Brakes

Module 1 Braking Components

Section 1 Introduction
Energy Conversion  The main purpose of the braking system is simple; it is to slow down or stop a
vehicle. To do this the energy in the vehicle movement must be taken away - or converted. This is achieved
by creating friction. The resulting heat takes energy away from the movement. In other words, kinetic energy
is converted into heat energy.

Vehicle Brakes  The main

braking system of a car works by
hydraulics. This means that when
the driver presses the brake pedal,
liquid pressure forces pistons to
apply brakes on each wheel. Disc
brakes are used on the front
wheels of some cars and on all
wheels of sports and performance
cars. Braking pressure forces
brake pads against both sides of a
steel disc. Drum brakes are fitted
on the rear wheels of some cars
and on all wheels of older
vehicles. Braking pressure forces
shoes to expand outwards into
contact with a drum. The important
part of brake pads and shoes is
the friction lining.
# Brake system

Brake Pads Brake pads are steel

backed blocks of friction material,
which are pressed onto both sides
of the disc. Older types were
asbestos based so you must not There are… Many types of… Brake pads… In common use
inhale the dust. Follow
manufacturers’ recommended
procedures. Pads should be
changed when the friction material
wears down to 2 or 3 mm. The
circular steel disc rotates with the
wheel. Some are solid but many There are… Many types of… Brake shoes… In common use
have ventilation holes.
Brake Shoes Brake shoes are steel crescent shapes with a friction material lining. They are pressed inside
a steel drum, which rotates with the wheel. The rotating action of the brake drum tends to pull one brake
shoe harder into contact. This is known as self-servo action. It occurs on the brake shoe, which is after the
wheel cylinder, in the direction of wheel rotation. This brake shoe is described as the leading shoe. The
brake shoe before the wheel cylinder in the direction of wheel rotation is described as the trailing shoe.
Hydraulic Cylinders The master
cylinder piston is moved by the
brake pedal. In its basic form, it is
like a pump, which forces brake
fluid through the pipes. Pressure in
the pipes causes a small
movement to operate either brake
shoes or pads. The wheel
cylinders work like a pump only in
reverse. # Master cylinder

Brake Servo The brake servo increases the force applied by the driver on the pedal. It makes the brakes
more effective. Vacuum, from the engine inlet manifold, is used to work most brake servos.

Servo construction details

Servo unit

Brake Pipes Strong, high quality pipes are used to

connect the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders.
Fluid connection, from the vehicle body to the wheels,
has to be through flexible pipes to allow suspension
and steering movement. As a safety precaution
(because brakes are quite important!), brake systems
are split into two sections. If one section fails, say by a Flexible pipes Metal pipes
pipe breaking, the other will continue to operate.

Antilock Brake System If the brakes

cause the wheels to lock and make
them skid, steering control is lost. In
addition, the brakes will not stop the car
as quickly. ABS uses electronic control
to prevent this happening.

ABS layout
Load Compensation On most car braking systems,
about 70% (or more) of the braking force is directed
to the front wheels. This is because, under braking,
the weight of the vehicle transfers to the front wheels.
Load compensation, however, allows the braking
pressure to the rear wheels to increase as load in the
vehicle increases.

Brake Fade  If brakes become so hot that they

cannot convert energy fast enough, they become
much less efficient, or in other words, fade away! This
is described as brake fade. A more serious form of
brake fade can also be caused if the heat generated
is enough to melt the bonding resin in the friction
material. This reduces the frictional value of the
linings or pads.
Pressure conscious regulator

Annual Test Requirements  All components of the braking system must be in good working order, in line
with most other vehicle systems. Braking efficiency means the braking force compared to the weight of the
vehicle. For example, the brakes on a vehicle with a weight of 10 kN (1000 kg x 10 ms-2 [g]) will provide a
braking force of, say, 7 kN. This is said to be 70% efficiency. During an annual test, this is measured on
brake rollers. The current efficiency requirements in the UK are as follows:
Service brake efficiency - 50%
Second line brake efficiency - 25%
Parking brake efficiency - 16%.

 Describe what is meant by brake fade.

 Sketch the basic layout of a hydraulic brake system.

