A PROJECT REPORT

ON
WIRELESS TRANSFORMER MONITORING & CONTROL USING
MICROCONTROLLER

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR

THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
ROHIT KUMAR SRIVASTAVA (1401020061)
PRASOON RAI (1401020048)
SHASHI SAURABH (1401020070)
PRAVEEN KUMAR RAWAT (1401020050)

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

Mrs. NIHARIKA AGRAWAL
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
(ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNITED COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH ALLAHABAD

AFFILIATED TO DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

i
 DECLARATION

We the students of B.TECH ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING hereby declare that the

work detail in the project entitled “WIRELESS TRANSFORMER MONITORING &
CONTROL USING MICROCONTROLLER” submitted to Department of Electrical
Engineering, “United College of Engineering and Research Naini Allahabad”, under the
“DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY” for the award bachelor of
technology degree is our original work, we have neither plagiarized nor submitted of any
other degree .in case this undertaking is found incorrect, we accept that our degree may
be unconditionally withdrawn.

DATE:
VENUE: ALLAHABAD
Rohit Kumar Srivastava(1401020061)
Prasoon Rai (1401020048)
Shashi Saurabh (1401020070)
Praveen Kumar Rawat(1401020050)

ii
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that work presented in this report entitled “Wireless Transformer

Monitoring And Control Using Microcontroller” for the award bachelor of

technology from “DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW”, embodies results of original work, and the studies
are carried out by us and the content of the thesis do not from the basis for award of
any other degree to the candidate or to anybody else from this or any other university/
institutions.

Rohit Kumar Srivastava(1401020061)

Prasoon Rai (1401020048)
Shashi Saurabh (1401020070)
Praveen kumar Rawat (1401020050)

Mrs. Niharika Agrawal Mr. Swapnil Srivastava

(PROJECT GUIDE) (HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of many individuals and organizations. I would like
to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.

I am highly indebted to “Asst. Professor Mrs. Niharika Agrawal, Department of

Electrical engineering, United College of Engineering and Research Naini
Allahabad”, for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing
necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in the project.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Swapnil

Srivastava, HEAD OF Department of mechanical engineering, United College of
Engineering and Research Naini Allahabad”.

I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents & classmates for their kind
cooperation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project.

My thanks and appreciations also go to those people who have willingly helped me out
with their abilities for developing the project.

Rohit Kumar Srivastava

Praveen Kumar Rawat
Prasoon Rai
Shashi Saurabh
(Department of Electrical Engineering)

iv
 ABSTRACT

Distribution transformers are one of the most important equipment in power

network. Because of, the large number of transformers distributed over a wide
area in power electric systems, the data acquisition and condition monitoring is
an important issue. The main aim of this system is distribution transformer
monitoring and controlling through IOT. Here transformers r damaged due to the
oil damage. Oil damage is depends on different parameters and environmental
conditions. Now in this system we are concentrating on temperature of
transformer and viscosity of oil .In this system temperature and viscosity
monitoring.

Control action is performed based on the AVR microcontroller. After interfacing

the required components user has to develop one application program in
embedded-c. Here we will control the oil fill in the transformer, will able to
on/off output load of transformer also it will display frequency, voltage and
temperature reading on the smart phone using IOT link to control the whole
system.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... v
CHAPTER: 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of study........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Problem statement ......................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Aim and Objectives: ........................................................................................................ 4
1.1.1 Objectives: .................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Research scope ............................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER: 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 6
2.2 Theoretical Background................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER: 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 10
3.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Component details ........................................................................................................ 11
3.2.1 Microcontroller ......................................................................................................... 11
3.2.2 Current sensor........................................................................................................... 12
1.1.2 3.2.2.1 Overcurrent protection circuit ....................................................................... 12
3.2.3.1 Secondary winding calculation .................................................................................. 13
3.2.3.2 Primary current calculation ....................................................................................... 13
3.2.4 Analysis of Voltage protection circuit ........................................................................ 14
1.1.3 3.2.5 Relay ................................................................................................................. 15
1.1.4 3.2.5.1 Relay Driver Circuit ........................................................................................ 16
3.2.8 Temperature sensing unit ......................................................................................... 18
3.2.9 Transmitter description ............................................................................................. 19
3.2.9.1 Interfacing Microcontroller and MAX232 with serial (DB9) ....................................... 20
1.2 ................................................................................................................................................. 22
1.2.1 3.3 SOFTWARE DESIGN OVERVIEW. .......................................................................... 22
1.2.2 3.3.1 Flow chart of the entire system........................................................................ 22
2 CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................ 24
2.1.1 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION ............................... 24
4.2 PCB design ..................................................................................................................... 26
4.2.2 Soldering ....................................................................................................................... 27
4.2.3 Electrical Testing and Troubleshooting.......................................................................... 27
4.3 Software implementation.............................................................................................. 27
4.3.1.1 Brief description of the system main program .......................................................... 27
4.3.1.2 Initialization ports and pins. ...................................................................................... 28
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 2.1.2 4.3.2 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION .................................................................................. 28
2.1.3 4.6 Project prototype ................................................................................................ 32
CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................................ 34
2.2 5.1 Transformer current analysis....................................................................................... 34
2.3 5.2 Transformer voltage analysis ....................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................................................ 36
6.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 36
Reference Books : ..................................................................................................................... 38
2.3.1 Journals: .................................................................................................................... 38

