Secondary Stresses

Secondary Stresses in Plate and Stiffeners

Plate and stiffener act as beam with distributed load
Clamped versus simply-supported end conditions

Plate and Stiffener act as a beam

Cross-section of combined section:

S
Pressure load supported by stiffeners along the edges of the plate.
Longitudinal stiffener supported by transverse members, such as web frames, at
either end.
The plate and stiffener together form a beam, and the pressure load on the plate
acts as a ‘line load’ along the web of the stiffener.

Pressure on the plate acts as a distributed load on the beam

Uniform pressure, P (psi), acts over ½ frame space (S) either side of the stiffener.
Distributed load, W (pounds/inch), equals pressure times frame space (P x S),
acting along the length of the stiffener.

End conditions; longitudinal stiffener supported by transverse frame

Assume clamped ends if distributed load is uniform, and extends over several web
frame spaces, such as would be the case with hydrostatic pressure.
End rotations in each stiffener would be ‘restricted’ by the deformations of the
stiffeners fore and aft, as in the following.

web web web

This pattern of deformation would produce tension in the stiffener flange and
compression in the shell plate at the mid-span, and opposite stresses at the ends.
Bending moment at mid-span is W times L^2 divided by 12, and moment at ends
is W times L^2 divided by 24, where L is the length between supports, i.e. the
web frame spacing.

If the distributed load is more localized (between web frames), say due to bottom
slamming, then there would be no symmetry of deflection and a simply supported
end condition might be more appropriate. In that case, the bending moment at
mid-span is W times L^2 divided by 8, and the moment at the ends would be zero.

Maximum stresses occur in the top of the stiffener (where the distance from the
neutral axis of the combined plate and stiffener is greatest). Stresses vary linearly
throughout the depth of the combined section, according to beam theory. Stresses
in the stiffener and in the plate act parallel to the axis of the stiffener, and for a
longitudinal frame will combine with the hull girder (primary) stresses.

Emphasize that the neutral axis for secondary stress is the neutral axis of the
combined stiffener and plate cross-section, whereas the neutral axis the primary
stress is that of the hull girder, typically the midship section.
 Secondary Stresses (continued)
Effective Breadth and SM Calculation
Shear lag and effective breadth, PNA pg 246-249
Neutral axis, moment of inertia and section modulus for plate and stiffener

Shear Lag in Plates

Beam theory assumes a uniform distribution of stresses at any distance from the
neutral axis of a section, implying that the entire width of the flange undergoes the
same longitudinal strain (again, at a given distance from the neutral axis.) While
the assumption is generally valid for the stiffener flange, the plate (which
constitutes the lower flange of the combined section) develops bending strains as
a result of shear loading along the edge of each panel, where the plate is joined to
the stiffener.

As a result, there is an appreciable shear gradient across the width of the plate, as
shown below:

Line of attachment of
stiffener to plate

Plate deformations
must match those of
stiffener along here

Shear deformation
reduces elongation
between stiffeners
Since the full width of the plate is not developing the same longitudinal strain, it
is not fully effective. Refer to PNA Volume 1, Figure 34, or Hughes Figure 3.36,
which appears far less intimidating.

Having said this, we still generally assume that effective breadth is equal to the
full stiffener spacing, unless the spacing is very large (more than about 60 times
the plate thickness to either side of the stiffener.)

Neutral axis, moment of inertia and section modulus for plate and stiffener
12.5 = Height 0.5 = Flange thickness
0.5 = Width 0.5 = Web thickness
30 = Spacing 0.5 = Plate thickness

Item b h A=b*h y A*y A*y^2 Io=b*h^3/12 2.162 = y-bar

367.396 = I-ref.
Flange 0.5 0.5 0.25 12.75 3.2 40.64 0.005 268.090 = I-n.a.
Web 0.5 12.0 6.00 6.5 39.0 253.50 72.000
Plate 30.0 0.5 15.00 0.25 3.8 0.94 0.313 124.014 = SM plate
24.736 = SM flange
21.25 45.9 295.08 72.318
Secondary Stresses (continued)
Loads, Span, End Fixity, and ABS SM Req’ts
Pressure loads, Line loads, Point loads
Unsupported span and end fixity; actual versus assumed
Derivation of ABS SM Req’t for frames (ABS 3.2.4/7.3 typical)
Project 2- Sizing of Frames and Stiffeners
Determine req’t as per ABS, Calculate stresses by beam theory

Pressure loads, Line loads, Point loads

Many loads are the result of pressure; hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures,
wind pressures, slamming pressures, etc. Many others can be expressed as an
equivalent design pressure; cargo loads, deck loads, live loads, etc.

Often it is useful to convert these pressures into an equivalent line load, such as in
the preceding analysis of secondary stress; the distributed load acting along the
length of a stiffener is an example of a line load, obtained by multiplying pressure
times frame spacing to obtain load in pounds per foot, for example. Or, if we wish
to convert a known stress (say, primary stress in the deck) into a distributed load
along the edge of the plate (in the plane of the plate) we would multiply the stress
times the plate thickness to get pounds per inch, for example.

Sometimes we want to consolidate a pressure load onto a single point, such as at

the intersection of a longitudinal frame and a transverse web. Multiply the applied
pressure by the area rectangle extending one-half a frame space either side of the
frame, and one-half a web space fore and aft of the transverse web. Point loads
can also be obtained from line loads, by simply multiplying them times the length
of the interval adjacent to the point, i.e. one-half the interval to either side.

Unsupported span and end fixity; actual versus assumed

Unsupported span generally refers to the length between supports of a stiffener,
frame, or deck beam. Often, however, members are fitted with brackets them may
reduce the effective unsupported span. Refer to ABS Rules, Section 3-2-6/7.1 for
guidelines on determine the effectiveness of brackets.

End fixity, as discussed in (Week 4, Lecture 1) may be assumed as clamped or

simply supported. In fact, reality usually lies between these two ideal extremes.
Thus, if we assume a simply supported beam, the moment we calculate at the
center of the span is likely higher than in the actual structure. Likewise, if we
assume clamped ends, the moments we calculate are likely lower than we might
find in the actual structure. We can, in part, compensate for this by using suitable
allowable stresses and/or factors of safety. Use of a larger design bending moment
can justify a lower factor of safety, i.e. a higher allowable stress.
Derivation of ABS Section Modulus Requirement for frames
Criteria for determining the required section modulus of particular structural
members are found throughout the ABS Rules. Section 3-2-4/7.3 is a typical
example, specifying the required SM of a bottom frame (in combination with an
effective breadth of plating) in terms of frame spacing, s, unsupported span, l, and
a hydrostatic head, h, all in appropriate units.

The formula, SM = 0.0041 chsl2, appears to be empirical, but can actually be

derived from the analysis of a beam subject to a uniform distributed load.
Load = W

Mmax = WL2/8

Load, W = P · S

Hydrostatic head, H is defined in the Rules, in feet

And Pressure, P = 64 · H where 64 = density of sea water, pounds per cubic foot

Then, Mmax = WL2/8 becomes 64 · H · S · L2/8 in units of (lb-ft)

And required section modulus, SM required = M max / σ allowable becomes

SM required = [64/8 · H · S · L2] / σ allowable in units of (lb-ft/psi)

Now, multiply times 12 inches per foot, to obtain

SM required = [96 · H · S · L2] / σ allowable in units of (inches3)

If we assume σ allowable = 23,400 psi (about 70 percent of yield) then

96 / σ allowable = 96 / 23,400 = 0.0041

Thus the ABS formula, SM = 0.0041 chsl2, actually corresponds to an allowable

stress of about 70 percent of yield, in combination with a maximum stress based
on the assumption of a simply supported beam.

It can be similarly shown that if clamped ends are assumed (Mmax = WL2/12) then
the corresponding σ allowable = 15,600 psi (about 45 percent of yield).
Using the smaller estimated value of maximum bending moment requires that we
also use a lower allowable stress; i.e. a higher factor of safety.
 Tertiary Stresses (continued)
Introduction to Plate Bending Theory
Cylindrical Bending versus Plate Bending, Hughes, pg 332-336

Plate Bending – Small Deflection Theory

Recall the governing differential equation from beam theory:

Load, L = EI (d4y/ dx4)

From which we obtain relationships for shear, moment, slope and deflection.

Now, consider a simply supported beam of length, b, having a rectangular cross-

section of width, a, and height, t. These are not the customary symbols, but have
been chosen to correspond to the cross-section, da, shown in Hughes Figure 9.1.

For this beam we can determine its Inertia, at3/12 and section modulus, at2/6.
With a uniform load, w, the maximum moment is wb2/8.
The maximum stress is thus (wb2/8)/(at2/6) = ¾ (wb2/ at2).
The maximum deflection is (5wb4/384EI)

By analogy, for the bending of a cylindrical plate, per unit width (let a=1)
We determine its Inertia to be, t3/12 and section modulus, t2/6.
With a uniform pressure, p, the distributed load, w, per unit width, a, is w = p·a.
Thus, w = p·a = p·1 = p, so the maximum moment is pb2/8.
The maximum stress is thus (pb2/8)/(t2/6) = ¾ (pb2/ t2).
The maximum deflection is (5pb4/384D)

Huh? What’s D? It’s flexural stiffness of a plate, corresponding to EI for a beam.

Work through the generalized Hooke’s Law, as shown on pages 332 and 333 of
Hughes, ending with the definition of D = Et3/12(1-υ2).

Thus, we can think of cylindrical plate bending as being analygous to beam

bending, but with a different set of customary symbols and with D in place of EI.

But plates are generally supported along all four edges, therefore their stresses
vary in both X and Y, and the differential equation is more complicated, as shown
in Hughes equation (9.1.16) on page 336. Show the equation, note similarities
with the beam equation, but don’t try to derive it.
 Tertiary Stresses (continued)
Tertiary Stresses in Plating
Simply supported, pinned, clamped, and fixed edge conditions
Solutions to the plate bending differential equation
Plate bending stress versus membrane stress

Plate boundary conditions

As per Hughes, page 336; simply supported, pinned, clamped, fixed.
Ship structures are generally not rigid enough to prevent pull-in at the edges, so
simply supported and/or clamped are more appropriate assumptions, depending
on symmetry and uniformity of loading, similar to beam boundary conditions.

Solutions for special cases

Simply supported and clamped plates under uniform load; plate deforms in a pair
of half-sine waves, one along the width, and the other along the length. Refer to,
but don’t derive the Fourier solution.

Discuss the results shown in Hughes Figures 9.5 and 9.6 on pages 337 and 338.
Note, the abscissa is the plate aspect ratio, a/b, where ‘a’ is always the short side.

Re: Figure 9.5, k1 and k2 both approach a value of unity for large aspect ratios,
that is for very wide plates approaching a condition of cylindrical bending. And
while k2 is slightly greater than k1 the formula for simply supported plates differs
from the clamped plate formula by a factor of 5, so S/S plates deform much more.

Re: Figure 9.6, take care to explain that the arrows indicate the location and
orientation of the maximum stresses across the plate and along its length. For S/S
plates (like a S/S beam) the maximum stresses are at the center, with the highest
being directed across the short dimension of the plate. For clamped plates, the
maximum stresses are at the midpoints of the sides, with the highest again being
directed across the short dimension of the plate.

Note that the stresses will be in tension on one side of the plate and compression
on the other side, and that at mid thickness there will be no plate bending stress,
like at the neutral axis of a beam.

Membrane stresses
When plate undergoes large deflections (not really so large, greater than t/2), in addition
to bending stresses membrane stresses can develop. Membrane stresses are like those in
the skin of an inflated balloon, or like the tension in a clothesline that allow a member
with no bending stiffness to carry a lateral load.
Shear Effects
Shear Flow in the Hull Girder
Distribution of hull girder shear stress, PNA 239-246, Hughes 111-119
Shear in thin-walled open sections and closed cells

Analogy to Shear Stress Formula for Beams and/or Thin-Walled Sections

From Strength of Materials, recall the formula for shear stress in a thin-walled
member, such as the web of an I-beam: τ = Q·m/ (I·t), where Q = the vertical
shear force, I = the moment of inertia of the cross-section, t = the thickness of the
member at the point where the shear stress is to be determined, and m = the first
moment about the N.A. of that portion of the section beginning from the point at
which the shear stress is to be determined, and extending to the outer edge of the
section (or to a point of zero-shear, such as an axis of symmetry.)