Look back over the previous section and write out a list of the key bullet points here:
Section 2 Hydraulic Components
Principle of Hydraulic Braking  Shown here, is the principle of hydraulic brakes. The movement of the
piston, labelled 2, causes an equal force in all parts of the system. The pistons, labelled 1, move a shorter
distance. If larger area pistons are used, the force at the brakes can be increased. This is called a liquid
lever and acts in addition to the leverage of the brake pedal.

Braking System  A complete

braking system includes a master
cylinder, which operates several wheel
cylinders. The system is designed to
give the power amplification needed for
braking the particular vehicle. On any
vehicle when braking, a lot of the
weight is transferred to the front
wheels. Most braking effort is therefore
designed to work on the front brakes.
Some cars have special hydraulic
valves to limit rear wheel braking. This
reduces the chance of the rear wheels
locking and skidding.

Master cylinder

Wheel Cylinders Brake shoes can be

moved by double or single-acting
wheel cylinders. A common layout is to
use one double acting cylinder and
brake shoes on each rear wheel of the
vehicle, and disc brakes on the front
wheels. A double acting cylinder simply
means that as fluid pressure acts
through a centre inlet, pistons are
forced out of both ends.

Slave cylinder components

 Floating caliper
Fixed caliper

Disc Caliper Piston  Disc brake calipers are known

as fixed, floating or sliding types. The pistons are
moved by hydraulic pressure created in the master
cylinder. A number of different calipers are used.
Some high performance calipers include up to four
pistons. However, the operating principle remains the
same.

Sliding caliper

Brake Fluid Always use new and approved brake fluid when topping up or refilling the
system. Manufacturers’ recommendations must always be followed. Brake fluid is
hygroscopic, which means that over time, it absorbs water. This increases the risk of the
fluid boiling due to the heat from the brakes. Pockets of steam in the system would not
allow full braking pressure to be applied. Many manufacturers recommend that the fluid be A common type of
changed at regular intervals. Make sure the correct grade of fluid is used. The current brake fluid
recommended types are known as DOT4 and DOT5.

Brake System Shown here are the main arts of a typical modern braking system. A
separate mechanical system is a good safety feature. Most vehicles have the mechanical
parking brake working on the rear wheels but a few have it working on the front - take care.
Note the importance of flexible connections to allow for suspension and steering
movement. These flexible pipes are made of high quality rubber and are covered in layers Braking and other
of strong mesh to prevent expansion when under pressure. components

Tandem Master Cylinder  Safety is built into braking systems by using a double acting master cylinder.
This is often described as tandem and can be thought of as two master cylinders inside one housing. The
pressure from the pedal acts on both cylinders but fluid can not pass from one to the other. Each cylinder is
then connected to a separate circuit. These split lines can be connected in a number of ways. Under normal
operating conditions, the pressure developed in the first part of the master cylinder is transmitted to the
second. This is because the fluid in the first chamber acts directly on the second piston.
# Master cylinder operation

Circuit Failure  If one line fails, the first piston meets no restriction and closes up to the second piston.
Further movement will now provide pressure for the second circuit. The driver will notice that pedal travel
increases, but some braking performance will remain. If the fluid leak is from the second circuit, then the
second piston will meet no restriction and close up the gap. Braking will now be just from the first circuit.
Diagonal split brakes are the most common and are used on vehicles with a negative scrub radius. Steering
control is maintained under brake failure conditions.

Multi-Circuit Systems There are three common ‘splits’ used on modern braking systems. The first two
types listed are the most common:

Diagonal split type, where if a fault occurs, the driver loses half of the front and half of the rear brakes

Separate front and rear, where if a fault occurs, the driver loses all of the front or all of the rear brakes

Duplicated front, where if a fault occurs, the driver loses the rear and part of the front or part of the front
brakes only. Special front calipers are required when using this method.

Front/rear split Diagonal split

 State the three common ‘splits’ used on modern braking systems AND advantages of each type.

 Describe the operation of a sliding caliper disc brake

Look back over the previous section and write out a list of the key bullet points here:
Section 3 Disc, Drum and Parking Brakes
Disc Brakes The caliper
shown is known as a single
acting, sliding caliper. This is
because only one cylinder is
used but the pads are still
pressed equally on both sides
of the disc by the sliding action.
Disc brakes are less prone to
brake fade than drum brakes.
This is because they are more
exposed and can get rid of heat
more easily. They also throw
off water better than drum
brakes. Brake fade occurs
when the brakes become so
hot they cannot transfer any
more energy - and they stop
working!