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 CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Protection against fault in power systems (PS) is very essential and vital for reliable
Performance. A power system is said to be faulty when an undesirable condition
occurs in that power system, where the undesirable condition might be short circuits,
overcurrent, overvoltage etc.
The power transformer is one of the most significant equipment in the electric Power
system, and transformer protection is an essential part of the general system protection
approach. . Transformers are used in a wide variety of applications, from small
distribution transformers serving one or more users to very large units that are an
integral part of the bulk power system (Anderson, 1998, P.673).
Moreover with the increasing population and their unavoidable demands, leads to the
high increase demands on electrical power. With this increase in demand of power,
the existing systems may become overloaded. The overloading at the consumer end
appears at the transformer terminals which can affect its efficiency and protection
systems. One of the reported damage or tripping of the distribution transformer is due
to thermal overload. To escape the damaging of transformer due to overloading from
consumer end, it involves the control against overcurrent tripping of distribution
transformer. Where the technology of the day has given the opportunity to use the
latest trends, and microprocessor, microcontrollers are one of the day requirements to
apply in the remote protection of the transformer. Conditions and to initiate corrective
action. Relays must be able to evaluate a wide variety of parameters to establish that
corrective action is required. Obviously, a relay cannot prevent the fault. Its primary
purpose is to detect the fault and take the necessary action to minimize the damage to
the equipment or to the system. The most common parameters which reflect the
presence of a fault are the voltages and currents at the terminals of the protected
apparatus or at the appropriate zone boundaries .
The Protective relays require reasonably accurate reproduction of the abnormal and
normal conditions in the power system for correct sensing and Operation.

1
This information input from the power systems are usually through Current
Transformer (CT) and Voltage Transformer (VT).
This information input from the power systems are usually through Current
Furthermore, for the past several years fuse, circuit breakers and Electromechanical
relays were used for the protection of power systems.

The traditional protective fuses microprocessors in order to eradicate the drawbacks

of the traditional protective techniques (Bashi, 2007) which led to many
improvements in transformer protection in terms of lower installation and maintenance
costs, better reliability, improved protection and control and faster restoration of
outages.

techniques (Bashi, 2007) which led to many improvements in transformer protection

in terms of lower installation and maintenance costs, better reliability, improved
protection and control and faster restoration of outages.

Therefore a proposed solution is chosen to develop a microcontroller based

transformer overload protection prototype because the microprocessors based relays
provides greater flexibility, more adjustable characteristics, increased range of setting,
high accuracy, reduced size, and lower costs, along with many ancillary functions,
such as control logic, event recording, fault location data, remote setting, self-
monitoring and checking, etc.

2
1.2 Problem statement

An essential concern in transformer protection is the high cost of the transformer

and the relative long outage time that occurs when a large transformer fails. The
proper type of protection can often detect initial faults before they become major,
and thereby prevent major physical damage and long outage times (Anderson, 1999,
P.67)
Transformers experiences faults which leads to deterioration and acceleration
aging and failure of transformer winding resulting from insulation failures, one of
the causes is the over current. Due to overload and externally applied conditions
including over current and external short circuit causes rise in temperature of both
transformer oil and windings (Bashi, 2007).
Whenever the winding temperature raises and exceeds transformer thermal
limits, the insulation will deteriorate and may fail prematurely. Continuous thermal
overload (over temperature) might weaken the insulation of a transformer and
resulting in rapid transformer loss of life.
Over excitation (an increase in system voltage), internal faults can lead to
deterioration, acceleration aging and fault trips in transformer protection function
(Reza, 2003).
similarly, transformers must not be subjected to prolong overvoltage. For maximum
efficiency they are operated near the knee of their saturation curve, so at voltages
above 110% of rated, the exciting current becomes very high. Just a few percent
increase in voltage results in a very large increase in current. These large currents
can destroy the unit if they are not reduced promptly. (Blackburn, 2006). however
engineers and scientist have worked out various ways in which the transformer can
transformer can be protected; one of such ways is by using a relay. Therefore in
order to protect the transformer using relay, a control system idea is developed
through the use of microcontroller, hence the name of the project.

3
 1.3 Aim and Objectives:

Aim:
The aim of this project is to design and implement a microcontroller based
transformer protection system.
1.1.1 Objectives:

1. To design the temperature and voltage sensing circuits that will be interfaced
to the microcontroller for monitoring.

2. To develop an algorithm and codes to the microcontroller which will work for
under over current, over voltage, under voltage conditions and transmit the
parameters to a personal computer.

3. To analyze and validate the performance of this system using appropriate

simulation software.

1.4 Research scope

The overall aim of the study is to build a microcontroller based transformer

protection with transformer parameters monitoring capabilities. This protection is
based on the transformer parameters fed into the ADC of the microcontroller and
monitoring the transformer parameters through PC. Immediately a fault is
detected the microcontroller taking necessary action.
Furthermore, the limitation of the entire project is divided into two. First part
of the project is to design and build the hardware of the entire system. Where a
voltage transformer of 230:160 VAC, current sensor, electromechanical relay,
microcontroller, LCD display, and finally a power supply that can generate
5VDC in order to activate the relay circuit, the microcontroller and LCD. The
second part is the development of a C language program that will satisfy the
protection of the transformer algorithm.

Correspondingly, the system development will also concentrate on elaborating

and designing a suitable transmitter module using microcontroller based circuit.
An AVR microcontroller was selected for this project because of its universal
synchronous asynchronous receiver and transmitter (USART), inbuilt ADC
functionalities etc. Finally, the highest priority is given to the software design

4
and Implementation in order to develop a suitable algorithm that will promptly
interact with the, microcontroller and the personal computer.

5
 CHAPTER: 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

BACKGROUND

2.1 Literature Review

Enormous work has been done on protection of power transformers such as: overload
voltages, overcurrent and external short-circuit etc. Some of those researches which
had been conducted, their setbacks, ambiguities and merits are as discussed in the
subsequent paragraphs.

In 2003 Ali Reza Fereidunian proposed a design which was based on a digital
Differential relays for transformer protection using Walsh series and least square
Estimators. The Two estimators were been developed using the Walsh series and least
square algorithms. The transformer internal fault (short circuit) protection function
was the functionality of the differential relay. The performance of the proposed relay
was tested for internal, external faults and inrush current of the transformer. In their
project the digital differential relaying scheme comprised of filter, pre-process, data
acquisition system and a decision maker. The protective relay performs the duty of
making decision about the faulted or non-faulted situations.

The transformer internal faults and the external faults situations were tested on the
designed differential relay, and the results of these test illustrates the efficiency of the
system. Also, it was seen that both estimation algorithms perform their job correctly,
but the Walsh series acts better than least squares algorithm estimation (Ali Reza et
al., 2003).

