fitted
for automatic data recording.
Recent review of the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of monitoring systems (GCS 2001)
has indicated a preference for automatic groundwater level recorders, eg in situ “mini-troll”,
Eijkelkamp “diver”, Seba “floater” (at least 3,000 BWP). The review also reached the important
conclusion that monitoring systems need to be standardised to provide good data comparability.
In areas with easy access and moderate/slow variations in water levels manual readings with the
‘dipper’ type including in-situ measurements of conductivity might be the best choice.
The south side of the delta, the distal end, has had considerable attention regarding the
groundwater situation, as a result of the Maun Water Development Project. Along the
Thamalakane valley the original project monitoring holes suffered from vandalism and there
was also some difficulty with the manual recording, particularly in the relatively distant
localities. As a result the number of monitoring holes has been reduced to a smaller number of
‘pure’ locations (secure sites). Only the two intended development areas in the Kunyere and
Gomoti valleys are effectively monitored (in addition to the Shashe wellfield) but in the Gomoti
valley elephant damage is a problem.
The installation of new monitoring holes is not envisaged but serious consideration must be
given to increasing the security of the original project monitoring system. Similar equipping of
the more distant monitoring holes, which are sometimes difficult if not impossible to access
would considerably add to the data base. Selection of holes for ongoing monitoring should be
based on geographical location, to give a meaningful spread of data, and also on holes for which
there is the best continuous record, going back to installation in 1996.
As abstraction demands are heavy and increasing in the Thamalakane valley where the
groundwater is dependent on outflow of considerable variability, it is recommended that not

only the change in surface water level be monitored but also the relationships of the upper
shallow aquifer with the deeper aquifers. It is known, for example (WRC 2002, 2003) that there
are three aquifers, an upper, shallow, sandy aquifer below which lies a semi-confining fresh
water aquifer from about 35 to 70 m. Below this, lies a saline water aquifer (Figure 8.2 a).
Figure 8.2 - Thamalakane valley aquifers. 1 – Fresh rapid annual recharge from river, 2 –
Fresh slow recharge, 3 – Saline. For further explanation see text.
The present tentative indications are (Linn, Water Resources Consultants, personal
communication) that although the shallow aquifer recharges very rapidly when there is surface
flow, the response of the lower aquifers is sluggish, with the suggestion that they are in a state
of disequilibrium, probably having been equilibriated to the good recharge of the 1970s. The
danger is that fresh water abstraction from the lower of the two fresh water aquifers may lower
the water level below that of the saline water adjacent to the recharge zone, with the result that
the higher head of the saline water will cause saline underflow up below the zone off fresh
water abstraction.
Two nested systems are envisaged; each being a cluster of three pipes which sample different
levels within the water body. Water quality sampling at 1 m intervals during drilling will allow
determination of the dimensions of the aquifers and identify suitable depths for ongoing
monitoring. The choice exists between three closely spaced separate pipes (ie 3 x 2 = 6 drills) or
three pipes emplaced together within a larger single hole (ie two drills with larger diameter).
The eastern/north eastern flank of the delta has very few boreholes. The groundwater scenario
is virtually unknown here and to complete the encirclement of the delta it is proposed that a
system of monitoring holes be emplaced, similar to that on the south/south west side, to give a
transect from the proximal to distal end of the delta, together with short traverses at right angles
to this line. A tentative estimate is for 6 to 8 holes.
Conclusions for the delta fringe area are thus to search for existing boreholes suitable for long
term monitoring, ie without impact from existing or likely abstractions nearby and supplement
these with a tentative estimate of 5 dedicated monitoring boreholes at the western fringe, 2

nested monitoring boreholes in the southern part (2 x 3 drills or 2 larger diameter boreholes) and
6 to 8 dedicated monitoring boreholes in the eastern/north eastern part.
Water level readings – either manual or automatic – shall be carried out at adequate frequencies
to capture variability in water level within the dry and flood seasons and trends from year to
year. In-situ measurements of conductivity (less frequent than water levels) shall be part of the
programme.
8.3.2 Delta monitoring holes
The study by Dincer and others (1976) used a small catchment bounded on the east by Beacon
Island in a seasonally flooded area. It was essentially a one cell model representing the whole
delta. Weirs at the entry and exit points were used to determine inflow and outflow. Piezometers
were installed at the edge of the flooded area, to establish losses to groundwater, rainfall gauges
emplaced and evapotranspiration estimated. The study concentrated on determination of water
balances and volume-area relationships (in the event, the flood water failed to reach the
catchment soon after the system was installed, terminating the monitoring programme).
The extension of the water budget to the entire delta was rightly criticised. It is only
representative of a particular type of terrain unit within a mosaic of different units. It is
proposed that a satellite image study is conducted to divide the delta into terrain units, and
similar small catchment studies be made in each of the units in the seasonally flooded area in
order to provide a more representative statement regarding water budgets within the delta as a
whole. Because the groundwater level is high in such situations, obviating the need for drilling,
it is a relatively inexpensive way of accessing, in significant quantity, important hydrogeologic
and hydrologic data representative of the different terrain units within the delta mosaic. Thus
such small catchment studies offer good prospects for more representative water budget
estimations. HOORC’s catchment study adjacent to Chief’s Island already provides one further
example.
In the southern part of the lower delta, ‘broad tract’ valleys occur (eg the Xwaaqa, Xudum,
Marsiba). These are wide and flat, with small channel form features developing in the lower
reaches as the surface flow becomes integrated towards the Nxaragha and Kunyere, ultimately
flowing to Lake Ngami. Flooding of these valleys has generally retreated and melapo cultivation
accordingly reduced and eventually abandoned. Hand dug wells on the valley floors have been
progressively deepened to access the lowering groundwater level. Running sand is depth
limiting for such efforts. The situation has become critical for settlements in these valleys and
north of the buffalo fence the flood fed riparian woodland is increasingly stressed.
From casual observations, the groundwater level appears to be lowering at a rate of about 1 m
each year in the absence of flooding. It is imperative to monitor this situation and to make clear
statements regarding the effects of diminished flooding in the lower delta. (There is a tendency
for the pro-development/abstraction lobby to be of the opinion that upstream abstraction will
only have a miniscule effect, mainly in the lower delta (present writer’s emphasis), without full
appreciation of the reality, ie that the effects of flood reduction are progressively amplified
towards the distal areas).
It is proposed that one long profile of a valley be monitored to quantify clearly the effects of
flood retreat. This can be done at relatively low cost using piezometers in the upper reaches
where the groundwater level is higher (hand drilled with bailer, then jetted where the water level
is deeper and declining more rapidly). Downstream where levels are deeper and declining more
rapidly, small holes drilled with a lightweight rig (eg Water Surveys Botswana “Eureka Porta-
rig” are appropriate for the completion of the long profile transects - see Appendices 10 and 11
for details).

A similar long profile transect should be placed in a morphologically comparable valley on the
north side of the delta to provide adequate comparisons.
In the lower reaches of the ‘broad tract’ valleys described above and in the Nxaragha and
Kunyere valleys, there is a clear need for examining and monitoring cross sections of the
system, where a potentially serious situation is evolving with respect to groundwater levels and
quality. This is happening under the natural conditions of diminishing flooding. The
groundwater level is dropping below the valley floors (reaching around 15 m in the lower
Kunyere). The levels are dropping even faster below the transpiring riparian woodland (Figure
8.3 a).
Figure 8.3 - Lower Kunyere aquifers. 1- Fresh, 2 – Saline. More explanation, see text.
They have lowered to the extent that the level of the saline water in the interfluve areas,
formerly lower than the fresh water levels, is now approximately the same. Further lowering of
the fresh water levels (Fig 8.3b) will result in a saline head, expected to lead to a situation in
which the saline water underlying the fresh will be driven to underflow upwards into the valleys
and riparian zone (Linn, Water Resources, personal communication). The ecological
implications are disturbing. “Miniscule” reduction in flooding can effectively tip the balance
towards major deleterious changes.
It is proposed that two cross sections be monitored, with drilled holes – one in the saline
interfluve area on either side, one in the riparian woodland on either side and one in the centre
of the valley.
A similar system should be placed in a northern ‘broad tract’ valley, to provide the contrast.
To complete the data spread, monitoring piezometers should also be placed for monitoring
where groundwater levels are already known to be very stable, both in areas of saline and fresh
water.

8.3.3 Sedimentology
While the importance of the effects on river and flood advancement of varying depths of the
unsaturated zone are now generally appreciated, albeit as yet unquantified, the importance of
surface and near surface sedimentology has lacked attention. At the simplest level, a sequence
of satellite images tracking flood and river extension clearly shows great irregularity, fast in
some places, slow in others. This expresses changes in the surface sediments. Where they are
sandy and permeable, losses to groundwater are rapid and flooding or river extension slow.
Where the surface material is less permeable silts and clays, there is rapid flood and river
advancement and correspondingly less water enters the groundwater system.
A good example of this was provided by the Nxaragha/Kunyere system following the extremely
good wet season of 2000. This resulted in extensive flooding in these valleys to the north west
of the Kunyere Fault, with drainage to Lake Ngami, filling it to an estimated 60% of its area. It
was said, in 1983 by Shaw, that the lake “plays an important part in the economy of northwest
Botswana. It supports a small but growing commercial fishing industry, whilst visitors come to
observe, or in some cases to shoot, the abundant bird life. The surrounding lake flats support in
excess of 30,000 cattle…”. The lake had been completely dry for at least a decade prior to the
impressive 2000 flood. The ease with which the water reached the lake is clearly attributable to
the several metres of silty clay which caps the underlying more permeable sand. This allowed
the flood waters to travel fast without much loss to the substrate (in desperate need of recharge,
as described above). This is in complete contrast to the Thamalakane valley where flooding is
slowed down by rapid recharge into the permeable, sandy surface horizons, up to 35 m thick
(resulting in up to 10 cm rise of groundwater level per day; Lynn, personal communication).
Clearly the surface or near surface sediments play an important role in the extension of the
surface water and the recharge of the substrate. Drilling or augering provides an essential
opportunity to gain clear knowledge of the nature of the sediments, knowledge which is
essential for the interpretation of the groundwater monitoring results.
8.3.4 Discussion
The programme of monitoring proposed above is comprehensive. It provides a comprehensive
data spread for modelling, it addresses key issues both scientific and socio-economic and it
entails an appropriate range of technological levels with considerable emphasis on low cost
piezometry and lightweight drilling. Prioritisation in terms of the timing of the installations
requires consideration.
While continuous monitoring resulting in unbroken data series should be targeted, past
experience has shown that complete continuity of data is unlikely to be achieved for a variety of
reasons. There is recent understanding of the cost-effectiveness of automated systems.
Conversion of key existing monitoring sites presently with manual reading to automated
recording can provide a substantial increase in the data at low cost. Upgrade of automated
recording to more interference-proof systems would be similarly cost-effective at essential sites.
It may be possible to increase the protection of vulnerable piezometric systems by education of
the local communities and their involvement with recording (periodically monitored by DWA
staff). Nevertheless some data losses are to be expected and must be accommodated. Evaluation
of the data points becomes important with respect to the level of protection.
In areas where flooding is protracted, the difficulties of monitoring are logistically severe.
Concession holders in these areas (often fly-in localities) already have excellent capability with
respect to logistical issues. They are well placed to offer secure sites. Environmental monitoring
is invariably a necessary component of tenders for concession management. There is a strong

emphasis on vegetation and wildlife observational monitoring. Rainfall and water levels are
sometimes monitored out of general interest, but this is unsystematic, uses varying methodology
and is discontinuous as the concessions change hands. There would seem to be considerable
scope for the acquisition of low-cost data from concession camps, data which would be very
valuable if (a) there was systematisation of data collection (rainfall, water levels, piezometry),
(b) provision and installation of equipment/systems by DWA and (c) this monitoring were made
a compulsory component of the environmental monitoring by concession holders. Collaboration
with DLUPU and Land Boards would be needed in order to introduce such monitoring
requirements from the holders.
8.3.5 Costing for drills

Based on experience from actual drills in Botswana the installation of a fully equipped
monitoring hole is extremely expensive. An 80 m hole, drilled by a conventional rig, for
example, is likely to cost nearer 200,000 BWP than 100,000 BWP. Even following the old
Uniform Rates, a local driller is likely to charge in the order of 100,000 BWP, despite free
provision by DWA of all materials required.
Quite clearly the monitoring programme proposed above must utilise (a) existing holes and (b)
new holes drilled by much cheaper systems if it is to come realistically within the monitoring
programme budget. Piezometric systems have been successfully used by Water Resources
Consultants in the Delta. (see Appendix 11 for details, abstracted from WRC 2002) at an
estimated cost of around 600 BWP/hole (Linn, WRC, personal communication). Such systems
are appropriate where very shallow holes are required.
For deeper holes up to 75 m and where the water levels are declining rapidly, a lightweight, low
cost drilling rig, the Eureka porta-rig has proven capabilities. (See Appendix 10 for details,
including estimated costing of a proposed 45 hole project in the Delta.) The use of these low
cost systems could adequately provide for the requirements of the monitoring programme as
described above.
8.4 Implementation
The implementation requires thorough consideration and dedicated effort throughout the phases
of evaluating suitable existing boreholes to be converted to long term monitoring sites, detailed
site planning of new and additional boreholes in the peripheral areas of the delta and the
network of piezometry drills in the delta proper, design of drills and casings, tendering of
drilling operation, supervision of contractor and final implementation of the programme.
A well considered approach utilising local experiences from the groundwater and geological
surveys and lessons learnt from previous groundwater monitoring programmes will be essential
for long term sustainability of the monitoring programme.
The implementation will have the character of an iterative process. Consequently a flexible
approach will be imperative. It is recommended to mandate a small task force the responsibility
of working intensively with the implementation of a cost-effective programme within the frames
of the overall budget. The task force shall be supported with technical assistance from the
consultants. The setup is further discussed in section 13 of this report.
The most uncertain part of the budget is the cost of drilling. Through consultations with the
DWA groundwater section in May 2004, new drills would be decided among offers from
private contractors based on a tender comprising technical design and specifications prepared by

the task force. If the offers are found unacceptable in technical and economic terms, DWA will
be able to carry out the drills through their own drilling section.
Whenever the monitoring boreholes are established and the monitoring is entering a routine
mode with modest frequencies of site visits including automatic water level recorders in the
most remote places, the additional workload might add up to a fairly limited number of
additional man months per year for the field staff. The cost cannot be estimated for the time
being but most likely it can be accommodated within a modest budget for operational costs
compared to the cost of implementation.
It is recommended that DWA management shall prioritise the long term sustainability of the
programme through an adequate operational budget and logistic support, otherwise an ambitious
investment in establishing the programme will be wasted.
At present a DWA staff person is dedicated to carry out the existing monitoring programme of
the Maun wellfields and his responsibility might be expanded to cover the ODMP monitoring
tasks.

9 Assessment of Water Quality Monitoring

This section focuses on water quality monitoring of the surface waters flowing into the delta and
the water quality within the delta.
In this context the term water quality is defined to be the major chemical parameters
determining important processes in the ecological function and the utilisation of the delta’s
water resources.
9.1 Existing monitoring and assessments

Previous monitoring of water quality parameters in the surface waters of the delta has been
scarce and scattered to a few project specific studies, dissertations and research works.
DWA and other Government Institutions have not carried out systematic or routine monitoring
of water quality parameters and consequently long time series of basic water quality parameters
are absent.
One reason is the high heterogeneity in the delta in terms of spatial and time variations making a
routine monitoring programme on water quality parameters difficult or even meaningless unless
substantial efforts are directed towards identifying and determining the variations.
As part of the OKACOM diagnostic assessments in 1997, a review of water chemistry and
water quality was carried out (Warmeant, 1997). The review summaries the findings of four to
five studies mainly from the Jao-Boro River system (prepared by Cronberg G, Gieske A,
Martins E Nengu J. Stenstrom M in 1992, 1995,1996), and studies on chemical sedimentation
(precipitation) in plots of the Maunachira River and Jao-Boro River carried out by TS McCarthy
and J Metcalf and from SMEC Southern Okavango Integrated Water Project (1987).
In 2002, DWA initiated a study of the local impact on the water quality near some 116 camps
situated in the delta and along the Chobe River (Okavango and Chobe Pollution Study - an
Inception Report has been prepared, but no copies are available.) The intended purpose is to
assess the water quality upstream, in front of and downstream the camps. Three annual sampling
rounds will be analysed for standard water supply parameters and bacteria content (pH, EC,
TDS, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4, NO3, F, CO3, HCO3, Fe, Mn and faecal Ecoli and Faecal
Streptococci).
The laboratory analyses are carried out at the DWA laboratory in Gaborone. The data are stored
in the database AQUABASE also used for groundwater chemistry data.
The study of the local pollution impact from the camps (including bacteria contamination) has
to face difficulties separating the natural turnover, pulses from decomposition in the aquatic
system and animal dung from the local impact of the camps. Interpretation of pollution impacts
from the camps will be very difficult to determine based on the survey, and it is recommended
that the efforts shall be reconsidered and scaled down to essential and likely hot spot areas (if
these exist in terms of local water pollution impacts).
In June 2000, under high water conditions a water quality survey in four sub-areas of the delta
was conducted as part of the Rapid Assessment Programme (RAP 27). The programme included
in-situ monitoring of temperature, conductivity, pH and dissolve oxygen with hand held
instruments. The survey was repeated under low water conditions in 2002 but not yet reported.
At the HOORC Camp site on the Boro river (middle part) conductivity, pH and temperature was
measured for several years and variation in the pH, conductivity and oxygen content (Sethebe).

The main characteristics of the water quality findings from the Okavango Delta from the various
studies are condensed into Table 9.1 below.
Parameter Typical values/ characteristics of water chemistry in the Okavango
Delta
Basic Parameters pH in surface water is in the range of 5.6 – 7.7 (but higher in the
groundwater - in Maun up to 9.8)
Surface water temperature in the inflow varies between 17-18 0C in July
and 29 0C in January and 3-4 degrees higher at the southern fringe part of
the delta
Dissolved Oxygen is close to saturation in flowing waters but can be
substantially lower in stagnant pools and wetlands reflecting various
natural conditions. Reported fish kills in Guma Lagoon might have the
root causes in natural induced flushing of organic rich waters from the
Papyrus mats into the lagoon (RAP 27)
Salts (anions/cations) The surface waters in the delta are fresh with low content of salts in the
order of 20 mg/l of TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) and Conductivity of 3 -
8 mS/m but gradually becoming slightly more salty southwards and
considerably higher in isolated pools of stagnant water due to
evaporation. Salt aggradations are found in soil matrices in islands and
constitutes a complex interaction with vegetation and evaporation
Nutrients The Okavango River and open waters are low or even very low in
nutrients (N and P) with levels recorded to be in the range of 0.4 – 1.5
mg/l of Total N and 0.02 – 0.08 mg/l of Total P. The content of inorganic
N (NO3-N and NH4-N) indicates a fast biological uptake.
The low level of nutrients is also in harmony with high transparency of

the waters in the channels. The nutrient levels indicate oligotrophic
conditions while isolated waterbodies can be characterised as mesotrophic
– eutrophic
Heavy metals A few scattered analyses of heavy metal contents in surface water have
been done. Due to the pristine conditions of the catchmemt area, the
content is low and likely to reflect natural geological conditions. Analysis
of low levels of heavy metal in water samples will require significant
experience and laboratory skills in providing reliable results
Persistent and toxic Spraying with insecticides combating the tsetse fly (eg in 2001) and the
compounds introduced as herbicide paraquat (1974-82) against infestation of the Kariba Weed
anthropogenic chemicals (Salvinia) has taken place. Some specific investigations are done in order
to determine residues in the environment.
Table 9.1 – Summary of water quality characteristics, based on available information

from Warmeant, 1997, interview with DWA staff and HOORC staff (2003).
9.2 Need for Water Quality Monitoring

The water quality entering the delta from the upstream part of the Okavango River determines
the conditions in the delta itself. It is well founded to start a long term systematic monitoring of

essential water quality parameters at Mohembo including basic parameters, anions/cations and
nutrients.
A similar long term programme could be of value in the southern most part of the delta at the
Boro River (Junction) near to Maun as well as the North Gate at Khwai River indicating the
water quality as a function of a number of processes in the delta.
The monitoring shall be carried out in parallel with the discharge measurements enabling mass
flux calculations of the main constituents through the delta.
Figure 9.1 – The Boro Junction (7412) in

October 2003 (left) and North Gate on the
Khwai River (7545) in August 2003
In the delta itself, high evaporation rates and subsequent precipitation of inorganic solutes are
the main chemical processes and of utmost importance to the ecological functions. The solutes
in the surface water enter the aquifers and eventually determine the groundwater quality also in
the fringe area, which is of vital interest to the domestic water supply. The integrated hydrologic
model can indicate the overall flow patterns and thus supplement the assessment of the main
distribution of solutes in the delta area.
There is a well founded reason for determining the salt content in the surface water through
easy-to-conduct in-situ measurements of conductivity and temperature. Conductivity is a robust
parameter indicating the salt content. Furthermore pH is proposed to be included as a parameter.
The locations for in-situ measurements shall coincide with routine monitoring of water levels
and flow discharge.
It could be considered to include dissolved oxygen as a parameter. Oxygen probes in hand held
equipment are sensitive to handling habits and rough conditions (as the actual conditions in the
delta). Most likely oxygen probes will introduce a rather proportion of uncertain or even
misleading results. As an alternative, field measurements using the oxygen field test kit
(Winkler titration) could be considered, but are left out of the proposed setup in the delta in
order to keep the monitoring manageable for the DWA field staff.
9.3 Proposal for Water Quality Monitoring

The proposal for a systematic and long term monitoring programme is summarised in Table 9.2.