In the same way that the beam flexure formula defines the variation of bending
stress on a transverse section as a linear function of distance from the neutral axis,
the shear stress formula defines the variation in shear stress around the section.
Whereas bending stress is zero at the neutral axis, the shear stress is a maximum
at the neutral axis. And where the variation in bending stress is a linear function of
distance from the neutral axis, the variation in shear stress is defined by a more
involved functional relationship, the moment function m, referred to above.

Application to a transverse section through the hull girder

Refer to Figure 3.22 in Hughes, page 112.
Recall from beam theory, Q = dM/dx, hence dM = Qdx. Thus, the presence of a
vertical shear force in the hull girder will cause a variation in bending moment
along the length of the ship.
If we consider two transverse sections, separated by a distance dx along the length
of the hull, then the bending moments on the two sections, say M and M+dM, will
differ due to the presence of a vertical shear force.
If we integrate the net longitudinal force (due to the bending stress) acting on any
full transverse section it must be zero, of course, because of the requirement for
static equilibrium. But if we calculate the longitudinal force (integrate bending
stress times cross-section area) for other than the full cross section, such as the
shaded area in the figure, the net longitudinal force will not be zero. We will get a
net force on the section at A equal to Fa, and on the section at B equal to Fb, those
forces corresponding to the two integrals shown in equation 3.7.1.
To maintain static equilibrium, there must be another longitudinal force, which
arises from the shear stress acting on the longitudinal face of the section. That
force, τ t dx, must equal the difference between the forces due to bending stress
on the sections at A and B. And because shear stresses are always equal on
orthogonal planes, the shear stress on the transverse section will be equal to that
on the longitudinal plane at any point on the cross-section.
Shear Effects (continued)
Project 4- Shear Flow Analysis
Compute determinant shear flow for open section
Compute corrective shear flow for a single closed cell

Determinant shear flow – Shear flow in open sections

Shear flow, q, is the product of shear stress, τ, and thickness, t, as in Hughes’
equation (3.7.5) and by substituting equation (3.7.4) for τ, we get the expression
for shear flow given in equation (3.7.6), where I = the inertia of the cross-section,
the same as in the flexure formula. The vertical shear force, Q, is constant around
the cross-section, but varies according to longitudinal position on the ship as well
as according to the loading condition. Thus for any values of Q and I, the shear
flow is a multiple of the moment function, m; i.e. q = Q m / I, and m is purely a
function of the cross-section shape and scantlings.

The moment function, m, is determined by starting at any point of zero shear, i.e.
at a free end such as the top of a hatch coaming, or at a point on the longitudinal
centerline plane of symmetry. Then integrate the element of area (t ds) times the
moment arm (or distance from the neutral axis, y) as discussed in Hughes, pg 113.
For horizontal portions of the cross section (deck and/or bottom) the moment arm
is constant so m varies linearly. For vertical portions, like side shell, the moment
varies in a parabolic fashion. Emphasize that m is not a single value, but rather a
function that must be defined around the complete half-section, and that the value
of m will be maximum at the neutral axis. The shear stress, τ, at any position can
then be calculated from Q and I for the full cross-section, in combination with m
and the local plate thickness, t, for one side of the ship.

In-determinant shear flow – Shear flow in closed, multi-cell sections

Refer to Hughes, pp 112-119.
To analyze shear flow in a cross-section with one or more closed cells, we must
first make the section determinant by ‘opening’ each closed section. We can now
calculate the moment function, m, but it will be incorrect because each ‘opening’
will allow ‘slip’ in the longitudinal direction as a result of shear deformation.
So we must apply a ‘corrective’ shear flow (constant around the perimeter of each
closed cell) to eliminate the longitudinal ‘slip’ at each imaginary opening. The
method is clearly illustrated in the example problem in Hughes, but probably need
not be covered in detail.