Furthermore in 2007 S.M. Bashi et al, designed and built a microcontroller based
system for power transformer protection. The system includes facilities for
discrimination between internal fault current and magnetizing inrush current,
differential protection, over current protection has included.

The performances of the proposed system have been examined and from the
experimental readings and observation, it was understood that the proposed system
monitors and controls the transformer when there is any fault ( Bashi et al 2007)

6
 In 2010 V. Thiyagarajan and T.G. Palanivel proposed an innovative design to
develop.

A system based on microcontroller that was used for monitoring the current of a
distribution transformer in a substation and to protect the system from the rise in
current due to overloading. The protection of the distribution transformer was
accomplished by shutting down the entire unit with the aid of radio frequency
communication.

The performance of the proposed system had been examined with three various
Types of loading which had been added to the transformer. From the experimental
observations it was understood that, the proposed system monitors and controls the
transformer in an efficient manner. Whenever an over current was sensed by the
system while monitoring the transformer, it directs the main station to shut down the
transformer and thus it guards the unit from any serious damages (Thiyagarajan et al
2010).In June 2006 Atthapol Ngaopitakkul and Anantawat presented an algorithm

based on a combination of discrete wavelet transformer and neural networks for

detection and classification of internal faults in a two winding three-phase
transformer. The fault conditions of the transformer are simulated using
ATP/EMTP in order to obtain current signals. The training process for the neural
network and fault diagnosis decision are implemented using MATLAB.

It was found that the proposed method gave a satisfactory accuracy and can be
useful

in a development of a modern differential relay for transformer protection scheme

(Ngaopitakkul et al, 2006).
Larner et al presented a paper that attempts to review the concept of a fuse
application on high voltage Power transformers. The practical connecting of a power
transformer directly to a transmission line through fuse was discussed and was found
that the fuse presents several problems in the protection. One of the stated problem
that a fuse is that it cannot detect a fault current resulting from turn-to turn faults
within the protected transformer which can be well below the load current rating of
the transformer .

7
In 2010 Mazouz et al conducted a new approach research for transformer differential
protection that ensures security for external faults, inrush and over-excitation
conditions and provided dependability for internal faults. The approach uses
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) to realize transformer differential protection.

It was concluded that the PLCs gave the protection circuits more flexibility and
makes their integration with other protection and control circuits easier. And also
found that the differential protection using PLCs provided high sensitivity for internal
faults and high stability for external faults and magnetizing inrush currents (Mazouz
et al 2010).
Finally in 2000 Vaccaro et al proposed a neural diagnostic system for transformer
thermal overload protection. The research was conducted because the IEEE power
system relaying committee were lacking inaccuracy in the prediction of maximum
winding hot-spot temperature of a power transformer in the presence of overload
conditions. The proposed method was based on a radial basis function network
(RBFN) which taking in to account the load current, the top oil temperature rise over
the ambient temperature and other meteorological parameters, permits recognition of
the hot-spot temperature pattern.The radial basis function network (RBFN) based
algorithm was designed and trained, in order to estimate the winding hot-spot
transformer temperature from knowledge of the experimental top oil temperature,
weather conditions and load current data obtained from a laboratory prototype mineral-
oil-immersed transformer.
Finally, the RBFN-based algorithm for the identification of the dynamic thermal
overload in power transformers have been developed and was found that the accuracy
was improved compared with the results obtained from the IEEE power system relay
committee (Vaccaro et al 2000).
From the above review, it is finally concluded that researches done on the transformer
protection have some weaknesses; therefore by using the proposed method, which is
by using microcontroller based approach, the protection will be enhanced to a better
protection because the application of microcontroller in protecting transformer against
overcurrent and over voltage is speedily growing.
.

8
2.2 Theoretical Background

From the reviewed journals, based on S.M. Bashi work, this project plan to
design, analyses and implement the hardware of the system. Correspondingly, it is
understood that the topic of research is an advanced area of power systems protection
engineering which is normally being explored by power engineers. The purpose of
the system design is to solve complex and eradicate the problems encountered using
the local protection techniques such as fuse, circuit breakers etc.

The project is based on microcontroller transformer protection with PC based

transformer parameters monitoring capabilities. This protection is focused on the
transformer parameters feed into the ADC of the microcontroller and monitoring the
transformer voltage, current and temperature through personal computer. The
voltage transformer will be connected across a variable AC input source using an
autotransformer which can be varied from 0-250VAC. The output of the transformer
(secondary) will be connected to electric bulbs which will serve as loads. The load
current will be monitored by connecting a current sensor in series between the load
and the secondary side of the transformer. The transformer voltage will be
monitored through rectifying a step down 23012VAC transformer to a pure 5VDC
and then feed to the microcontroller ADC pin for voltage monitoring. The input of
the step down transformer will be connected to autotransformer and the output will
be perfectly rectified to a pure 5VAC.

Whenever the input voltage is varied, the microcontroller shows the value of the
voltage on an LCD and also on the PC. As input voltage is varied above 230VAC,
the microcontroller detects an over voltage fault and it sends a trip signal to the
voltage protective relay for protecting the transformer and the load connected.

Similarly, the microcontroller monitor’s the load current and temperature of

transformer and displays the values on LCD and on the PC. Whenever loads are
added to the secondary side of the transformer, the current at the secondary side rise.
As the load current exceeds the rated current rating of the transformer, the
temperature of the secondary winding rises, therefore the microcontroller will send a
trip signal to the overcurrent protective relay, thereby protecting the transformer
from burning.

9
 CHAPTER: 3

SYSTEM DESIGN
3.1 Overview

The block diagram of the system is shown in figure 3.1

Fig 3.1 Block diagram of the system

The primary of the 230:160VAC transformer is connected to a variable AC input

voltage (autotransformer), and the output is connected to a load which is usually
electrical appliances such as bulbs, electric heater etc. At the primary side of the
230:160VAC transformer, a step down 230-12VAC transformer is rectified to a pure
5VDC and feed into the ADC pin of the microcontroller for monitoring the voltage
of the transformer. At the secondary side of the transformer , a current sensor is
connected in series between the load and the transformer secondary terminal for
sensing, the load current, output of the current sensor is then feed to the
microcontroller ADC pin for monitoring. The LCD is used to display the transformer
Voltage, current and temperature, similarly the personal computer is used to
display the transformer parameters for monitoring purpose. While monitoring
10
 the transformer parameters, whenever the load current exceeds the transformer
rated current, the microcontroller detects an overcurrent faults and it sends a trip
signal to the overcurrent relay, thereby protecting the transformer from blowing
off. Moreover, when the autotransformer secondary is varied above the specific
limit, the microcontroller detects an overvoltage faults and it sends a trip signal
to the overvoltage protective relay, thereby protecting the transformer and the
loads from blowing off.
3.2 Component details

Based on the various reviews conducted on transformer protection and the above
block diagram which was conceived out of those literature reviews conducted,
numbers of components are required in developing the protection system.

3.2.1 Microcontroller
The microcontroller is required to serve the purpose monitoring the transformer
Information such as temperature, voltage and current through the LCD display,
personal computer and triggering the relay when there is any fault. Modern
power networks require faster, more accurate and reliable protective schemes.
Microcontroller-based protective schemes are capable of fulfilling these
Requirements. They are superior to electromagnetic and static relays. These
schemes have more flexibility due to their programmable approach when
compared with the static relays which have hardwired circuitry.
Therefore in order to achieve this task the ATmega16 microcontroller was
Chosen because of its suitability for this project such as speed, power
consumption, universal synchronous asynchronous receiver transmitter
(USART) functionality, in built ADC, and amount of RAM and ROM on the
chip.
The ATmega16 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR
enhanced RISC architecture. It has a High Endurance Non-volatile Memory
segments such as 32K Bytes of In-System Self- programmable Flash program
memory, 1024 Bytes EEPROM, 2K Byte Internal SRAM, write/erase Cycles:
10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM.
The ATmega32 microcontroller I/O pins are 40 in number, and most of them
can be used as I/O pins. The input/output pins serves the purpose of connecting

11
 the ADC chip, LED, LCD display, alarm buzzer and in this case the port A, pin
one, two and three were used to take care of ADC input since we are using
three different analogue signals one for the voltage transformer other for the
current transformer and finally for the temperature sensor

3.2.2 Current sensor

The protection of the transformer against over current is concerned with the
Detection and measurement of fault, where the measurement can be dangerous
and indeed impossible to measure if the actual load and fault currents are very
large. A professional way of avoiding these difficulties is to use the current
sensor. Therefore in the block diagram, current transformer is used to measure
the load current.
The current sensor ACS756 was used because the current sensor ICs provides
economical and precise solution for AC or DC current sensing in industrial,
automotive, commercial, and communication systems. The device package
allows for implementation by the customer. Typical applications include motor
control, load detection and management, power supplies and overcurrent fault
protection. The current sensor is capable of measuring up to 50A.The monitored
current values are displayed on the LCD display and as soon the voltage
transformer is overloaded the current transformer sends the information through
the ADC and the microcontroller energizes the relay, thereby protecting the
transformer.

1.1.2 3.2.2.1 Overcurrent protection circuit

An ammeter cannot be used in measuring the load current in this project because an
analogue signal most be fed into the ADC of the microcontroller for monitoring the
load current. A current sensor was found to be the suitable current sensing device for
this purpose. The current sensor used can measure up to 50A. The BB- ACS756
comes with one set of dean-T connector and a 3 ways right angle pin header. The
ACS756 is power up with 5VDC and gives out voltage to indicate the direction and
current value. The output of the current sensor is fed to Micro-controller ADC unit for
taking the necessary action

12
 Figure 3.2 Current sensing circuit

3.2.3 Voltage transformer

The 230VAC:12VAC step down voltage transformer is used to measure the

Load voltage. The voltage transformer will pass through rectification process before
fed to the ADC.

3.2.3.1 Secondary winding calculation

The transformer used has 120 turns of coil in the primary; therefore secondary
winding turn is calculated as shown below:

The above calculation shows that the transformer has a turn ratio of 120:80 =12:8

3.2.3.2 Primary current calculation

The transformer used is a step down transformer (230VAC:160VAC). It is known that
a transformer with less turns in the secondary than in the primary would step down
the voltage, but would step up the current. The below calculation will verify that

13
3.2.4 Analysis of Voltage protection circuit

3.2.4.1 over voltage protection circuit

The over voltage and under voltage protection circuit is capable of measuring and
monitoring voltage from 200 to 250VAC. In this project the voltage can be increased
or decreased by using the autotransformer and the output of the voltage monitoring
circuit is fed to ADC converter , whenever the voltage is varied to 200VAC, the
microcontroller will detect under voltage fault and whenever the voltage is varied to
250VAC, the microcontroller detects over voltage fault, consequently the
microcontroller sends a trip signal to the relay, and the relays cuts the primary of the
transformer from the AC mains, thereby protecting the transformer

.
Figure 3.3 over voltage sensing circuit.

14
 In Figure 3.3, a step down transformer of 230-12VAC was used and was rectified to a
pure dc using the capacitor and then adjusted to voltage within 5VAC using the
potentiometer in order to be fed the analogue signal into the ADC without burning the
ADC converter.

Whenever the primary voltage of the transformer is adjusted, the secondary voltage
also changes, and based on the microcontroller program, the input voltage can be
monitor, displayed and the transformer can be protected from any over voltage fault.

3.2.4.2 over voltage protection circuit design calculation.

3.2.4.2.1. DC voltage design calculation.

The secondary voltage of the transformer is 160VAC and connected to a bridge
rectifier, therefore the DC output is approximately:

From equation 3, the VAC is the RMS transformer voltage and the 0.7V is the
voltage drop across the rectifier. As there are two diodes conducting for each half
cycle, therefore there will be two rectifier voltage drops.

1.1.3 3.2.5 Relay

The relay is an electrically controllable switch widely used in industrial controls,

automobiles, and appliances. It allows the isolation of two separate sections of a
system with two different voltage sources. For example , a +5V system can be
isolated from a 120V system by placing a relay in between them. One such relay is
called an electromechanical or electromagnetic relay EMR as shown in figure 3.4.
The EMRs have three components: the coil, spring and contacts. In Figure 3.4, a
digital +5V can control a 230Vac lamp without any physical contact between them.
When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is created around the coil (the
coil is energized), which causes the armature to be attracted to the coil. The
armature’s contact acts like a switch and closes or opens the circuit. The relay serves
as the protective device of the entire system. The relay receives trip signal from the

15
 microcontroller and thereby cutting the transformer primary from the input ac source
hence protecting the transformer.
1.1.4 3.2.5.1 Relay Driver Circuit

Microcontroller pins lack sufficient current to drive a relay. While the 6volts
Relay’s coil needs around 12mA to be energized, the current is obtained by the V/R
expression. For example, if the coil is 6VDC and the coil resistance is 500Ω, a
minimum of 12mA (6V/500Ω = 12mA) is need to energize the relay while the
microcontroller’s pin can provide a maximum of 1-2mA current, therefore a transistor
was used as relay driver which is placed between the microcontroller and the relay as
shown in figure 3.4

Figure 3.4. 230VAC lamp switched ON using microcontroller based relay

3.2.6 Crystal oscillator

The clock circuit is an important element that is required in the system board. This is
because the microcontroller works digitally based on generated clock. The rate of the
clock is determined by a crystal oscillator that is connected to the clock logic pins.
A high speed crystal of 16 MHz is used in this project in order to avoid any delay in
terms of relay tripping ON and OFF, and monitoring of the transformer parameters
through the ADC of the microcontroller. Because the monitoring of transformer
parameters and tripping off the relay has to be very fast to avoid failure of the entire
protection system. Figure 3.6 show the crystal inscribed into the microcontroller, with
two 33 pF capacitors used to filter out external noise from interfering with the crystal
frequency

16
 Figure 3.5 Crystal oscillator circuit inscribed in the controller

3.2.7 Power Supply design

3.2.7.1 Power supply theory

The power supply circuit design is one of the important parts of this project,
without a power supply the electronic devices such as microcontroller, relay,
alarm, LCD etc. display will not function. Similarly a wrong power supply
design will lead to the damaging of the electronic devices used in this project.

The main power supplies needed for this project is 5VDC in order to power on
the relay and other electronic devices such as microcontroller etc. The design is
done using a transformer, bridge rectifiers, filter capacitor and a voltage
regulator. Figure 3.7 shows the sequential process of designing a constant DC
power supply.

230 V, 50 Hz Transformer Bridge Filter Regulator

Ac 20:1 Rectifier LM78**

Figure 3.6 Transformer power supply

17
In Figure 3.7 the input voltage is obtained the main 230VAC outlet and then
connected to the transformer. A step down transformer is used in stepping the
230VAC to a 12VAC.The 12VAC serves as an input voltage to the bridge
rectifier which is basically for diodes connected where two diodes are in forward
biased and the other two are in reversed biased for each half cycles. The bridge
rectifier is used in converting the 12VAC into a dc voltage.

The filter capacitor serves as a smoother to smooth the dc voltage from the
bridge rectifier and the LM7805 is the voltage regulators which purposely
stabilizes the output voltages to 6VDC and 5VDC.

3.2.8 Temperature sensing unit

The LM35 was chosen to be the temperature sensing device in this project. The
LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output
voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The
LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in degree
Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its
output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling with a rated operating temperature
range of over -55° to +150°C

These sensors use a solid-state technique to determine the temperature. That is to

say, they don’t use mercury (like old thermometers), bimetallic strips (like in
some home thermometers or stoves), nor do they use thermistors (temperature
sensitive resistors). Instead, they use the fact as temperature increases, the voltage
across a diode increases at a known rate.

Similarly, the LM35 is chosen over thermocouples because it can measure

temperature more accurately than a using a thermistor generates a higher output
voltage than Thermocouples and May not require that the output voltage be amplified.

18
 Figure 3.7 LM35 sensor interfaced with the AVR microcontroller

The output voltage of the LM35 varies linearly with temperature. Therefore to

Calculate the temperature, a general equation is shown below which is used to

convert the output voltage to temperature

o o
Temperature ( C) = Vout * (100 C/V)…………………….. (19)

o
Hence, if Vout is 0.84V, then, Temperature = 84 C

3.2.9 Transmitter description

The transmitter section consists of the MAX232 IC and the

Atmega32 TX pin. The microcontroller is interfaced to the computer using
MAX232 through RS232 serial communication. RS232 (recommended standard
232) supports both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions and its user
data is send as a time of bits. MAX232 is an integrated chip that converts
convert Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) to RS232 and RS232 to TTL voltage
levels.

19
Compatible with digital logic circuit such as the microcontroller. The serial data
sends from the microcontroller is then fed to the PC through RS232 for
monitoring purpose.

3.2.9.1 Interfacing Microcontroller and MAX232 with serial (DB9)

Max232 is an integrated circuit that has a dual driver/receiver and typically

converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL
compatible digital logic circuits such as the microcontroller. The serial data
sends from the PC through RS232 gets converted to parallel data and is fed to
the AVR microcontroller and conversely. When a TTL level is fed to Max232
IC, it converts TTL logic 1 to between - 3VDC and -15VDC, and converts TTL
logic 0 to between +3VDC to +15VDC and conversely when converting from
RS232 to TTL. The table below clarifies the RS232 transmission voltages at a
certain logic state are opposite from RS232 control line voltages at the same
logic state.

Rs232 line type and logic Rs232 voltage TTL voltage to/from MAX
level
232

Data transmission (Rx/Tx) 3V to +15V 0V

logic 0

Data transmission (Rx/Tx) -3V to 15V 5V

logic 1

Control-signal -3V to 15V 5V

(RTS/CTS/DTR) logic 0

Control-signal +3V to +15V 0V

(RTS/CTS/DTR) logic 1

Table 3. 1 RS232 Line Type and Logic Level

20
 Figure 3.8 Microcontroller with Max232 interface with RS232 Interface

3.2.9.2 Interfacing serial (DB9) with PC

Currently, most PC’s have a 9 pin connector on either the side or back of the
computer. From Table 3.3 it is seen that the PC can send data (bytes) to the
transmit pin (i.e. pin 2) and receive data (bytes) from the receive pin (i.e. pin 3.
The Serial port (DB9) rs232 (recommended Standard 232) is much more than
just a connector to PC because it converts data from parallel to serial and
changes the electrical representation of the data.