The proposal reflects the following considerations
Location Type of Water Parameters to Frequency Comments

Quality Monitoring be analysed
Mohembo In-situ measurements Conductivity, weekly Mohembo is a permanently

temp, pH staffed station and carries out
daily measurements of Q
Mohembo Water sampling + lab. pH, O2, TSS, twice a month Mohembo shall collect the
analysis in Maun TDS, WQ water samples in parallel with
standard* , TN, in situ measurements. The
inorganic-N, samples are transported to the
TP, ortho-P laboratory in Maun
Boro Junction In-situ measurements Conductivity, weekly Boro Junction is visited

(7412) temp, pH several times a week by
DWA staff for discharge
measurements and in-situ
sampling can be added to the
tasks of the team
Boro Junction Water sampling + lab pH, O2, TSS, twice a month DWA staff to collect water
(7412) and analysis in Maun TDS, WQ samples in parallel with in-
Khwai River - standard* , TN, situ measurements. The
North Gate inorganic N, samples are transported to the
(7545) TP, ortho-P laboratory in Maun
Measurements In-situ measurements Conductivity, in sequence In-situ measurements of

at stations temperature with discharge conductivity and pH are
where and pH measurements introduced as routine
discharge is (~monthly) parameter for the DWA field
made on team staff and shall be carried
regular basis out whenever the station is
(appox 20 visited for discharge
stations) measurements
Note *) WQ standard is usually parameters for water supply analysis (cations and anions)
Table 9.2 – Proposal for a systematic monitoring programme on water quality parameters
to be carried out by DWA
• Key water quality parameters shall be monitored on a routine basis in a

systematic way
• The water quality parameters selected shall be essential for determining key
functions of the delta and provide long term time series enabling assessments of
trends due to changes in the upstream area and within the delta
• The monitoring programme shall be balanced with the present and near future
capabilities of the DWA organisation (field staff, laboratory facilities, data
processing, etc)

• The monitoring programme shall be in line with the DWA responsibilities of

collecting water quality parameters in parallel with hydro-climatic data
• The monitoring programme shall take into consideration the logistic constraints
in carrying out the programme
• Additional and more intensive target monitoring programme (campaign
monitoring) can be introduced without interfering in the systematic programme.
The laboratory capability in DWA Maun is limited in terms of manpower and at present not able
to carry out analysis of low level contents of nitrogen and phosphorus. The analysis of the full
range of proposed parameters can be carried out at the laboratory at HOORC or as an alternative
at the DWA laboratory in Gaborone. This will impose additional constraints in the logistic
arrangement. It is recommended to find an arrangement with the HOORC laboratory until the
laboratory in Maun is capable of the analysis. In May 2004 DWA appointed two laboratory
technicians to Maun. In the detailed planning of laboratory involvement the actual capability
both at HOORC and DWA Maun shall be taken into consideration.
The programme will require additional equipment and staff resources as indicated in Table 9.3
and Table 9.4.
Equipment Estimated no. Comment
Water sampler for Mohembo 1 Water sampler is needed for Mohembo due to
the depth of the river. At the Boro Junction and
the Khwai River the sampling shall be carried
out by a simple bucket
Conductivity meter including 7 1 instrument permanent for the Mohembo staff

temperature readings / automatic + 4 for the field staff teams + 2 backup
compensation (hand held
instrument) and pH meter
Dissolved Oxygen Meter (O2) 3 1 instrument (or field kits) for the Mohembo
(hand held instrument) or staff + 1 for the Boro Junction/Khwai readings
alternatively a oxygen titration field + 1 backup
kit
Flasks, cool boxes for water 8 sets Exchange of the field sets between the field
sampling at Mohembo / Boro staff and the laboratory will ease the logistic
Junction / Khwai River North Gate arrangements and transport constraints
Table 9.3 – Outline of additional equipment and activities as part of the proposed water
quality programme

Activity for DWA staff Frequency Comments
In-situ measurements at weekly The measurement and filling in the field

Mohembo and Boro Junction form can be carried out with marginal time
field staff consumption (15 minutes per reading)
Water sampling at Mohembo, twice a month The sampling can be carried out as part of
Boro Junction and the Khwai the regular discharge measurements.
River Additional time requirement will be
marginal (15 minutes per reading)
Transport of samples to twice a week Reliable dedicated transport will most
Laboratory in Maun (within 6 likely be required
hours of sampling)
Conductivity and pH readings in sequence The additional readings and form filling
in-situ for the field staff with routine will slightly prolong the time required at
discharge each station
measurements
Laboratory analysis at DWA 3 x 26 samples The analysis will add to the workload in the
Maun or alternatively at per year laboratory
HOORC
Data filing and data assessment monthly The readings from the locations shall be
entered into AQUABASE and HYDATA.
Data assessment of raw data entries shall be
part of the routine work.
Coordination, training and monthly – The introduction of the programme needs
quality assurance annually coordination and training in handling of the
in-situ equipment and water sampling.
Follow up as appropriate and quality
assurance essential
Table 9.4 – Overview of major staff requirements introduced as part of the water quality
programme
The water quality programme has the advantage that the staff resources and facilities are to a
large extent in place and the programme fits into the existing DWA field activities and logistic
setup. In other words the water quality programme has the character of an add-on activity rather
than a burden of new procedures and duties hampering the implementation of the programme.
The field staff will need basic training in handling the instruments for water quality sampling
and readings. The training can be carried out as short courses and refresher courses.
The amount of laboratory work will be extended but will not be overwhelming compared to the
number of similar analysis and thus not critical for the setup. The DWA laboratory in Maun is
not be able to handle the full range of analysis for the time being. It is recommended to request
HOORC to carry out the analysis until the DWA laboratory is upgraded and extended.
In conclusion, the water quality programme can be introduced in a cost effective way and it is
recommended to launch the programme as soon as possible.

10 Assessment of Hydro-climatic Monitoring

The essential climate parameters in hydrologic monitoring are precipitation and evaporation.
Precipitation is fairly easy to measure manually but requires the presence of personnel to read
and empty the raingauges. Automatic registration of precipitation is a more complicated way to
measure the same parameter, giving a finer resolution of the temporal variation.
Point measurement of precipitation indicates the rainfall at the spot and will not necessarily be
representative for the area distributed rainfall. While there is a degree of spatial and temporal
variation in the rainfall over the delta, this is considerably attenuated in the surface water flow
distribution. A fine resolution is not considered essential.
Evaporation could be measured by evaporation pans but it is the general experience that pan
measurements are uncertain. The common approach is to calculate the potential evaporation
(Ep) value using formulae (eg Penman formula) including parameters such as temperature, wind
speed and solar radiation.
10.1 Network status

In the Okavango Delta and surrounding area five DMS stations are located including Maun in
the southern part of the delta and in Shakawe in the Panhandle. These two stations have the
most complete records of climatic parameters including evaporation measurements. The
additional three DMS stations in operation are at Shakawe, Gumare, Nokaneng and Sehitwa.
Altogether the five DMS manual operated stations will cover the fringe area and shall be
considered as primary data sources on climate parameters. Data from the stations have been
evaluated in EHES, 2003.
As stated previously (Chapter 6) DWA has 8 DCP stations, 7 located in the Delta, and one at
Mohembo. All stations are equipped with rain gauges of the tipping bucket type. It is
recommended to include additional climatic parameters at three stations (the DCP in Mohembo,
Xugana and Kwihum). Due to vandalism and lack of maintenance no data has been produced so
far. A more detailed description of the DCPs is found in Chapter 6.
The evaporation calculation for the hydrologic model and the standard Penman calculation need
access to the climatic parameters: temperature, humidity, wind speed, solar radiation and
precipitation. These parameters are or should be measured at 3 of 8 DCP stations located in the
delta.
At the DMS stations in Maun and Shakawe evaporation data are available. Due to the fact that
SADC is running a parallel DCP in Mohembo and the proximity of the DMS station in Shakawe
there is no need for the climatic sensors at the DWA owned DCP and the station can be
removed and used for spare parts in other stations.
10.2 Proposal for upgrading and rehabilitation

It is recommended to bring the DCPs back into operation at locations where there is a fair
chance that the stations will be unaffected by human or animal interference. New solar panels
and batteries have to be procured and damaged sensors have to be changed.
The DCP station at Xugana has to be back in operation so the extended measurements of
Hydroclimatic parameters can be provided.
The Kwihum station including climatic parameters is irreparably damaged due to vandalism. If
the climatic sensors can be repaired it is recommended to remove the platforms to Xo Flats. If

the sensors are permanently damaged new climatic sensors shall be procured and installed at the
Xo Flats DCP.
In this way there will be two stations in the delta with extended climatic parameters
supplementing the DMS stations both north and south of the delta. This is sufficient and it is not
advisable to erect more specialised stations before the existing ones are in operation and have
demonstrated that usable data can be derived.
The precipitation monitoring network covers the fringe area and most of the delta well. There is
a lack of raingauges in the south western part in the dry valleys and gaps in areal distribution.
It is proposed to distribute 8 raingauges as a secondary network. The exact location shall be
determined with a preference for secure sites (near lodges where arrangements for supervision
shall be made) and access to the site.
A tentative proposal for locations is depicted in Appendix 7. The total network and
recommendation on upgrade of hydro-climatic stations is summarised in Table 10.1.
Stations Raingauges Evaporation (direct
measurements or derived on Ep
– Penman)
DMS Stations situated near the 5 2

Delta (primary network) (Maun, Shakawe,
(Maun, Shakawe)
Seronga, Gumare, Sehitwa)
- existing
Data Collection Platforms (DCP) 7 2

- to be upgraded (+ 1 DCP Mohembo – SADC)
Additional sites (secondary 8

network) to be established
Total 20 4
Table 10.1 – Summary of existing and proposed upgrade of hydro-climatic stations

11 Remote Sensing supporting Hydrologic Monitoring

The logistic constraints for all land based hydrologic monitoring in the delta make use of remote
sensing techniques attractive and can ideally supplement interpretations of flood levels and dry
periods and the overall trends over decades. Furthermore, satellite images can be useful for
many other purposes and may therefore be shared with other stakeholders in ODMP.
DWA should establish systematic collection of satellite images. MODIS images are free and
unrestricted, and provide the best option. These will enable a consistent coverage of the delta,
and the detection of the spatial variation in flooding at monthly intervals to follow the flood as it
propagates through the delta. Albedo and leaf area index (LAI) should also be included.
Satellite images from the Landsat 7 have been used partly for creating the topographical model
used for the hydrologic modelling. The topographical model developed by April 2004 includes
interpretation of five scenarios from Landsat covering the period 1999–2002. The images were
partly made available through HOORC sharing inputs from various research projects and parts
have been purchased by DWA specifically for the hydrologic model project.
A second supplementary option offering higher resolution is Landsat 7, with one complete scene
covering the delta in the dry season and another scene in the maximum flood situation (four
individual Landsat scenes cover the delta). Since May 2003 there have been technical problems
with the satellite, with errors at the image margins. The usefulness of the images would have to
be assessed. The Landsat satellite images can be purchased with a modest budget compared to
many land based activities, adding up to approximately BWP6,000 per complete scene or
BWP12,000 per year assuming two seasons covered.

12 Cost Estimate
With reference to the recommendations and tentative equipment list an outline cost estimate has
been compiled. The cost estimate is based on procurement of instruments and drills for
groundwater monitoring only.
The additional time consumption and cost internally for DWA to man the expanded monitoring
programme is not estimated at this stage. The programme is designed to fit broadly into the
ongoing field activities of DWA, and to make the ongoing activities more efficient and ease the
time required for logistics. The majority of the activities shall not add an overwhelming burden
of workload when the programme enters routine mode.
In the implementation phase considerable man power consumption from DWA must be foreseen
in preparing tender documents, evaluation, procurement, installation, training and coordination
and QA.
Technical assistance in the order of 3 to 4 man months in planning, designing and
implementation can be allocated from the international and national staff under the ODMP
component 2 and 3. Additional assistance from national specialist(s) might be required and shall
be engaged directly by DWA if shortcomings are ascertained in the course of the
implementation.
In Table 12.1 the main components are listed together with an estimated price for each theme.
No attempt in this review has been made to prepare detailed estimates of the cost of the annual
maintenance and repair. All the sites are vulnerable to damage, and there is a need to balance
installation and maintenance costs. In all circumstances the latter will be relatively high. As an
indication of the magnitude, the repair and maintenance costs might be in the order of 10 to 20%
of the total procurement cost of the instruments (excluding drilling costs). Taking this value as
indicative the amount will add up to some 30,000 USD to be allocated as annual running costs.

Component Description Procurement costs

(in US$)
Surface water Automatic water level recorders installed at 40,000

approximately 15 locations and stilling wells established.
Procurement of spare parts and upgrade of field
equipment including digital cameras for photographic
documentation
HydroClimate Upgrade and rehabilitation of 7 DCP stations including 35,000

procurement of 8 additional precipitation gauges and
operational software/hardware equipment
Water Quality Procurement of handheld instruments 15,000

(7 EC, temperature and pH in situ instruments, 1 water
sampler, 3 sets of O2 titration kits, 8 sets of flasks/cool
boxes)
Sediment transport 1 bed load sampler, 1 suspended load sampler, 1 bottom 5,000
grab sampler, flasks, sample containers, etc.
Groundwater drills Drills and supply goods for approx 18 boreholes in the 75,000*
delta peripheral areas (900 m boreholes) assuming light
- fringe areas
drill equipment used (the Eureka porta rig type) and
minor costs to rehabilitate existing boreholes for
monitoring if feasible
Groundwater drills Drill and supply goods for approx 40 boreholes in the 60,000*
delta area for piezometry assuming handheld equipment
- delta proper
drill (depth up to 20 m) in combination with additional 8-
10 boreholes with the Eureka type for drills in deeper
layers
Groundwater Instruments for water level recordings of the dipper type 40,000
instrumentation for manual readings (~4) and automatic recordings in
remote areas/the delta piezometers (~40); EC and pH
instrument for in-situ measurements with sufficient cable
length; protection means against damages/vandalism, etc
Remote sensing Procurement of Landsat Images (4 scenes per season). 5,000

Note: Annual cost. Provision included for procurement of (2 year purchase
2 years of images (until 2005/6) included)
Contingencies and unallocated budget for unforeseeable expenses and local 25,000
contractors for assistance in field work in case DWA workshops and field staff
are unable to support implementation
Total cost for procurement of equipment and drills 300,000 US$
Table 12.1 - Cost estimate of equipment specified in Chapter 6-11. The cost of
groundwater monitoring (*) is very uncertain and based on quotations using light
equipment as indicated in Appendices 10 and 11.

13 Implementation Strategy
The main steps in implementing the recommendations are summarised below. In total, a period
of 12 months is foreseen to make the setup fully operational. The implementation plan is
depicted in Figure 13.1.
The conclusions and recommendations in this report are intended to be presented for perusal and
scrutiny of the Technical Committee of the Hydrology and Water Resources component in June
2004. Anticipating an approval of the overall framework of the monitoring outline and the
recommendations by DWA shortly after, the implementation shall commence by July/August
2004 and be concluded within approximately one year.
In order to achieve fast implementation it is proposed to work in parallel and separately within
the four categories of
• Surface water hydrology, equipment procurement and sediment sampling
• Water quality analysis equipment
• DCP installations and upgrading
• Groundwater drillings and monitoring
In case one of the categories is delayed for whatever reason the others can continue without
delays. Groundwater monitoring is particularly complex, and needs more detailed consideration
and time to implement.
13.1 Formation of task force

The recommendations as presented in this report are the first step in a comprehensive process.
The implementation will require dedicated and well considered approaches and shall utilise data
on hydrology and climatic parameters interpreted and entered into an integrated surface-
groundwater model all adding to a deeper understanding of the hydrologic function of the delta.
A flexible approach must be the basis for the future process of specification, site selection,
installation and mode of operation and the recommendations shall thus be considered as a
framework to be detailed and refined.
It is proposed to create two task forces charged with the responsibility of implementing a cost
effective monitoring programme within the overall budget frames. The task forces can draw on
technical assistance allocated from the resources of international and national consultants
currently working under the ODMP (Components 2 and 3).
The proposed organisational set up is depicted in the chart over.

Task Force - Surface Hydrology Task Force - Groundwater

Themes: Surface Hydrology, Sediment, Themes: Groundwater
DCP, Water Quality, Satelitte Images
Force members: Force Members:

DWA - Hydrology Modelling Unit DWA - Groundwater section (Gaborone)
DWA - Maun/Gumare DWA - Maun
DWA - Gaborone (Hydrology section) DWA - Hydrology Modelling Unit
Ad hoc advice: HOORC Ad hoc advice: HOORC

Management:
Kalaote Kalaote
(Project
Director)
Alasdair
Macdonald Support from the ODMP Component 2 and 3 consultants allocated to the task forces within
(team leader) the approximately themes and man-time (to be approved):
1) Assistance in equipment specification, DCP upgrade, installation supervision, equipment training,

etc (Ole Smith, Monitoring Specialist ~ 0.75 man month)
2) Assistance to groundwater site selection, drill specification, supervision of implementation in
Technical Assistance Maun (Margaret J McFarlane, Hydrogeologist ~1.5 mm)
3) Assistance to assessment of existing boreholes suitability, mapping, geo profiling, etc (Israel
Mabua, Hydrogeologist - 0.5 mm)
4) Assistance to interpretation of surface hydrology, criteria for site selection and future programme
for Q-H measurement frequencies, etc (Francis Sefe, Hydrologist - 1 mm)
Additional support of 1 to 2 man months may be allocated (based on discussion and approval) from
Component 2 - Data Management under the headline of Specific studies to enhance wetland
management and monitoring. Assistance allocated to eg preparation of an Annual Monitoring Report
on ODMP in a conceptual outline and sediment transport studies.
In the beginning, the two task forces shall be assigned to prepare a detailed staff task–time
schedule (roster) in order for all involved to have a clear view of who is doing what when with
what equipment. This will highlight any need for additional human and equipment resources.
13.2 Specification, final site selection and equipment procurement

Major stepping stones in the implementation are summarised in the tasks timetable (see Figure
13.1).
Major steps are:
1. After the approval of the Technical Committee in June 2004 the two task forces of DWA
shall be mandated to launch the implementation of the programme. Technical assistance
from the international/national staff under the ODMP DWA Hydrology and Water
Resources project team shall be made available in the planning and implementation
phase.
2. The recommendations in this report shall be circulated to the sections in DWA directly
involved in the future programme, and through a consultative process invited to comment
and forward ideas for adjustments. The experience from present monitoring (field work,
data transmission, data storage, etc) shall be utilised avoiding mistakes and constraints in
the logistic arrangements.

3. The proposed setup and recommendations shall be further detailed and technical
specifications of the equipment developed in sufficient detail to make a tender
announcement. The technical specifications shall be tailored to the site specific
requirements.
4. The technical specifications and tender documents shall be divided into lots as
appropriate. The equipment will probably have to be procured from international
suppliers. The surface water hydrology part and the DCP upgrading might also face the
need for fieldwork and construction work to be carried out by national contractors or by
DWA field staff.
5. The groundwater monitoring programme will require thorough planning and site
selection. It is expected that the site selection shall rely on a thorough analysis of the
geological features and present monitoring boreholes before the best monitoring sites can
be settled. Specification on drilling depths, drilling techniques, casings, sealing,
piezometry and data loggers shall be specified. It is envisaged that the drills shall be
contracted with private companies but DWA can take on the task if required.
6. Following the rules of GOB the procurement of equipment over an assumed value of
10,000 BWP shall be based on tender usually taking about 4 weeks from calls to final
selection. The successful tenderer is evaluated on financial proposal in combination with
technical criteria. Tender documents are prepared by the DWA task forces.
7. The selected supplier is contracted and the delivery of equipment can probably be within
1 to 2 months. In case fieldwork is needed local contractors are called in for quotations.
The technical specifications, site selection and procurement of equipment are foreseen to be in
place at the end of 2004, although the groundwater monitoring site selection might be extended
a few additional months.
13.3 Installation, operation and training

The installation of the equipment and the effort bringing the monitoring procedures into a
routine mode are planned for the first half of 2005.
The operational procedures will require instruction and training but essentially the monitoring
instruments proposed are fairly easy to operate (except the DCPs). The challenge is to have the
dataflow, storage and quality assurance into an established procedure.
The tasks are subdivided into:
8. The surface water level recorders and current meters shall be installed and handed over to
the field staff thus augmenting the existing network. The equipment selected shall ideally
be similar or equivalent to the existing. Training sessions with the field staff in Maun and
Gumare will be required. One option is to request the CTA to coordinate the training.
9. A complete overhaul of the routines in water level readings, discharge measurements in
combination with the fields staff logistics will be a critical task and should rationalise the
entire field work and secure data reliability. The options of using rating curves
establishing a correlation between discharge and water level shall pursued although
constraints might be faced due to the variable flow and vegetation patterns.
10. The introduction of sediment transport monitoring is foreseen as a joint project between
HOORC and DWA. Equipment handling in Mohembo will require instruction in the
field. The field sampling shall ideally commence before the flood (no later than
December 2004).

11. The water quality programme needs instruction to field staff in sampling, storage and
filling in data logs and data flow, and data storage and interpretation.
12. The DCP stations will require a fairly high level of maintenance skills both in the field,
in data retrieval and storage.
13. The drilling of the groundwater monitoring boreholes needs close supervision in the
drilling period securing the correct casing, sealing and installation of piezometry pipes.
The regular monitoring of the existing boreholes to be included in the network shall be
included in regular logistic routes for the field staff and data entries in the database
established.
14. The entire setup of the monitoring programme and continuous follow up in the routine
mode needs coordination and supervision from the dedicated task forces in DWA.
13.4 Data dissemination

Data provided by improved monitoring is without any use in a wider perspective of the ODMP
if the information is entered into a database without easy access and announcements of the
options of using the data for other interested stakeholders. Ease of access and dissemination will
be coordinated through the HOORC data management activities.
It is suggested that an easy to overview annual report on the Okavango Delta Monitoring shall
be prepared for and circulated to the key stakeholders, and made available and accessible as a
PDF file to be circulated via email or downloaded from the DWA web site (and ODMP web
site). The report shall be available within say 4 to 5 months after the last data on the monitoring
year are gathered. The monitoring year could either be the hydrological year (1 October to 30
September) or a calendar year.
The report shall contain an overview map of the monitoring stations on surface water
hydrology, dedicated groundwater monitoring locations, water quality sampling stations and
climatic stations. The annual results shall be presented and illustrative time series on selected
parameters commented. Model results from the integrated hydraulic model might support the
conclusions and findings whenever the model is operational. Excerpts of the actual satellite
images procured shall be included in the report.
13.5 Timing and work schedule

The work plan and time schedule is outlined over.
The installation in the field is planned to be carried out late 2004 or early 2005, but shall be
scheduled according to the actual rainfall and water levels in the delta hampering assess with
heavy equipment to be transported overland, and river levels too low for boats.

