Introduction to Particle Physics

In this section we will cover the following topics:

• Elementary Particles – Quarks and Leptons

• Antiparticles

• Particle Families

• Hadrons

• Forces

• Feynman Diagrams

• Particle Physics and Cosmology

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 Particle Hierarchy

Everyday Objects are made of

Molecules.
Molecules are made of
Atoms.
Atoms are made of
Nuclei and Electrons.
Nuclei are made of
Protons and Neutrons.
Protons and Neutrons are made of
Quarks.
Quarks and Electrons are made of
???

Quarks and Electrons are

"Elementary Particles"

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 Elementary Particles

Elementary Particles are 'point like' fundamental spin ½ fermions

(obey Fermi-Dirac Statistics). They have no discernible size or
structure. There are two types Quarks and Leptons:

Quarks – have electric charge -⅓ e or +⅔ e

Quarks come in six 'flavours' :
up (u), down (d), strange (s), charm (c), bottom (b), top (t)
Each quark comes in 3 'colours' - Red, Green, Blue

Leptons - have electric charge 0 or ±e

Leptons also come in six ‘flavours’ :
electron ŏ, muon Œ, tau ŕ,
electron neutrino Ē, muon neutrino ē, tau neutrino Ĕ
Leptons don't have colour

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 Antiparticles

All quarks and leptons have antiparticle partners, with all

quantum numbers reversed, but with the same masses.
Put a bar over the symbol
Antiquarks: ʉ, ā, Ă, ă, Ą, ŧ
Charge + rather than -

Antileptons: Ŏ, ő, Ŕ, Ė, ė, Ę
The anti-electron is known as the positron.
Antiquarks have anticolour.
Note: Electric Charge has values +, - , 0
Colour Charge has values r, g, b, Ĝ, ĝ, Ą

When particle and antiparticle meet they

annihilate to give energy with all quantum
numbers zero (usually as photons).

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 Particle Families

Quarks and Leptons can be arranged in 3 'families' or 'generations':

Generation
First Second Third
u c t
+⅔e
(up) (charm) (top)
Quarks
d s b
-⅓e
(down) (strange) (bottom)
ŏ Œ ŕ
-e
(electron) (muon) (tau)
Leptons
Ē ē Ĕ
0
(electron neutrino) (muon neutrino) (tau neutrino)

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 Hadrons
Although leptons (e.g. electrons) exist as free particles, free
quarks have never been observed. They always form bound
(colourless) states called Hadrons. There are two types of
hadrons.
⅔e + ⅔e +(-⅓e) = e
Baryons consist of 3 quarks (Antibaryons 3 antiquarks)
e.g. proton uud antiproton ʉʉā
neutron udd antineutron ʉāā
⅔e +(-⅓e) +(-⅓e) = 0

Mesons (antimesons) consist of a quark and an antiquark

e.g. pion Ġ uā antipion ġ ʉd
neutral pion ģ uʉ or dā ⅔e + ⅓e = e

NO other combinations e.g. qq or qqqq observed

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 Forces
The particles (Quarks and Leptons) interact through different
'forces' which we understand as due to the exchange of 'field
quanta' known as 'gauge bosons'.
Electromagnetism (QED) photon (γ) exchange
Strong Interaction (QCD) gluon (g) exchange
Weak Interaction W and Z exchange
Gravity Graviton exchange (?)
The photon, gluon, W and Z are spin 1, the graviton spin 2.
The so called Standard Model of Particle Physics is based on the
six quarks and six leptons interacting via these gauge bosons.
There is also postulated an, as yet undiscovered (?) scalar ( = spin
zero) particle called the Higgs boson (Ĵ) which is needed to
explain why the W and Z have mass (i.e. aren't massless).
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 Exchange Forces

By exchanging
the ball, the
skaters are
forced apart.

If you didn't
see the ball
you would
think there
was a repulsive
force between
them.

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 Range of Forces
The range of the interaction is related to the mass of the exchange
particle M.
An amount of energy ∆E = Mƫ is 'borrowed' for a time ∆t
governed by the Uncertainty Principle ∆E ∆t ~ ħ i.e. ∆t = ħ / ∆E.

The maximum distance the exchange particle can travel in this time is
∆x = c ∆t
(c is the maximum velocity it can have)

∴ ∆x = c ħ / ∆E = c ħ / Mƫ
ħc in funny units (see later)
∆x = ħc / Mƫ

The photon has zero mass → infinite range Converts GeV to MeV

The W has a mass of ~80 GeV/ƫ → 197 MeV fm / 80×103 → 2 ×10-3fm

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 Forces

The weak force acts between all quarks and leptons.

The electromagnetic force acts between all charged particles.
The strong force acts between all quarks.

Weak EM Strong

Quarks Ƭ Ƭ Ƭ

Charged
Ƭ Ƭ ƭ
Leptons
Neutral
Ƭ ƭ ƭ
Leptons

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 Feynman Diagrams
Feynman Diagrams are like circuit diagrams – they show what
is connected to what but not the detailed momentum vectors –
lengths and angles are not relevant.
A particle moving
(~instantaneously) from
one point to another
Conventions:

A particle moving
A particle at rest
forward in time
and space

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 Annihilation Diagrams

Annihilation/Formation Diagram. Particles A and B collide

to form particle X which later decays to C and D.

At each vertex, electric

charge must be conserved
and, except in Weak
Interactions, quark or
lepton flavours.

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 Exchange Diagrams
Exchange Diagram. Particles A scatters off particle B by exchanging
particle X. Particle A becomes particle C and B becomes D.

We don't know if A emitted X

and B absorbed it or vice versa.

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 Virtual Particles
In both previous cases particle X is 'virtual' and the time it
exists is governed by the uncertainty principle ∆E ∆t ~ ħ. The
mass of particle X is usually not its rest mass.

If and electron and positron If two electrons scatter, X is a photon

annihilate, X is a photon (γ) with (γ) with zero charge, momentum 2pe
zero charge, zero momentum and and zero energy and hence an apparent
energy 2Ee and hence an apparent imaginary mass of √-pe2/c2.
mass of 2Ee /ƫ.
E = p c2 + m2c4
2 2

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 Electromagnetism

At a particle physics
level the interaction
is with the quarks

Photons mediate the force between

protons and electrons.

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 Strong Interaction (1)

Gluons hold the proton and

neutron together and are
responsible for the Strong force
between them.

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 Strong Interaction (2)
ġ+p→n+ģ
ʉd + uud → udd + dā

Quark Virtual Ġ
lines are exchange
continuous

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 Weak Interaction (1)

Beta decay n → p + ŏ + Ė

Mediated by charged
W exchange

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 Weak Interaction (2)

Neutrino scattering
off an electron

Mediated by neutral
Z exchange

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 Use of Feynman Diagrams

Although they are used pictorially to show what is going on,

Feynman Diagrams are used more seriously to calculate cross
sections or decay rates.
•Draw all possible Feynman Diagrams for the process :

Propagator ~ 1
p2 + m2

•Assign values to each part of the diagram:

Free particle Vertex
~charge
•Calculate the amplitude by multiplying together.
•Add the amplitudes for each diagram (including interference).
•Square the amplitude to get the intensity/probability
(cross section or decay rate).

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 Particle Physics and Cosmology
Increasing connection between Particle Physics and Cosmology –
the more fundamental the particle, the earlier they were created
during the early Universe (Big Bang).
Today's particle accelerators probe further and further back in
time to moment of Big Bang:
Energy ≍ Temperature
E ≈ kT
where k is Boltzmann's constant (8.6 10-5 eV K-1)

At LEP Accelerator energy ~ 90 GeV

≍ 90×109 eV / 8.6 10-5 eV K-1 ≍ 1015K
Equivalent to < 10-12s after Big Bang

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 Probing the Early Universe

Particle Physics
today probes
this region

©www.counterbalance.net

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 Understanding the Universe

Understanding of
Particle Physics

Understanding of Understanding of
Universe at Big Bang Universe today

Initial H, Ω, Λ
Conditions
Matter/Antimatter,
Cosmic Microwave Dark Matter,
Background, Large Scale Particle Nucleosynthesis
Structure Physics
Formation of
Composition
Structure

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