If the connector on the PC has female pins, therefore the mating cable needs to
have a male pin connector to terminate in a DB9 connector and conversely. Data
bits flow in parallel from the PC because it uses many wires at the same time to
transmit whereas serial flow in a stream of bits from the serial connector because
it transmit or receive over a single wire. The serial port create such a flow by
converting the parallel data to serial on the transmit pin (i.e. pin 2) and
conversely. The serial port has a built-in computer chip called USART used in
translating data between parallel and serial forms.

21
 Pin 1 Input DCD Data Carrier Detect

Pin 2 Input RXD Received Data

Pin 3 Output TXD Transmitted Data

Pin 4 Output DTR Data Terminal Ready

Pin 5 Nil Nil Signal ground

Pin 6 Input DSR Data Set Ready

Pin 7 Output RTS Request To Send

Pin 8 Input CTS Clear To Send

Pin 9 Input RI Ring Indicator

Table 3.2: RS232 pin assignments (DB9 PC signal set)

1.2
1.2.1 3.3 SOFTWARE DESIGN OVERVIEW.

The software design plays a very important role in the working of the entire
system; the system will not operate without the software. An algorithm needs to
be developed to enable the AVR controllers read the input and respond
accordingly. The programming language selected for this project is the C
program. The C program will enable communication between the transformer,
microcontroller and PC with other different interfaces in the system. With the
software programed into it, microcontrollers acts as brain of the whole
transformer protection and transmit its parameters for monitoring its conditions.

It will send the transformer information through PC via the RS232 serial port.The
flow chart diagram developed will give an initial description of the system
software. The programs are divided into two parts which are main program
and interrupt program. The microcontroller will always loop the main program
until an interrupt occurred. When the controller receives an interrupt flag, then
it will jump to interrupt the process.

1.2.2 3.3.1 Flow chart of the entire system

22
The flowchart gives a diagram representation of the program algorithm. The system
flowchart is designed as shown below:

Figure 3.9 Flowchart description of the system

The flowchart above shows the initial description of the system program code. The
first thing the program will do is to initialize and read the ADC and the USART pins,
then sends the transformer parameters which are fed to the ADC to the personal
computer system using the UART1_Write command, then to the LCD display. The
microcontroller ADC will continuously capturing the transformer parameters, as soon
as the transformer secondary current is greater than 1A, it sends a trip signal to the
overcurrent relay, and it cuts off the load that leads to the overcurrent, thereby
protecting the transformer from burning. Same process goes to the over voltage
protection, it will check whether the transformer input voltage is greater than 230Vac,
if so, it sends a trip signal to overvoltage relay, thereby protecting the transformer.

23
 2 CHAPTER 4

2.1.1 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE DESIGN AND

IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 Schematic diagram

4.1.1 Complete schematic diagram

As designed in chapter 3, the circuit section consists of AVR microcontroller, step

down transformer circuit for voltage sensing, current sensing circuit, relay circuits, a
Temperature sensor, RS232 and the masx232 circuit.
The step down transformer used is a 230VAC to 12VAC transformer and is used for
the purpose of sensing the input voltage to the main transformer with a voltage rating
of 230VAC to 160VAC. The step down Transformer is been rectified and filtered to a
pure dc which goes directly to the microcontroller ADC for monitoring the input
voltage. For the purpose of current sensing, a current transformer was used for that
purpose. It went through rectification and filtering process then directly connected to
the microcontroller ADC for monitoring the load current.
The microcontrollers send the monitored parameters to LCD display and also transmit
them to a personal computer. The transmission to personal computer was made
possible by interfacing the microcontroller with the computer using MAX232 through
RS232 serial communication. RS232 (recommended standard 232) supports both
synchronous and asynchronous transmission and its user data is send as a time series
of bits. While
the parameters, whenever a fault occurs which might be high voltage or over
current, the microcontroller sends a trip signal to the relay and thereby protecting
the transformer from burning.

24
Figure 4.1 Complete schematic

25
4.2 PCB design

4.2.1 PCB design using Software.

Earlier, testing on broad board was done and the working process of the circuit was
properly tested, problems were troubleshot and rectified. After the bread board
testing here comes the Printed Circuited Board design (PCB). Dip trace software
was used to place the components, which are joined together with multiple of tracks
that gives out the physical and electrical connections. This software was used due its
neat layout and accurate PCB layout is always the main priority section of the
design

Figure 4.2 Complete circuit PCB design

The PCB layout schematics were printed on a transparent paper, where the layouts
were printed with a laser printer. Pressing iron was used to iron the transparent paper
on the PCB board systematically for about 10 minutes. The copper clads were allowed
to cool off and the transparent paper was removed from the PCB board to expose the
transferred image. A permanent marker was used to replace the missing tracks before
etching. Etching chemical (HCL acid) was poured into a squared shaped container and

26
the PCB board was placed inside. After that the board was cleaned with Tina chemical
in order to remove the unwanted copper and makes the board ready for drilling.
4.2.2 Soldering

After the drilling process, there comes the soldering process. Soldering attentions
need to be taken into consideration when laying out the board. Hand soldering is the
traditional method basically used for prototypes and small production stuffs. Major
impacts when laying out the board include suitable access for the iron, and thermal
relief for pads.

4.2.3 Electrical Testing and Troubleshooting

After soldering, finished PCB has to go through comprehensive checks for electrical
continuity test and shorts that might occur at time of soldering. This is achieved by
using the multimeter continuity check mode. It checks that the continuity of the tracks
if matches each other; if not a troubleshooting session has to take place in order to
trace and rectify the problem.

4.3Software implementation

4.3.1Programming in MikroC PRO for AVR

Microcontroller acts as the brain of the entire system. It monitors the voltage, current
and temperature of the transformer, display the parameters on LCD and PC through
RS232 serial port. Whenever a fault occurs, it automatically sends a trip signal to the
relay and thereby protecting the transformer from burning. An algorithm has been
developed which makes the microcontroller reads the input analogue signals and
responds consequently. The algorithms have been represented by the flowchart shown
in chapter three, and now the flowcharts are been interpreted into C language and
complied using the MikroC PRO for AVR. Refer to appendix for complete C program.

4.3.1.1Brief description of the system main program

The main program is divided into multiple of parts, and the parts are the definition of
ports and pins, initialization of ADC, configuration of the serial communication
protocol ports and finally configuration of LCD display.

27
 4.3.1.2Initialization ports and pins.

General purpose input/ output pins of the microcontroller can be said to be the basic
and commonly used peripherals in microcontrollers. They permit the Atmega16
microcontroller pins to be used as input or outputs based on the task at hand for
monitoring and controlling devices. To use a port or pin of a microcontroller as input,
a data direction register called DDR register is used to configure the port as input. To
setup PORTB as input, DDR register is set as DDRB=0X00.

And to use the PORTB as output, DDR register setup as DDRB=0XFF.

In this project PORT A is used for Analogue digital conversion, PORT C is used for
LCD interfacing, PORT D is used for relay control, LCD control pins and serial port

Figure 4.3 Configure input and output port

The program begins by defining PORTC for LCD, PORTD.2 for voltage relay,
PORTD.3 for current relay, PORTD.4, PORTD.5 and PORTD.6 as RS, RW and EN
pins for LCD respectively. Defining the ports gives a clear understanding of the
program flow.

2.1.2 4.3.2 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION

The main program begins by configuring the LCD, ADC and the serial
communication port of the microcontroller

28
The main program is started by defining the flow of each port is the port used as an
output port or as an input port. When the port is loaded with 0xff, it signifies that the
port is used as an output port, similarly if the port is loaded with 0x00, this means
the port is used as input. As seen in figure 4.4, portd, portc and portb are defined as
output because the microcontroller gives out signals to the LCD, relays and the
serial port. The program continues with the initialization of the serial
communication and setting the speed of the communication (baud rate) as 9600kps.
Baud rate is the number of times a signal in a communication channel changes state
or varies. This project is designed to use 9600 baud rate which means that the
channel can change states up to 9600bps times per second.

29
while (1) {
delay_ms(1000);
temp=ADC_Read(0x00)/4;
voltage=ADC_Read(0x01)/4;
current = ADC_Read(0x02)/4; // get ADC value from 2nd channel
com(0xc0);
lcd_string("temp:");
ascii(temp*2);
com(0x94);
lcd_string("volts:");
ascii(voltage*2);
com(0xd4);
lcd_string("current:");
asciiii((current*0.392)*2);
if(temp>20)
{ com(0xcb);
lcd_string("over");
}
if(temp<20)
{com(0xcb);
lcd_string("norm");}
if(current>130)
{com(0xe2);
lcd_string("over--");
relay=0;}
if(current<130)
{com(0xe2);
lcd_string("norm--");
relay=1;
}

30
 Figure 4.5 looping process of the code

The main program continues by defining temperature in ADC channel 0 of the

microcontroller, voltage in ADC channel 1 of the microcontroller and the current
in ADC channel 2 of the microcontroller. The main program continues to loop
and check for the conditions as seen in figure 4.5, whenever the voltage is greater
than 230, the microcontroller displays over-voltage on the LCD and sends a trip
signal to the relay and also if the voltage is less than 220 it displays under voltage
on LCD. Similarly if the voltage it within 220 and 230 it displays normal voltage
on LCD.

The program also checks for the current and whenever it’s more than 1.1A, it
displays on the LCD and sends a trip signal to the relay and thereby protecting the
transformer from burning.

UART1_Write(temp);
UART1_Write(voltage);
UART1_Write(current);

31
 After setting the baud rate as 9600bps, this means the speed at which the
microcontroller transmits each bit per second to the personal computer. The
UART1_Write command is used to transmit the temperature, voltage and current
values to the personal computer as seen in figure 4.6

2.1.3 4.6 Project prototype

As seen in figure 4.11, the system prototype has been developed with all the features
of a microcontroller based transformer protection as named to be the project title. The
loads are connected to the transformer secondary, and a current sensor is connected in
series with load for real time current monitoring. Based on the real time current
monitored values, the microcontroller takes decision over the relay whether to cut off
or not. The step transformer connected to the input voltage is used for high voltage
monitoring, based on the monitored voltage values; the microcontroller takes decision
over the relay. The AVR microcontroller board contains all the sub circuits on-board
including the high voltage sensing circuit, the liquid crystal display (LCD) for
monitored values display, LED’s for indication, temperature sensor, relays for
protection purposes and finally the MAX 232 and RS232 for transmitting the
transformer parameters to PC.

Figure 4.11 Project prototype

32
It can be seen from the prototype developed that all the features of a microcontroller
based transformer protection were provided and well defined. The input AC voltage
was given through the autotransformer, the loads were connected at the output of the
transformer and the transformer parameters are monitored in personal computer. The
AVR microcontroller has on it all the sub-circuits for the transformer protection
including the liquid crystal display (LCD) for voltage, current and temperature display
of the transformer, relay driving circuits, high voltage sensing circuits, current sensor
and the transmitter circuit for real time transmission of transformer information to
personal computer
Finally, the Proteus simulation software made it easy to test, and troubleshoot the
hardware and the program which saved much of the time and reduced cost of the
project. Therefore, it can be concluded that the hardware and software implementation
were positively achieved.

Actual project model

33
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to verify the performance of the proposed microcontroller based

transformer protection system, a hardware prototype was implemented with an AVR
microcontroller ATMEGE16 with a 16MHz crystal oscillator. During this test, an
autotransformer was used for varying the input voltage of the transformer in order to
create the over voltage fault. Bulbs were used as loads to create the over current
fault. Voltage and current sensing circuits were designed for sensing the transformer
voltage and current. The validity of this project prototype is verified through this test
system.

2.2 5.1 Transformer current analysis

As in figure 5.1 when no overcurrent detected by the microcontroller through the

current sensor, the microcontroller energizes the overcurrent relay on. If loads are
added to the secondary side of the transformer, the secondary current rises. Therefore
the load is proportional to the secondary current. If the load connected does not
exceed the rated current of the transformer which 1.2A, the relay continues to be on.

34
 But as soon as the load current exceeds the transformer rated current, the
microcontroller sends a trip signal to the overcurrent relay and the relay goes off.,
thereby protecting the transformer from burning due to overloading. When the
overcurrent is rectified, the relay goes on and continues to allow the flow of electric
current through the load.

2.3 5.2 Transformer voltage analysis

Transformer voltage analysis

300
Overvoltage 250VAC
250

200
Normal voltage 230VAC Voltage rises to normal 230VAC
150
Voltage (AC)
Series1

50
relays is off,Voltagegoes to zero
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (mS)

Figure 5.2 Transformer voltage analyses

As in figure 5.2, when no overvoltage detected by the microcontroller through the

voltage sensing circuit, the microcontroller energize the overvoltage relay on which
allows the flow of electric current and voltage through the transformer primary. When
the input AC voltage is varied through the autotransformer above the rated voltage of
the transformer which is 230VAC, the microcontroller detects an overvoltage
condition through the voltage sensing circuit, therefore it sends a trip signal the
overvoltage relay, and the relay cuts off the primary of the transformer from the input
AC voltage thereby saving the transformer from damaging due overvoltage. As soon
as the microcontroller detects normal voltage, it sends back a switch on signal to relay
thereby allowing the flow of electric current and voltage through the through
transformer primary.

35
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion

In this project, the transformer protection using a microcontroller is proposed. For

transformer voltage and current sensing, a current sensing circuit and voltage sensing
circuits were designed and the results have been verified with proteus simulation.
Hardware with an AVR microcontroller was implemented to verify the proposed
technique and the performance of the real time hardware was compared with the
proteus computer simulation. Through the transformer current analysis in figure 5.1,
we can see that the current of the transformer rises as load increases, whenever the
load current goes above the transformer rated current, the microcontroller detects an
overcurrent and it sends a trip signal to over current relay thereby protecting the
transformer from burning. As the load current goes below the rated current of the
transformer, the microcontroller detects normal there by sending an on signal to the
overcurrent relay.
Moreover, through the transformer voltage analysis in figure 5.2, we can see that the
voltage of the transformer rises as the input voltage of the transformer is increased
through varying an autotransformer. Whenever the input voltage goes above the
transformer rated voltage (230VAC), the microcontroller detects an overvoltage and it
sends a trip signal to over voltage relay thereby protecting the transformer from
burning.

The results indicate that the microcontroller based transformer protection achieves
numerous advantages over the existing systems in use: 1) fast response, 2) better
isolation, 3) accurate detection of the fault

Finally, the practical results matched with the simulation perfectly, therefore the aim
and objectives of the project were all achieved successfully and project is said to be
industrious and fully automated with no manual interface required.

36
6.2 Future Recommendations :

Any work and investigation on transformer protection is very advantageous and

challenging. Based on the present time, it can be observed that the world’s population
is increasing rapidly. Therefore demands on electricity will be high and these will
lead to demands of highly sophisticated protection devices, which will be
incorporated inTransformer protection schemes. Based on the work done in this
project which protecting transformer using microcontroller, some improvements need
to be made in the future work. It was noticed that use of current sensor prevent the
protection from high performance application because the current sensor needs some
amount of time to sense the load current and transfer the signal to the microcontroller
ADC. Correspondingly, a current
Transformer can be used instead of current sensor, switching semiconductor device
such as thermistor can be used instead of relay, highly advanced microcontroller such
as 16bit PIC microcontroller or a digital signal processor can be used for high speed
analogue to digital (ADC) conversion of the transformer voltage and current.

37
Reference Books :

Badri ram and D N Vishwakarma (1995) power system protection and switch
gear New delhi: Tata Mc Graw hill.

Frank D. Petruzella (2010) Electric motors and control systems 1 ed. New york:
McGraw-Hill
J. Lewis Blackburn , Thomas J. Domin (2006). Protective Relaying Principles
and Applications . 3rd ed. United States of America: CRC press

Leonard L. Grigsby (2007). The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. 2nd ed.
United States of America: CRC press.

P. M. Anderson (1998). Power system protection. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
P.673.
Smarajit Ghosh, (2007). Electrric Machines 1 Edn. India: Dorling Kindersley

2.3.1 Journals:

Ali Reza Fereidunian, Mansooreh Zangiabadi, Majid Sanaye-Pasand, Gholam

Pournaghi, (2003) ‘Digital Differential Relays For Transformer Protection Using
Walsh Series And Least Squares Estimators’. CIRED (International Conference
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Atthapol Ngaopitakkul and Anantawak kunakorn (2006), ‘Internal Fault

Classification in Transformer Windings using Combination of Discrete Wavelet
Transforms and Back- propagation Neural Networks’ International journal of
control, automation and systems, 4(3), pp. 365-371.

Mazouz A. Salahar Abdallah R. Al-zyoud (2010), ‘Modelling of transformer

differential protection using programmable logic controllers’ European journal of
scientific research, 41(3), pp. 452-459

38
Pankaj Bhambri, Chandni Jindal, Sagar Bathla (2007), ‘Future Wireless
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R. A. LARNER and K. R. GRUESEN, (1959). Fuse Protection or High-

Voltage Power Transformers, pp.864-873.
S.M Bashi, N. Mariun and A.rafa (2007). ‘Power Transformer protection using
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V.Galdi, L.lppolito, A.piccolo and A.Vaccaro (2000) ‘Neural diagnostic system

for transformer thermal overload protection’ Electric Power Applications, IEE
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substations using microcontroller based monitoring system’ International
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