Implementation Schedule of Hydrologic Monitoring Upgrading

Calendar Month 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Year 2004 2005
Tasks Inception Phase
Review and Outline of Monitoring Programme (This report)
Proposal to be presented to discussed at ODMP Tech Com. And approved by DWA
Approval of framework of monitoring programme and budget
Specification, final site selection and procurement
1 Detail the recommendations in this report - set up the implementation task force
2 Prepare Tech.Specifications for Equipment (Surface Water, Sediment sampler, DCP)
3 Site selection and specifications for groundwater monitoring drillings and boreholes
4 Tendering in one or several equipment lots as appropriate
5 Procurement contract(s) and delivery
Installation, training and operation
6 Install equipment on surface water level -discharge network, train and operate
7 Initate and train field staff on sediment transport monitoring at Mohembo
8 Initate and train field staff on water quality programme
9 Upgrade DCP Hydroclimatic stations, follow-up
10 Drill groundwater monitoring boreholes and make monitoring operational
11 Co-ordinate and secure proper dataflow, data storage and data quality
Prepare and Initate Annual DWA Monitoring Report
12 Outline of Annual Monitoring Report and dissemination
Legend:
Main period of activity
Part time/extension period
Figure 13.1 - Outline of work schedule

14 Summary and Recommendations

Water is the lifeline to the Okavango Delta. Data on hydrologic and climatic parameters are
essential to assess the functionality and long term trends in the delta, and the wise use of the
wetland and surrounding area, all part of the 65,000 km2 Ramsar site. As the responsible agency
for national water resources planning and development, the Department of Water Affairs
(DWA) has an important obligation to provide reliable, comprehensive and systematic
information of the hydrology essential in for the Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP).
A review of hydrologic data collection and data management in and around the Okavango Delta
in the context of the Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) has been carried out and
recommendations on improved instrumentation, data handling, data storage on surface water,
sediment transport, water quality, groundwater and hydroclimatic parameters have been
prepared where findings have revealed shortcomings.
The design of any monitoring programme shall take its offset in the function and key processes
in the hydrologic dynamics and the interference to the ecosystem (time wise and spatial
variation) with due consideration of the likely human impacts. Considerable effort has over time
been directed towards monitoring programmes on hydrologic parameters, and for many years
intensive monitoring of surface water has been carried out. Important lessons learnt from
previous and present monitoring shall be taken into account in planning additional monitoring.
The following overall objectives and principles for the monitoring programme for the Okavango
Delta have guided the review and recommendations:
1. The monitoring programme shall add to sound and reliable hydrologic data to be
provided by DWA and to be used for the integrated hydrologic model within and
beyond the project period and for other stakeholders active in the management of
the delta
2. The monitoring programme shall make possible documenting long term trends in
the hydrology, sediment transport and basic water quality parameters
3. The monitoring programme shall focus on the most likely pressures and future
impacts from upstream of the delta and changes within the delta
4. The monitoring programme shall be within the scope of DWA’s activities and be
carried out as a systematic and long term programme
5. The programme shall be a balance between the cost and usefulness of the data for
the future
6. The monitoring shall not have the character of research – that is left for other
institutions to carry out.
Surface water monitoring

The coverage of measurement stations in the delta is dense. More than 60 stations (past and
present) measure water levels with readings of gauge boards, and a few are equipped with
automatic chart recorders although the condition of these is poor. Some of the gauge board
readings are carried out daily while others are periodic. Discharge (flow) is measured more or
less frequently at around 22 sites.

A total of 8 automatic and remotely operated Data Collection Platforms (DCP) was installed in
the delta in 1995. The data are transferred to DMS by satellite and only distributed to DWA if
requested. Seven of the DCP stations are installed with equipment for water level recordings
and all 8 stations are equipped with raingauges. Two DCPs in the delta have several extra
sensors for hydroclimatic parameters. The DCPs are out of order due to elephant damage (3
stations), thefts of the solar panel (3 stations), vandalism and instrument failures or a
combination of these. In Mohembo, an extra DCP is installed (SADC-Hycos) measuring several
water parameters and hydroclimatic parameters. Data are available from the internet.
Precipitation is also measured by DMS at Maun, Shakawe, Gumare and Sehitwa, all in the
fringe area of the delta.
All monitoring is handled from the local DWA offices in Maun and Gumare.
Water level and discharge data are stored in the HYDATA database located in Gaborone. The
original measured data and corrected and interpreted data are sometimes mixed. This should be
avoided. Previous data series have to be scrutinised and corrected in the further process of
setting up the hydrologic model.
The following are the conclusions and recommendations on the surface water hydrology
• The existing network of water level and discharge stations seems sufficient to
cover the delta dynamics in a reasonable way
• It is recommended to install robust automatic water level recorders at
approximately 15 of the water level gauges where manual readings are carried
out today or old chart recorders are not dependable. Inexpensive but robust data
loggers are available and can easily be installed on the sites. Together with the
DCP water level recorders this monitoring network will cover and uniformly
represent the main river system Mohembo, Jao and Boro (10) and Xudum–
Kunyere (2). The Thaoge river is covered by 2 stations while the Eastern rivers
with uniform and rather small water level variations are covered by 6 automatic
level recorders. The final positioning of the stations will depend on the
individual needs of spatially distributed data, eg modelling, topographic
mapping etc. Any future changes in river routing will influence planning and
reconsideration of the locations might be necessary.
• All water level gauging sites shall be linked to the national datum level
• Although the existing experience with the DCPs is not encouraging, efforts
shall be directed towards bringing the DCP stations into function and data
received and stored properly. It is recommended to upgrade 6 or 7 of the 8 DCP
stations. The extra DCP at Mohembo can be used as spare parts. Stilling wells
and proper trenching of the pressure transducer shall be carried out at all
stations and solar panels and batteries shall be installed by devices reducing the
possibility of simple theft.
• It is impossible to make the gauging stations fully animal and theft proof. It will
be necessary to carry out occasional repairs and replacement of parts
• At least two persons have to be trained in maintaining the DCP stations and
collect data from these
• Based on a spot test of one discharge instrument and discharge calculation form
only it is the impression that the discharge measurements and calculations are
carried out satisfactorily and no urgent upgrade of the equipment is needed

• At least monthly discharge is recommended at all discharge stations in the Delta

but the seasonal flow shall be monitored with a higher intensity in flood
periods. A recommended frequency requires detailed analysis of the flow
pattern and should be a subsequent task
• Options of constructing rating curves (dynamic or static) in order to calculate
discharge values in between the discharge measurements should be investigated.
Calculation of time series with daily discharge has to be done
• The daily discharge measurements at Mohembo could be reduced and more
detailed measurements could be carried out every second day using the
cableway. Rating curves will be sufficient to estimate the water discharge in
periods not measured
• All measured and recorded data in hardcopy (cross section, velocity, etc) shall
be entered in a database making other assessments possible. The database
reading shall be carried out at the local office in Maun making first hand quality
checks on the raw data possible, and prompt remedial action as required
• Historical water level and discharge data has to be further reviewed and quality
controlled
• Quarterly reporting of data has to be done in the project period and should be
continued at least annually as a long term task.
Sediment transport
No systematic monitoring of quantities of sediment (bed load and suspended particles) entering
or within the delta is in place. The sediment transport is of vital importance to the dynamics of
the delta.
It is recommended to commence systematic sediment transport monitoring at the Mohembo
station in order to assess the variation and the annual load of sediment entering the delta. The
monitoring can be carried out by the permanent staff in Mohembo and shall be closely linked to
the discharge measurements. A one year initial assessment prepared as a joint project between
DWA and HOORC could be valuable and the results evaluated to determine a long term
programme.
It is also recommended to carry out a one off (initially) post flood campaign in 2004 to sample
bed material throughout the delta.
Groundwater Monitoring
Approximately 1,000 boreholes are present within the ODMP area and groundwater abstraction
is intensifying in the Maun area and at the western fringe areas. Some of the new groundwater
well fields have established dedicated monitoring boreholes and water level variations
recordings are carried out to some extent.
In order to monitor long term trends in groundwater aquifers both as a function of the
abstraction of groundwater resources and long term fluctuations in areas outside the area
directly impacted, it is proposed to implement a dedicated and well considered groundwater
monitoring programme. The sequence of implementing the monitoring will require detailed
planning and assessment of the geological structures. The conceptual approach is proposed to
contain the following elements

• Along the western side of the delta a monitoring system has to be designed
based on existing boreholes. A small number of new boreholes may be required
to fill geographical gaps.
• In the southern part of the delta more attention has to be given to existing
monitoring boreholes to obtain continuous records of data.
• To improve knowledge of the relationship between the upper shallow aquifer
and the deeper aquifer, two nested systems are recommend for installation in the
southern abstraction area.
• In the north eastern and eastern flank of the delta a tentative estimate of 6 to 8
new boreholes is recommended
• In the Delta, a number of monitoring boreholes has to be drilled in different
terrain types selected from analysis of satellite images and aerial photos
• In the southern part of the lower delta it is recommended that a long profile of a
‘broad tract’ valley be monitored to quantify clearly the effect of flood retreat.
A similar profile is recommended placed in a morphologically comparable
valley on the north side of the delta.
• In the lower reaches of the ‘broad tract’ valleys described above it is proposed
that two cross sections be monitored in each valley.
• To complete the data spread, monitoring piezometers should also be placed
where groundwater levels are known to be very stable, both in areas of saline
and fresh water.
Water Quality Monitoring of Surface Water

Previous monitoring of water quality parameters in the surface waters of the delta has been
scarce and scattered to a few project specific studies, dissertations or research works and
consequently long time series of basic water quality parameters are absent.
It is recommended to commence a fairly simple water quality monitoring programme fitting into
the logistic setup of the surface water hydrology fieldwork. The setup has the character of an
add on module rather than a new set of procedures to be introduced. The monitoring programme
is proposed to comprise long term and systematic monitoring of essential water chemical
parameters comprising
• Water quality sampling and laboratory analysis of essential water quality
parameters at Mohembo (basic parameters, anions/cations and nutrients), at the
Boro River (Junction) near Maun and Khwai River at North Gate with a
frequency of twice a month
• In all stations where discharge is measured on a regular basis the field teams
shall carry out in-situ measurements of conductivity, pH and temperature with
easy to manage hand held instruments
Hydroclimatic monitoring
Precipitation data are measured at five DMS stations in the fringe area of the delta. Inside the
delta six DCP stations have to be revitalised for precipitation to be measured.

Climatic data are measured at two DMS stations in the area. The spatial distribution can be
improved when the two or three extended DCP stations are back in operation. Potential
evaporation (Ep) calculations can be made from the climatic parameters.
• Six or seven of the 8 DCP stations from STS have to be made operational and
upgraded. The eighth station at Mohembo can be used as spare as there is
installed a new DCP SADC Hycos station.
• New sensors, solar panels, batteries, etc have to be procured.
• Eight new precipitation gauges should be positioned in the delta mainly in the
western part to fill area coverage gaps
• Necessary software and field testing kits have to be procured so DWA are
independent of DMS.
• Contact has to be made to DMS to secure that they will continue operating the
relevant precipitation and evaporation stations.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing and analysis of annually procured satellite images in flood periods and dry
periods may add to the interpretation of the hydrologic variation and supplement the land based
monitoring.
It is recommended on a routine basis to acquire images (eg MODIS, Landsat) as support to the
hydrologic monitoring programme.
Cost estimate
The cost of upgrading the equipment and carrying out the groundwater monitoring drills is
estimated to be 300,000 US$. The cost estimate for groundwater monitoring comprises 60 % of
the total cost and is the most uncertain part, depending on the actual drill costs in the area. The
annual cost of maintenance and repair of the equipment is estimated to be within 10 to 20 % of
the capital cost. The overall upgrading should not be implemented until it is assured that this
latter cost can be met from the revenue or other budget
In addition to the procurement cost, DWA manpower in implementing the proposed monitoring
programme will be required. The monitoring programme itself will to a large extent fit into the
normal routine of the DWA field staff functions and will not expand the workload dramatically.
Implementation strategy and timing

The recommendations in this report will be discussed in June 2004 in the Technical Committee
of the Hydrology and Water Resources component under ODMP and shall be subject to
approval by DWA. Anticipating approval of the outline of the recommendations shortly after,
the implementation shall commence in July/August 2004 and be concluded within
approximately one year. In order to achieve fast implementation it is proposed to work in
parallel and separately within the four categories of
• Surface water hydrology, equipment procurement and sediment sampling
• Water quality analysis equipment
• DCP installations and upgrading
• Groundwater drillings and monitoring

In case one of the categories is delayed for whatever reason the other issues shall continue as
planned.
The outline of the equipment and location has been based on the findings at the beginning of a
comprehensive process. Data on hydrology and climatic parameters are gathered and shall
gradually be interpreted, all adding to a deeper insight of the hydrologic function. A flexible
approach from the outset shall be the basis for the future process of specification and site
selection. Thus the programme shall be considered an outline for further refinements. It is
proposed to dedicate two task forces with the responsibility for implementation. One task force
shall be charged with the responsibility of surface water monitoring, upgrading the DCPs, water
quality and sediment transport monitoring. The second task force shall be charged with
groundwater monitoring.
The technical specifications, site selection and procurement of equipment are foreseen to be in
place at the end of 2004 although the groundwater monitoring site selection might be extended
some additional months.
The installation of the equipment and the effort bringing the monitoring procedures into a
routine mode are planned for the first half of 2005. The operational procedures will require
instruction and training but essentially the monitoring instruments proposed are fairly easy to
operate (except the DCPs). The challenge is to have the dataflow, storage and quality assurance
in a well established procedure.
Data dissemination
Data provided by improved monitoring is without any use in the wider perspective of ODMP if
the information is entered into databases without easy access and announcements of the options
of using the data for other stakeholders. It is suggested that an easy to overview annual
monitoring report on the Okavango Delta Monitoring shall be prepared.
The report shall be available within say 4 to 5 months after the last data on the monitoring year
are gathered. The report shall contain an overview map of the monitoring stations on surface
water hydrology, dedicated groundwater monitoring locations, water quality sampling stations
and climatic stations. The annual results shall be presented and illustrative time series on
selected parameters commented. Model results from the integrated hydrology model might
support the conclusions and findings whenever the model is operational.
Need for technical assistance

The major effort in implementing the monitoring programme will be within the first year where
substantial input in terms of planning, equipment specification, installation, training and
establishing the programme are evident.
The groundwater monitoring design will especially require thorough planning in order to create
a cost effective programme. Additionally, the concept of an annual DWA monitoring report
might need assistance.
In the budget for the Danida supported DWA assistance around three man months of
international and national technical assistance is scheduled. It is anticipated that additional input
(at least from the national consultants) will be required to assist in the implementation of the
monitoring programme.

15 References
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Turton, Anthony, Ashton, Peter & Cloete, Eugene (editors): Transboundary rivers, Sovereignty
and Developments: Hydropolitical Drivers in the Okavango River Basin, 2003
UNEP-WHO, Water Quality Monitoring – A Practical Guide to the Design and Implementation
of Freshwater Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes. Editors Jamie Bertram and Richard
Balance, 1996

Warmeant, Poul: ’Review of Water Chemistry and Water Quality in the Okavango Delta’.
Specialist Report prepared November 1997 for the OKACOM.
WMO (Pub. 680), Manual on Water Quality Monitoring, Operational Hydrology Report no. 27.
World Meteorological Organisation, 1988
WMO (Pub. 686), Manual on Operational Methods for Measurement of Sediment Transport,
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WRC (Water Resources Consultants) 2002 Maun Groundwater Development Project Phase 2,
Project Review Report 1, Department of Water Affairs, Gaborone.
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Project Review Report 2, Department of Water Affairs, Gaborone.

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200
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
80.01 Pre cipita tion (a vg Ma un S ha ka we )

100
800
90
700 80
70
600
60
VNF [m3/s]
VNF [m3/s]
500
50
400 40
300 30
20
200
10
100
0
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
71.12 Mohe mbo, discha rge 74.12 Boro Junction, discha rge
Appendix 1

60 3
40 2
VNF [m3/s]
VST [m]
20 1
0 0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
72.15 Ga e nga , discha rge ] 72.15 Ga e nga , wa te r le ve l
60 3
40 2
VNF [m3/s]
VST [m]
20 1
0 0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
74.45 Xa kue , discha rge 74.45 Xa kue , wa te r le ve l
60 3
40 2
VNF [m3/s]
VST [m]
20 1
0 0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
DDH Mstnr. : 75.65 Txaba

75.65 T xa ba , discha rge 75.65 T xa ba , wa te r le ve l
Appendix 2

#
Muhembo
$ discharge
rivers
# towns
roads
Sepupa
#
Seronga
swamps
#
$
$
$
$$
$ $ $
Etsha 6
$
#
Gumare
# $
$$
Nokaneng
$ $
# $
$ Shorobe
#
$
Matlapaneng
Maun #
$
#
$
N Tsau
#
Makalamabedi
W E Toteng
$# #
Sehithwa
#
0 50 100 Kilometers
S
Appendix 3. Existing Discharge measurement sites

$#
$
Muhembo $ hydrometric (proposed)
$ DCP
$ hydrometric
rivers
# towns
Sepupa
#$
Seronga
roads
$ $$
$
#
swamps
$
$ $
$ $$$
$ $
$
$ $ $$$ $
$ $$ $
$ $ $ $$ $$$
$$ $
Etsha$6 $ $
#
$ $$ $
Gumare# $ $
$
$$
$$
$$ $ $ $
$ $$
Nokaneng
# $
$ $
$ $ Shorobe
#
$
$ $ $ $
$
Matlapaneng
$
$Maun# #$
$ $$
$ $
Tsau $
N $
# $
Toteng Makalamabedi
#
$#
W E Sehithwa$ $
# 0 50 100 Kilometers
S
Appendix 4. Existing and proposed hydrometric water level measurement sites

$#
Muhembo $ raingauge (potential)
$ $ DCP
$ climate
$ raingauge
$ rivers
Sepupa # towns
#
Seronga $ roads
$
#
$ swamps
$
$ $ $
$ $
$
$ $ $
Etsha$6
#
$
Gumare $
$
#
$ $
$ $
$
$
$
Nokaneng
$
#
$
$ Shorobe
#
$
$
Matlapaneng
Maun #
#
$
Tsau
$
#
N
Toteng Makalamabedi
# #
W E Sehithwa
$
#
0 40 80 Kilometers
S
Appendix 5 Existing and potential climatic and raingauge sites

$#
Muhembo
$ DCP
rivers
# towns
Sepupa
roads
#
Seronga
#
swamps
$
$ $ $
Etsha 6
#
Gumare
#
$ $
$
Nokaneng
#
Shorobe
#
Matlapaneng
Maun #
#
N
Tsau
#
W E Toteng Makalamabedi
#
#
Sehithwa
S
Appendix 6. Existing sites where DCP, Data Collection Platforms, type STS, are installed.

$#
Muhembo
$ hydrometric (auto)
$ DCP
rivers
# towns
Sepupa
roads
# $ swamps
Seronga
$
#
$
$ $
$
$$ $
$
$ $
Etsha 6
#
Gumare
# $
$
$ $
Nokaneng $
# $
Shorobe
#
$
Matlapaneng
#
Maun
#
Tsau
N #
Makalamabedi
Toteng #
W E $#
Sehithwa
S
Appendix 7. Potential upgrade sites for automatic water level data loggers and
precipitation gauges.

Appendix 8. Surface water stations, tentative list (see notes over)

The Monitoring Network of Okawango Delta - Hydro -climatic data. Version per May 2004
MS - Data from Survey 2003/20
Riversystem Station Station Flow + parameters H-Data Q-dataDWA DCP Rain Gauge WGS84 / UTM
3 6 6 7 1 2 5 5 5 8 number name access Q H H(Aut) in file in file Field Type gauge Zero (msl) Co-ordinates X/Y
A7112 Mohembo pere Q H Auto yes Gum B 992.842 583162/7978918
A7122 Shakawe pere H Auto yes Gum 991.051 589644/7969609
7134 Sepopa H yes Gum 980.587 626129/7927088
7144 Seronga H yes Gum 977.065 649249/7918275
7154 Duba H yes Gum 972.59 665601/7901296
7215 Gaenga pere Q H yes Gum A rg 963.984 691590/7890572
7225 Letetmetso block Q H yes Gum 704651/7889912
7245 Hamoga/Smith channel pere Q H yes Gum 697747/7890416
7234 Xugana H yes Maun B 956.483 720951/7890492
7524 Mogohelo pere Q H 952.596 732460/7875748
7535 Gadikwe pere Q H Maun 951.358 736757/7880476
7525 Xakanaxa pere Q H yes Maun rg 947.617 753384/7877269
7544 Tsaro Khwai H Maun 935.029 787524/7878277
7545 Northgate Khwai H Maun
D Guma lagoon pere Q H Gum A 972.374 644561/7902908
7324 Etsha lagoon H yes Gum rg 638233/7886023
7325 Tubu Bridge dry Q H yes 626136/7858087
7375 Ikoga block Q H yes Gum 636636/7913682
? Cresent Island pere Q H Gum 975.565 646498/7911924
7335 Qusinga upstream seas Q H Auto yes Gum 629983/7869616
? Qusinga downstream seas Q ? Gum 629983/7869616
? Qaakhwa upstream pere Q ? Gum 646359/7893342
? Qaakhwa downstream block Q ? Gum 645396/7891275
? Small chan. at Qaakhwa pere Q ? Gum
? Weboro block Q ? Gum 644813/7886317
? Xhamu upstream pere Q ? Gum 650480/7893804
? Xhamu downstream pere Q ? Gum 650557/7893908
? Tamachaa dry Q ? Gum
? Kgolalefetshe block Q ? Gum 652421/7894821
? Qurube D/stream culvert seas Q ? Gum
? Haya D/stream bypass seas Q ? Gum
? Masepaaphiri dry Q ? Gum 626093/7856870
? Xhobegha dry Q ? Gum
? Gandiguni dry Q ? Gum 628541/7858919
? Xuru dry Q ? Gum 631470/7874244
? Tsau old bridge dry Q ? Gum 653349/7767798
A QL3 H Gum 969.977 664994/7896869
7425 Kwihum Q H Auto yes Gum A rg 971.27 664270/7894352
7414 Mosupatsela H yes Gum rg 967.958 670050/7883487
7424 Madinare pere Q H yes yes Gum 965.919 675721/7877804
7434 Gogonte H Gum
7435 Txichira H Gum
7454 Palm Tree block H
7444 Monkey's Skull block H
7464 Xo Flats H A
A7445 Xakue pere Q H Auto yes Maun rg 710321/7842314
7455 Baboon Camp H Maun 712920/7841537
7474 Xaxaba H Maun
7Q.44 Moumo, DCP (Boro) H A 723159/7838424
7014 Moporpta H
7484 Nxaraga H 731453/7835264
7494 Bukwe seas Q H yes Maun 945 735281/7816413
7465 Thokatsebe seas Q H yes Maun 938.003 743630/7809560
7412 Pantoon/Boro Junction seas Q H yes Maun 932.608 762353/7796428
7415 Cross canal H
7555 Lopis H Maun 952.851 724319/7879714
A7565 Dxaaba (Txaba) pere Q H Auto yes Maun A rg 948.509 734938/7856154
7575 Ditshiping seas Q H yes Maun 939.377 758052/7823699
7585 Daunara H yes Maun 936.311 760182/7814564
x 7512 Malalakaka dry Q H yes 663907/7807069
x 7614 Moshu Road B.(Marope R. dry Q H yes Maun 730062/7780528
x 7615 Thapegadi-Xudum pere Q H Auto yes Maun rg 951.947 694835/7837788
x 7625 Small Bridge - Xudum seas Q H Maun 951.143 697308/7835296
x 7635 Beacon Island - Xudum seas Q H yes Maun 948.873 700255/7830773
x 7645 Kiri seas Q H Auto Maun 945.823 717811/7828690
x 7645 Boboo seas Q H Maun 945.583 713828/7830239
x 7724 Matsebe (Kunyere) seas Q H yes Maun 937.488 708945/7782101
x ? Lake Bund (Kunyere) dry ? ? 746389/7771399
x 7712 Toteng (Kunyere) dry Q H Auto yes Maun 922.751 703697/7747098
7722 Shashe Bridge H
x 7813 B.D.F camp H yes Maun 929.576 739414/7790741
x 7812 Maun Bridge seas Q H yes Maun 928.533 753811/7786120
x 7814 Dikgatlong H yes Maun 925.363 746425/7771405
x 7925 Mogapelwa (Kunyere) dry ? ? Maun 922.426 700225/7742131
Nhabe 8112 Samedupi (Boteti) seas Q H yes Maun 927.541 764020/7774200
Ngami Botheti
Total 75 75 49 75 9 13 22 8 8

Notes to list of surface water stations

(1) The DWA modelling unit is in the process of verifying data, names, time series,etc. The
table might not provide the full overview of all data and stations in the delta (as per May
2004)
(2) Names of the stations can have different spellings and the numbers are not full consistent in
the data sources
(3) Flow and access legend: Pere - perennial flow; seas - seasonal flow with periods of no flow
or no water in most years; dry - no flow and water in the river bed for several consecutive
years; block - blockages with no access to the gauge board due to vegetation and swamps
(4) Q ~ discharge measurements at the station; H ~ manual readings of water level; H(aut) ~
registration of water level with automatic equipment (charts) in function at present or in the
past
(5) H in file and Q in file ~ records and time series of water levels and discharge from recent
years available in the DWA database system in Gaborone (cf. Report - Hydrology Data,
April 2004)
(6) DWA Field ~ Field work at the station carried out of the Maun or Gumare staff
(7) DCP type A: Data Collecting Platform remotely operated with registration of precipitation
and water level (pressure transducers). Type B is extended with additional sensors for air
and soil temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, wind speed, wind direction,
conductivity, suspended solids
(8) Gauge level is elevation amsl to gauge plate zero and the co-ordinates are to the gauge
board (in WGS84 system)
(9) The river system numbers (4 digits) refer to: First digit ( 7)=Okavango System;second
digit=main system in the delta.The system has not been entirely consistent throughout the
years
(10) Raingauges (rg) are DWA paper chart recorders located in the delta. The actual functioning
of the raingauges is uncertain and most likely they are out of function (to be determined)
(11) In Mohembo two DCPs are situated. One operated by DWA (not in function) and one by
SADC-Hycos (in function)

Appendix 9. Recommendations to upgrade the surface water monitoring network (see

notes over)
The Monitoring Network of Okawango Delta - Hydro -climatic data. Version per May 2004
Situation before 2003/2004
Riversystem Station Station Flow + Parameters DWA DCP Rain Tentative recommendations - to be refined by task force
3 6 6 7 1 2 5 5 5 8 number name access Q H H (Aut) Field Typegauge Equipment Programme
DCP (SADC) sensors to be checked, DCP (DWA) to be Permanent staff - daily H
A7112 Mohembo pere Q H Auto Gum B closed. Equipment to be used as spares readings
Permanent staff - daily H
A7122 Shakawe pere H Auto Gum readings
7134 Sepopa H Gum Upgrade with water level datalogger
7144 Seronga H Gum Upgrade with water level datalogger
7154 Duba H Gum Upgrade with water level datalogger
7215 Gaenga pere Q H Gum A rg Rehabilitate DCP and install new raingauge Minimum monthly visit
7225 Letetmetso block Q H Gum
7245 Hamoga/Smith channel pere Q H Gum Upgrade with water level datalogger
7234 Xugana H Maun B DCP to be upgraded and in function Minimum monthly visit
7524 Mogohelo pere Q H
7535 Gadikwe pere Q H Maun
7525 Xakanaxa pere Q H Maun rg
7544 Tsaro Khwai H Maun
7545 Northgate Khwai H Maun Upgrade with water level datalogger Q discharge commenced
D Guma lagoon pere Q H Gum A Move DCP to lodge or replace by a simpler system. Minimum monthly visit
7324 Etsha lagoon H Gum rg Upgrade with water level datalogger
7325 Tubu Bridge dry Q H
7375 Ikoga block Q H Gum
? Cresent Island pere Q H Gum Upgrade with water level datalogger
7335 Qusinga upstream seas Q H Auto Gum Upgrade with water level datalogger
? Qusinga downstream seas Q ? Gum
? Qaakhwa upstream pere Q ? Gum
? Qaakhwa downstream block Q ? Gum
? Small chan. at Qaakhwa pere Q ? Gum
? Weboro block Q ? Gum
? Xhamu upstream pere Q ? Gum
? Xhamu downstream pere Q ? Gum
? Tamachaa dry Q ? Gum
? Kgolalefetshe block Q ? Gum
? Qurube D/stream culvert seas Q ? Gum
? Haya D/stream bypass seas Q ? Gum
? Masepaaphiri dry Q ? Gum
? Xhobegha dry Q ? Gum
? Gandiguni dry Q ? Gum
? Xuru dry Q ? Gum
? Tsau old bridge dry Q ? Gum
A QL3 H Gum
7425 Kwihum Q H Auto Gum A rg Remove DCP. Water level datalogger to be installed Minimum monthly visit
7414 Mosupatsela H Gum rg
7424 Madinare pere Q H Gum Upgrade with water level datalogger
7434 Gogonte H Gum
7435 Txichira H Gum
7454 Palm Tree block H
7444 Monkey's Skull block H
7464 Xo Flats H A Rehabilitate DCP and install stilling well Minimum monthly visit
A7445 Xakue pere Q H Auto Maun rg Upgrade with water level datalogger
7455 Baboon Camp H Maun
7474 Xaxaba H Maun
7Q.44 Moumo, DCP (Boro) H A Rehabilitate DCP and re-install water level transducer Minimum monthly visit
7014 Moporpta H
7484 Nxaraga H
7494 Bukwe seas Q H Maun
7465 Thokatsebe seas Q H Maun
7412 Pantoon/Boro Junction seas Q H Maun Upgrade with water level datalogger
7415 Cross canal H
7555 Lopis H Maun
A7565 Dxaaba (Txaba) pere Q H Auto Maun A rg Rehabilitate DCP and re-install water level transducer Minimum monthly visit
7575 Ditshiping seas Q H Maun Upgrade with water level datalogger
7585 Daunara H Maun
x 7512 Malalakaka dry Q H
x 7614 Moshu Road B.(Marope R.) dry Q H Maun
x 7615 Thapegadi-Xudum pere Q H Auto Maun rg Upgrade with water level datalogger, upgrade rain gauge
x 7625 Small Bridge - Xudum seas Q H Maun
x 7635 Beacon Island - Xudum seas Q H Maun
x 7645 Kiri seas Q H Auto Maun Upgrade with water level datalogger
x 7645 Boboo seas Q H Maun
x 7724 Matsebe (Kunyere) seas Q H Maun
x ? Lake Bund (Kunyere) dry ? ?
x 7712 Toteng (Kunyere) dry Q H Auto Maun Upgrade with water level datalogger (to be removed in dry periods)
7722 Shashe Bridge H
x 7813 B.D.F camp H Maun
x 7812 Maun Bridge seas Q H Maun
x 7814 Dikgatlong H Maun
x 7925 Mogapelwa (Kunyere) dry ? ? Maun
Nhabe 8112 Samedupi (Boteti) seas Q H Maun
Ngami Botheti

Notes on Recommendations
(1) Recommendations are based on a brief analysis of the network without detailed knowledge
to the locations and access possibilities. Alterations in the final setup can be expected.
(2) A detailed and updated programme on frequency of discharge measurements (Q) and water
level (H) readings shall be carried out based on analysis of previous time series and
established rating curves
(3) A number of 8 existing raingauges exists. Some will be redundant when the DCPs are in
operation. The raingauges are outdated and eight new raingauges will be installed in the
delta in order to obtain a fair rainfall area distribution. Site selection to be determined with
a view to utilising sites under supervision

APPENDIX 10 - Proposal and Cost Estimate for a Monitoring/piezometer drilling

programme using EUREKA porta-rig
High-tech drilling rigs – large, computer assisted rigs, incorporating the most modern
techniques and equipment are the most efficient (and expensive) method of completing a
borehole. Drilling is carried out with great precision at speed making this the obvious choice for
large scale operations such as government sponsored development programmes which require
the completion of a target number of boreholes in a given time. These necessitate a high degree
of organisation and are usually the subject of a major contract involving often international
companies. Such large scale operations require a sophisticated approach using high-tech
machines and highly skilled and experienced drillers, plus strong lines of communication and
sources of repairs and replacements of machinery and men. Once these programmes are
completed the contractors move on leaving little behind in terms of technology or skills transfer.
A low cost drilling rig, a purpose designed non-hydraulic rig was developed in the UK by
Eureka Pty Ltd., with the capacity to drill holes to 75metres and is suited to use in rural
locations by local operators. Constructed from simple, readily available components, for ease of
maintenance and repair, it gains its power from a hand started 11 h.p. engine. The mast allows
the use of 6 metre pipe lengths and is hinged for compact transportation. The rotary head drive
unit is pulled up and down the mast either by a chain system or a combination of engine and
winch-brake. After drilling the head swings away to allow pipe insertion. Drilling fluid is
filtered and returned to a circulation tank. This compact, lightweight rig can be mounted onto a
truck or trailer.
Eureka Porta-rig in operation at Gweta note conversion to air/hammer
Water Surveys Botswana (WSB) propose to use the Eureka rig for the construction of the
monitoring and piezometer boreholes within the Okavango area. WSB have completed several
projects on behalf of the Department of Water Affairs with the Eureka rig, these include the
DWA 1999-2000 Sand Rivers Investigation of the North East District during which some 336
tubewells and monitoring boreholes were constructed into the alluvium. The Eureka rig was also
used during the 2000-2001 DWA Hydrogeological Impact Assessment of the Sewage Ponds at
Gweta when some 33 piezometers were constructed.
The benefits of using the Eureka rig compared to a conventional large drilling unit are not only
economic but also environmental in that since no large vehicles are involved there is little
impact on the environment. The equipment is simple there is no need of large quantities of fuels,
materials, oils, chemicals etc to be kept on site. Repairs can usually be carried out on site or at

village level and above all operations are simple, anyone can learn to operate the rig following
basic on site training. Ancillary drilling staff will be recruited and trained locally from the
nearest village thereby creating employment locally.
Productivity with the Eureka is good, upto two 20m piezometer boreholes can be completed in a
day, provided that the sites are located in relative close proximity and that no hard rock layers
are encountered. The deeper monitoring boreholes will take upto one day each to complete.
WSB propose to line the piezometers and monitoring boreholes with 50mm diameter uPVC
pipe manufactured by Flo-Tech Pipes in Lobatse. The 50mm diameter well lining will allow for
the installation of automatic water level recorders if required, alternatively they are well suited
for the insertion of manual water level dippers.
The piezometers and monitoring boreholes will be drilled using the mud-rotary drilling
technique. Muds employed will be bi-degradable and HTH will be jetted into the completed
hole with water to accelerate mud degradation. Well screens will be slotted by Flo-Tek in
Lobatse with 0.5mm slot size. Borehole diameters will be 4 - 4½” with the exception of the
multiple piezometer borehole when a 6” drill diameter will by necessity be employed. The only
problems forseen are:
• the availability of water for drilling (an estimated 5000 litres are required per monitoring
borehole) and in some instances transport distances may be large.
• intersection of hard silcrete or calcrete layers within the unconsolidated Kalahari Group
succession.
Transport of water may cause some delay to the drilling operations. If calcrete/silcrete layers are
encountered the tricone bit will be replaced with a sharp drag bit, the swopping and changing of
drill bits will slow down the drilling process as the drill stem has to be removed each time the
bit is changed.
For the multiple piezometers the deepest screen will be gravel packed from the bottom of the
hole to just above the top of the screen, thereafter bentonite pellets are inserted to form a seal
between the layers. A similar gravel pack and seal process will separate the upper screen from
the central one.
Mild steel caps and threaded dipper access points will be emplaced on all holes together with a
concrete block of 1x1x1m dimension.
Eureka Porta-rig in operation at Gweta

B. Estimated Drilling Cost and Supply of Material

Item Description (Drilling Activities) Unit Quantity Unit Total
Rate (PULA)
1 Mobilization and Demobilization Km 4000 5 20 000
Inter sites moves Km 1000 7.50 7 500
Transport of water Km 1500 7.50 11 250
Rigging up No. 45 500 22 500
Drilling mud rotary 4 – 6” M 2150 175 376 250
Casing Installation M 2150 25 53 750
Top slab including material No. 45 500 22 500
Sub Total 513 750
VAT @ 10% 51 375
Grand Total – Drilling 565 125
Item Description Unit Quantity Unit Total

Rate (PULA)
1 Supply of PVC casing
63mm OD x 4.7mm x 2.9m Plain casing M 1800 26 46 800
63mm OD x 4.7mm Screen casing M 350 33 11 550
63mm Bottom cap No. 45 14 630
63mm Press on top cap No. 45 12 540
2 Supply of Gravel Pack M3 30 250 7 500
Installation of Gravel M 125 10 1 250
3 Supply of 6” mild steel Surface casing M 225 120 27 000
Installation of the surface casing M 225 50 11 250
Supply of bentonite pellets Kg 1 350 25 33 750
Supply of Drilling mud Kg 1500 30 45 000
4 Supply of HTH Kg 500 20 10 000
5 Transport of material Km 1500 10 15 000
Sub Total 210 270
VAT @ 10% 21 027
GRAND TOTAL – Supply Costs 231 297
TOTAL ESTIMATED COST (Drilling and Supply) Pula 796 422

APPENDIX 11 – Planned Methodology for Groundwater Recharge Monitoring

(Piezometry)
The two major components of the planned recharge studies are those relating to (1) recharge to
the shallow (primarily unconfined) aquifer systems and (2) recharge to the deeper semi-confined
to confined aquifer systems. The assessment of recharge to the shallow aquifers will be based
primarily on the installation of several experimental sites where both surface water and
groundwater data will be collected during flood and non-flood periods. The assessment and
characterisation of recharge to deeper aquifers will be based on (a) determination of aquitard
parameters through aquifer tests (b) numerical modelling and (c) modelling as well as
geochemical methods (isotopes/tracers and tracers). The above components will be undertaken
in unstressed (no nearby pumping influence) river reaches; and (b) the potential for salvaging
natural discharge through ET and quantities. The major aspects of the planned programme are
summarised below.
A11.1 - Shallow Aquifer Recharge Studies
Investigation of recharge to shallow aquifers will be undertaken through installation of several
experimental stations where groundwater and surface water data will be collected. The data
collected during both flood and non-flood periods will be used to analyse the magnitude of
groundwater recharge to shallow aquifers under natural (undeveloped) conditions. Additionally,
the data will form the basis for modelling of the impact of abstraction on recharge rates,
primarily focussing on the potential for induced recharge from the surface flood. Two types of
stations are planned: (1) specific locations where a series of piezometers (piezometer transects)
will be installed to monitor groundwater response to flooding, and (2) where a given reach will
be examined to assess infiltration losses over a larger area (water balance).
A11.1.1 Piezometer Transect Stations
Stations of this type (type 1) are planned for 3 sites in the exploration areas to allow assessment
of the spatial variability in recharge. The piezometer transect stations will consist of a series of
piezometers installed at various depths in a transect from the river channel to within the
surrounding riparian woodland outside of the floodplain. The piezometers will be used to
measure the horizontal and vertical head distributions in the aquifer prior to, during and after the
flood event. In addition, one stilling well (modified piezometer) located in the channel center
will be utilised to monitor river stage. The basic planned layout of a piezometer transect is
shown in Figure 1.
1 1 1 1 1 1 Fi 2 B i L t f Pi t T t
Figure 1 – Basic lay out of a piezometer transect station

As indicated in Figure 1, the transect station primarily consists of a series of shallow (in the
order of 2 to 5 meter depth) piezometers extending from the river channel to within the riparian
woodland. The spacing of the piezometers will be determined by site characteristics. In some
locations (i.e. near the channel), the piezometers will be installed as nests to assess the vertical
head gradients. One piezometer will be drilled to the base of the shallow aquifer (approximately
20 meters) to determine its total thickness and allow monitoring of groundwater head in the
lowest section of the shallow aquifer. A stilling well will be set up in the centre of the channel
with its screened section extending above ground surface to allow continuous monitoring of
river stage. Most piezometers are planned to be installed using manual methods
(augering/bailing and jetting).
The purpose of the transects will be to collect data which are necessary to determine: (a)
infiltration losses from the river to the aquifer and (b) definition of the vertical groundwater
flow regime.
The following data will be collected at each transect:
1. River stage (continuous monitoring)

2. Groundwater heads and gradients (continuous and intermittent monitoring)
3. Diurnal groundwater fluctuations due to ET (continuous monitoring)
4. Infiltration rates from the river (periodically)
5. Thickness, lithologies and layering in the shallow aquifer
6. Hydraulic conductivity of the shallow aquifer, semi-confining beds, semi-confined aquifers
and spatial variations
A.11.1.2 Piezometer Transect Station Site Selection

The general requirements for the piezometer transect sites are as follows:
a) High probability of flooding;
b) Simple channel morphology and riparian zone development;
c) Relatively narrow flood width;
d) Absence of silcrete, calcrete or thick clay layers in the shallow subsurface;
e) Accessibility during flooding.
A11.1.3 Description of Monitoring Systems/Facilities to be Installed

Piezometers will be used to measure groundwater heads along the transect. The shallow
piezometer design for augered boreholes will basically consist of a 50 mm PVC casing with the
screened section consisting of approximately 20 cm slotted casing covered with geotextile
membrane (i.e. Typvar). The piezometer will be filter packed with clean sand followed by a
bentonite seal. The borehole will be grouted at least to 0.5 meters and a concrete pad installed
incorporating a lockable steel cover assembly. Piezometer design is illustrated in Figures below.

Figure 2 - Piezometer design for augered boreholes
Figure 3 - Photo of piezometer screen before installation

For deeper piezometer to be jetted or driven, steel pipe or prefabricated well points with lengths
(+/- 20 to 50 cm) of wire-wrapped well screen will be utilized for installation.
A11.2 Piezometer Installation

A crucial component of the shallow aquifer recharge investigation will be the installation of
shallow piezometers in depth ranges from approximately 2 to 20 meters (the bulk of most
installations will be in the 2-7 meter depth range). It is proposed to use augering and jetting
methods to install the piezometers rapidly and with low cost. Basically the shallow piezometers
(2-7 m) will be installed by augering while deeper piezometers are planned to be installed by

jetting (augering may also be used if feasible). Driven well points may also be used for shallow
installations to reduce installation time. The planned methods are described below.
A11.2.1 Augering
Augering is basically the use of a manually operated drilling bit to excavate small diameter
boreholes. As boreholes extend below the water table, bailing is used as well to deepen the
borehole. The piezometer assembly is installed after the drilling is completed.
Above the water table, augering is carried out using a riverside or edelman auger head (drilling
bit) attached to a series of extensions (Figure 4). The bit is advanced by manually turning the
auger bit until it is full, at which point it is taken to the surface and emptied. Representative
samples and detailed lithologic logs can be obtained during augering, while undisturbed soil
samplers (i.e. split spoon type) can also be obtained during augering. In the unsaturated zone,
the borehole stays open without collapse even in clean sand horizons.
Figure 4 – Augering heads

When the water table is reached, temporary casing is installed to prevent collapse. The casing is
lowered into the augered borehole and drilling continues by bailing or augering through the
temporary casing. As material is removed from under the casing, it is pushed downward. In
some cases where the aquifer is clean sand, water must be poured into the casing (maintaining a
higher hydrostatic pressure than the aquifer) to avoid sand running up into the casing during
drilling.
When the desired depth has been reached, the piezometer screen and casing assembly is lowered
into the hole and filter pack/bentonite poured into the annular space as the temporary casing is
removed. The typical piezometer design is shown in Figure 2 and an example of drilling in
progress is shown in Figure 5 below.
Depending on specific conditions and based on experience with these methods in the delta, it is
anticipated that a single team will complete approximately 20 to 25 meters drilling per day (i.e.
installation of four 5 meter piezometers).

Figure 5 - Installation of a piezometer in Xudum River
A11.2.2 Jetting
For deeper piezometers, installation by jetting is planned to speed the drilling process. Jetting
involves the use of water pressure to excavate a borehole. The basic system involves the
connection of a water pump and delivery line (wash pipe) to the casing and screen assembly,
with a special fitting that allows removal of the wash pipe after the required depth is reached.
The basic system is indicated in Figure 6.
Figure 6 - Borehole jetting

Due to the greater strain during jetting as well as the greater installation depths planned for this
method, 50mm GI pipe will be used for the casing and screen assembly. Similar to PVC

piezometers, the screen will be a slotted section of the pipe covered with a geotextile membrane.
Stainless steel wire wrap (Johnson type) screens will also be used on piezometers where slug
tests are planned. The wash pipe will be a 30 mm GI pipe fitted either with a left hand thread
end or bayonet type fitting to allow easy removal after drilling is completed.
The drilling fluid will be plain water. Prior to jetting, augering will be completed to the water
table and a 110 mm temporary PVC casing installed to reduce water loss to the unsaturated
zone. Return water will be re-circulated through a settling pit.

Okavango Delta Management Plan: Hydrology and Water Resources

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Okavango Delta Management Plan: Hydrology and Water Resources

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Government of Kingdom of Denmark Government of Republic of Botswana

Ministry of Foreign Affairs National Conservation and Strategy Agency

Okavango Delta Management Plan

Scanagri Denmark A/S

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring i

10 Assessment of Hydroclimatic Monitoring..........................................................38

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring ii

Recommendations for Improved Monitoring 1

2 DWA Monitoring Programme and Context for ODMP

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 2

3 Important Features in Monitoring Design

3.1 Hydrological and biophysical processes

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 3

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 4

71.12 Mohembo, discharge 74.12 Boro Junction, discharge

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 5

3.2 Experience and lessons learnt from previous monitoring attempts

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 6

Figure 3.5 - Schematic floodplain-island groundwater interaction in the Okavango Delta

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 7

4 Monitoring Programme Objectives

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 8

5 Overview of Existing Monitoring Network

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 9

6 Assessment of Surface Hydrology Monitoring

6.1 Network status

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 10

Figure 6.1 - The river systems in the Okavango Delta.

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 11

6.1.1 Water level measurements

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 12

6.1.2 Discharge measurements

6.2 Dataflow, databases and data availability

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 13

6.3 Proposal for upgrading and rehabilitation

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 14

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 15

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 16

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 17

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 18

Re-assessment of the field monitoring programme and remedial action

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 19

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 20

7 Assessment of Sediment Transport Monitoring

7.1 Existing monitoring

7.2 Proposal for sediment transport monitoring

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 21

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 22

8 Assessment of Groundwater Hydrology and Water Quality

8.1 Monitoring network status

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 23

8.2 Dataflow, databases and data availability

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 24

8.3 Proposal for groundwater monitoring

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 25

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 26

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 27

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 28

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 29

8.3.5 Costing for drills

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 30

Recommendations for Improved Hydrologic Monitoring 31

9 Assessment of Water Quality Monitoring