Sliding disc brake caliper components

Disc Brake Adjustment  Disc brakes are self-adjusting. When the pedal is depressed,
the rubber seal is pre-loaded. When the pedal is released, the piston is pulled back due to
the elasticity of the rubber sealing ring.

Sliding disc brake

caliper

Drum Bakes Brake shoes are mounted inside a

cast iron drum. They are mounted on a steel
backplate, which is rigidly fixed to a stationary part
of the axle. The two curved shoes have friction
material on their outer faces. One end of each shoe
bears on a pivot point. The other end of each shoe
is pushed out by the action of a wheel cylinder when
the brake pedal is pressed. This puts the brake
linings in contact with the drum inner surface. When
the brake pedal is released, the return spring pulls
the shoes back to their rest position.

Rear drum brake

Drum Brake Features Drum brakes are more adversely affected by wet and heat than
disc brakes, because both water and heat are trapped inside the drum. However, they
are easier to fit with a mechanical hand brake linkage.

Brake drum
Brake Adjustments Brakes must be adjusted so
that the minimum movement of the pedal starts to
apply the brakes. The adjustment in question is the
gap between the pads and disc and the shoes and
drum. Disc brakes are self-adjusting because as
pressure is released it moves the pads just away
from the disc. Drum brakes are different because
the shoes are moved away from the drum to a set
position by a pull off spring. Self-adjusting drum
brakes are almost universal now on light vehicles. A
common type uses an off set ratchet, which clicks to
a wider position if the shoes move beyond a certain
amount when operated.

Self-adjusting device

Manual Adjustment Adjustment

through a hole in the back plate is often
used. This involves moving a type of
nut on a threaded bar, which pushes
the shoes out as it is screwed along the
thread. This method is similar to the
automatic adjusters. An adjustment
screw on the back plate is now quite an
old method. A screw or square head
Brake adjustment hole Square type adjuster
protruding from the back plate moves
the shoes by a snail cam. As a guide,
tighten the adjuster until the wheels
lock, and then move it back until the
wheel is just released. You must
ensure that the brakes are not rubbing
as this would build up heat and wear
the friction material very quickly.

Self-Servo Action  The precise way in which the shoes move into contact with the drum affects the power
of the brakes. If the shoes are both hinged at the same point then the system is said to have one leading
and one trailing shoe. As the shoes are pushed into contact with the drum, the leading shoe is dragged by
the drum rotation harder into contact, whereas the rotation tends to push the trailing shoe away. This 'self-
servo' action on the leading shoe can be used to increase the power of drum brakes. This is required on the
front wheels of all-round drum brake vehicles.

# Self servo
Twin Leading Shoe Brakes The shoes are arranged so that they both
experience the self-servo action. The shoes are pivoted at opposite points
on the backplate and two wheel cylinders are used. The arrangement is
known as twin leading shoe brakes. It is not suitable for use on the rear
brakes because if the car is travelling in reverse then it would become a
twin trailing shoe arrangement, which means the efficiency of the brakes
would be seriously reduced. The leading and trailing layout is therefore
used on rear brakes, as one shoe will always be leading no matter in what
direction the vehicle is moving.

Twin leading shoe system

Leading and Trailing Shoe Brakes The standard layout of drum brake systems
is normally:

Twin leading shoe brakes on the front wheels

Leading and trailing shoe brakes on the rear wheels.

Leading and trailing system
Disc brakes are now used on the front wheels of all light vehicles but many retain
leading and trailing shoe brakes on the rear. In most cases, it is easier to attach a
handbrake linkage to the system with shoes on the rear. This method will also
provide the braking performance required when the vehicle is reversing.

Hand Brake Linkages  Inside a brake drum, the hand brake linkage is usually a lever mechanism as
shown here. This lever pushes the shoes against the drum and locks the wheel. The hand brake lever pulls
on one or more cables and has a ratchet to allow it to be locked in the on position. There are a number of
ways in which the hand brake linkage can be laid out to provide equal force, or compensation, for both
wheels:

Two cables, one to each wheel

Equaliser on a single cable pulling a ‘U’ section to balance effort through the rear cable (as shown here)

Single cable to a small linkage on the rear axle.

Disc Type Handbrake Some sliding caliper disc

brakes incorporate a handbrake mechanism. The
footbrake operates as normal. Handbrake
operation is by a moving lever. The lever acts
through a shaft and cam, which works on the
adjusting screw of the piston. The piston presses
one pad against the disc and because of the
sliding action, the other pad also moves.

Sliding caliper parking brake

Handbrake Drum in Disc  Some manufacturers use a set of small brake shoes inside a small drum,
which is built in to the brake disc. The caliper is operated as normal by the footbrake. The small shoes are
moved by a cable and lever.

Summary  In summary, remember that the purpose of the braking system is to slow down or stop a
vehicle. This is achieved by converting the vehicle’s movement energy into heat. Friction is used to do this.
Braking system developments have improved efficiency, reliability and ease of servicing.

 Describe the leading/trailing layout of the shoes on drum brake systems when used front and rear.

 State why disc brakes are self-adjusting

Look back over the previous section and write out a list of the key bullet points here:
Module 2 Servos, Force Control and ABS
Section 1 Brake Servo Operation
Introduction The brakes of a vehicle must perform well, whilst the effort
required by the driver is kept to a reasonable level. This is achieved by the
use of a brake servo. It is also called a brake booster. Vacuum operated
systems are commonly used on light vehicles.

Vacuum servo

Hydraulic Power Brakes Hydraulic power brakes use the pressure

from an engine driven pump. The pump will often be the same as
the one used to supply the power assisted steering. Pressure from
the pump is made to act on a plunger in line with the normal master
cylinder. As the driver applies force to the pedal, a servo valve
opens in proportion to the force applied by the driver. The hydraulic
assisting force is therefore also proportional. This maintains the all-
important 'driver feel'.

Hydraulic Accumulator A hydraulic accumulator (a reservoir for

fluid under pressure) is incorporated into many systems. This is
because the pressure supplied by the pump varies with engine
speed. The pressure in the accumulator is kept between set
pressures in the region of 70 bar. A warning therefore: If you have to
disconnect any components from the braking system on a vehicle
Accumulator
fitted with an accumulator, you must follow the manufacturer’s
recommendations on releasing the pressure first.

Vacuum Servo A common servo system uses low

pressure (vacuum) from the manifold on one side,
and the higher atmospheric pressure on the other
side of a diaphragm. The low pressure is taken via a
non-return safety valve from the engine inlet
manifold. A pump is often used on diesel-engined
vehicles as most do not have a throttle butterfly and
hence do not develop any significant manifold
vacuum. The pressure difference, however created,
causes a force, which is made to act on the master
cylinder.

Hydraulic brake servo

Servo unit

Servo construction

Servo Operation  The vacuum servo is fitted in between the brake pedal and the master cylinder. The
main part of the servo is the diaphragm. The larger this diaphragm, the greater the servo assistance
provided. A vacuum is allowed to act on both sides of the diaphragm when the brake pedal is in its rest
position. When pedal force is applied to the piston a valve cuts the vacuum connection to the rear chamber
and allows air at atmospheric pressure to enter. This causes a force to act on the diaphragm so assisting
with the application of the brakes.

Servo Assistance  Once the master cylinder piston moves, the valve closes again to hold the applied
pressure. Further effort by the driver on the brake pedal will open the valve again and apply further vacuum
assistance. In this way, the driver can 'feel' the amount of braking effort being applied. The cycle continues
until the driver effort reaches a point where the servo assistance remains fully on.

Vacuum Supply On petrol engines, the vacuum is obtained

from the inlet manifold. On diesel engines, a vacuum pump
is used. A non-return valve is fitted in the line to keep
vacuum in the servo chamber. This means that it is possible
to carry out three or four braking operations, with servo
assistance, without the engine running. The valve also
prevents fuel vapours getting in the servo and damaging the
diaphragm.

A check valve is fitted in the vacuum supply

Fail Safe Mode If the vacuum servo stops working the brakes will still operate, but extra force
will be required from the driver. The connection to the inlet manifold will normally be via a check
valve as an extra safety feature.

Safety is
important
Summary A brake servo assists the driver when the brakes are
applied. The ‘feel’ must be maintained during operation. Most
servos are vacuum operated.

Brake servo

 Explain what happens if the vacuum servo stops working.

 Describe the operation of a vacuum servo as the brakes are applied.

Look back over the previous section and write out a list of the key bullet points here: