Supporting Lifelong Learning, Volume 2: Organizing learning The companion volumes in this series ar: Buphorting Lifelong Learning, Volume I: Perspectives on leaming Edited by Roger Harrison, Fiona Reeve, Ann Hanson and Jolia Clatke Scoborting Lifelong Leaming, Volume 3: Making policy work Edited by Richar| Edwacds, Nod Millet, Nick Small and Alan Taie ‘Auphaese Renders ae par of couse: Surg Ufone Lering (E548), tha og itself pare of che Open University Masters Pr nme #t Elusatin, The Open University Masters Programme in Education Te Chee Universi, Masters Programme in Estation tw Sly ela a Mob Perle posuradate depres for education pofentanale Exton a FAD ubew repstring exch yer, The Master Pera mi Elo oe rr fr those with expenence of tiching, the advisay setice whore enet ‘klministaior or alli fekle Secu ofthe Masters Propane in Eecation ‘The Masters Programme sa modular desea SE Frum coos hat ba fen wth chit eens dened Specials linesin management, applied linguistics and ldelone ia able. Study wehin the Open University Aalcnced seas, Masters Degree, and sucesfal sai within the Mantes Sponges ‘ulens apply forentry nto the Open Unison OU-Suppored Open Learning reg ated Pegrnme in Edscation provides pt esbily Students scala ther ‘own pace in tei owt € in the European Union. Thay geceve special ed by cutorials, chs fering the chance to wack with Useadens te, theofor, fee to select Doctorate in Edueation Programe +c Doctorate in Education Tua Eduction is parttime doctor depe,embining aught eon, Teh methods and a diseraion design to met the neaih of pete snatign ale ova: who wt secking to extend and fee hor eee ra gnertanding of contemporary edacatvnal nes, The Chowan eee EUR won see sudy within the Oyen Univesity Mace Pema Education. How to apply {io woul ike to regs fr this programe, or singly fd out mace afnacion aren ealable cours, please write forthe Profesional Deviprce ie Eine Cera Nats hall Centre, FO Box 724, The Open Univenity, Waren Hall nia Sette MK? &2W, Uk (Telephone 0 (04) 1908 653251) Beels cnde Me en fon our web page Apia open ae-ue Supporting Lifelong Learning Volume 2 Organizing learning Edited by ; Fiona Reeve, Marion Cartwright and Richard Edwards London and New YorkContents | First published 2002 by RoutedgeFsimer I Ne Feter ane tonsa Fe List of irons sit Simateaneously plished im the USA and Canada ‘Acknowledgements viii 2 Wr ht rae, New York NY 1000 Boudedgefeime son inp of the Tayler & Froncs Group Introduction: organizing learning ' $2098 Secon real dora marl FIONA REEVE, MARION CARTWRIGHT AND Frond tend Seat, Oven 1 Learning to work and working to tear 7 4 chs retard pr aft book maybe repented mechan aes we form a by any gic F 2 Skill formation: redirecting the research agenda 21 NSMECE photocopying und recording. orm any crane DAVID ASHTON i 2 Envisioning new organisations fr learning a 1 British Ubrory Cotstoguing i» Publication Dots m event ta of Coe Caen ten den 4 Gender, work and workplace learning 8! EMEC 5 Towards the laring organization? “4 EWART KEEP AND HELEN RAINBIRD. 6 The impact of the manager on learning in the workplace MICHAEL ERAUT, JANE ALD! AND PETER SENKER, 1 TON, GERALD COLE 7 Knowledge creation in Japanese manufacturing companies in Italy: reflections upon organizational learning 09 JOHN B, KIDD.. vi Contents Srv cig nr Illustrations 9 Professional education as a structural barrier to lifelong. learning in the NHS las BECKY FRANCIS AND JOHN HUMPHREYS 10 Communities of practice and social learning systems 160 11 The learning city in the learning society 180 SUE CARA, CHARLES LANDRY AND STEWART RANSON Figures TL Stages of learning 1B training for and learning ipation in area regeneration, MARIORIE MAYO 198 Tables Metaplhorical lenses for understanding organising and kerning 36 Descriptions of models of taining/leaming, 31 Index 32 3.3. Metaphorical lenses: implications for the learning organisation 44 5 52 7 Stages in the development of a learning organization 6 CCharacceristics ofa learning organization, 68 Firms in full survey, their sectors and market position mM 7.2 Degree to which firms implemented the Nonaka stages 7 10.1 Community dimensions 165 10.2 Boundary dimensions 170 Identity dimensions 14Chapter 10 Communities of practice and social learning systems Etienne Wenger ‘You probably know thar the earch is round and that itis in orbit around the sun. But how do you know this? What does i take? Obviously, it takes a brain joa living body, bur it also takesa very complex social, euleucal, and historical system, which has secumulated earning overtime, People have been studying the skies for centuries to understand our place in the universe. More recently, setentfic communities have developed whole vocabulary, observation meth, ts, and models, which have been adopted by other communities and have become part of popular thinking in various wars. You have yout own, hips tall chese communities, and these relationships are what enable you to ‘know’ about the earth’s position in the universe. Ie this sense, Lnove ing is an act of participation in complex “social learning syseems This chapter assumes this view of knowing to consider how organizations depend on social leaning systems. Fest, I outline two aspects of a concep. ‘wal framework for understanding social learning systems: a social definition: of learning in terms of social competence and personal experience, and three distinct mades of belonging through which we participate in social learning systems: engagement, imagination, and alignment. Then I oak at three sttuce turing elements of social learning systems communities of racic, boundary Processes among these systems and identities as shaped by our participation tm these systems. About each of these elesaents [use my conceptual feame, work to ik three questions. Why focus on it? Which way is up, that is how {© consccwe progress in this atea? And, third, what is doable, tat ts, what © elements of design that one cats hope to influence? Finally | argue that ‘xganizations both are constituted by and participate in such sccial learning ‘stems, Their success depends on their ability to design themselves as social. learning sjstems and also to participate in broader learning systems such as an industy, a region, of a consortium. “The conceptual framework | introduce here is intended for organizational design aswell as analysis. The questions Lask are meant roguide the inquiry of This a0 tdted version of an article previously published in Crguisatons, 7:2, 2000 Reprod by pecson of Sage Publications Le Frionne Wenger 161 tout pe dstontocurintativ and where tes our for As ‘Kurt Lewin used to say, there is nothing as practical as a good theory. Aspects of a conceptual framework nok ieposibl famevor Gr undesanding scl leaning seems mt kee tuned leaaing accel proces, Wher eang fom 4 ei tue! And wha ete pecses bY which cur ring coe teil syuens andl ane A social definition of learning " Someimes i the her wey rund, We hve ben ith commit te We now stein we were nt mt of tele We comeback tsa enber {in te comes ef gen commun an teen) Con162 _Supporting lifelong learning: organizing lescng kes ple. Leaning 50 defined ng <0 defined isan interplay teeneen sac competence an peronal experience I's yam, aay le between people and the social learning systems in which they part . fate I embins pesanal eanfornation wit the elton of ee Modes of belonging Oi belonging eo social learning stems can tke varias fn atv levels betwen lel iterations an loka participation, To cape ng difeene ens of prison wf denne Ree a sien participavion, 1 will distinguish between theee modes of + Engagement: doing things together, talking, producing artefacts (e helping callenue witha problem or purcieoe es ey Se ‘aimuich ne enng cach head whe ola shape or experience f who weate We leuubat nese Res the wld sponds to nec Inagati: contain an mage of curls of ou comnts of the worn ort to nen oelvantvcloct onan wee to explore sibs fog dawing mang Seen eae ‘eof pie scenarios to andeutand ones ope re re hee nthe sone propaed by Bence Ato wae) aaa nations cammunites Thinkingufeusheracennte oa tty sch a natn egies on act of eangnatbe ee cogs witha our tlow estan These mages ofthe eal eens the social world, " four * Aleman ming ste that or cal ficient a with other proceses so that they can be efecine tesonl beret engagement (e.g. daing a scientific experiment by the book, convincing aol jon tease or regaaungs divisor iy ae workplan fora projet). The concept of ane el ec a ‘not connote a one-way process of submitting to external authority, but iota proce at Coennacng renee ee utr, felons» they eene ghee Distinguishing berwen these modes of belonging is ul smo teason Fos aaah ech node contnae safest acre eee of social ering sates and personal lentes Engagemne,tnscnarcn and alignment usually coexist and every social learning system involves each te some degre ad in some combination Sil, one an dente sed er tive a dfeere quay toa socal structure For itance a commen bd ‘mostly on imagination such as a nation has a very different quality from a Euianne Wenger 163, community of practice at work, which is based primarily ov engagement. 1 ‘would i fact argue that these modes of belonging provide foundation for «2 typology of communicies. Second, practically each mode requires a different kind of work. The work of engagement, which requires opportunites for joint activities, is diferent from the work of imagination, which often requites opporunitis for taking some distance from our situation. The demands and effects of these che modes of belonging can be conflicting. Spending tue reflecting can detract from engagement, for example. The modes can also be complementary, however. For instance, using imagination co gain a good picture of the context of one's actions can help in fine-tuning alignment because one Understands the reasons behind a proceduce or an agreemert. Its therefore useful to strive co develop these modes of belonging in combination, balancing the limitations of one with the work of another. For instance, reflective periods that activate imagination oF boundary interactions that requie alignment with other practices around a shared goal could be used to counteract the possible narrowness of engagement (Werges, 1998) Communities of practice ‘Since the beginning of history, human beings have formed communities that share cultural practices reflecting theie collective learnire: from a tribe around a cave fie, to a medieval guild, to a group of qurses tn a ward, toa street gang, t/a community of engineers interested in brake design. Participating in these ‘communities of practice’ is essential co our learning. Ie is ac the very core of what makes us human beings capable of meaningful knowing Why focus on communities? Communities of practice are the basic building blocks of « social learning system because they are the socal ‘containers of che competences that make up such asytem. By participating in these communities, we define with ech ther what constitutes competence ina given context: being a raliahle dlctor, a gifted photographer, popular student or an astute poker player. Your company may define your job a processing 33 medial claims a day according to certain standards, but the competence requied to do chs in practice is something you determine with your colleagues as you interact doy alee day. Communities of practice define competence by combining three elements (Wenger, 1998). Fist, members are bound together by theic collectively developed understanding of what their community is abour and they hold each other accountable to this sense of joint entre. To competent is to understand the enterprise well enough to be able to contsibute to it.164 Supporting Hfelong learning: organizing learning Second, members build their community through mutual engagement. They {interact with one another, establishing notms and relatienships of mucuaiy ‘hat reflec these interactions. To be competent is to be able to engage with the commenity and be trusted as a partner in these interactions, Thind communities of practice have produced a shaved reperwoive of communal resources — language, routines, sensibilities, artefuets, tools, stories, styles, etc. To be competent is eu have access to this repertoire and he able teruse it appropriately, Communities of practice grow out of a convergent interplay of compe: fence and experience that involves mutual engagement. ‘They offer Opportunity to negotiate comperence through an experience of diveet partic favor A Consequence they remain leportant seca units of leening even in the context of much larger systems. These langer systems are constels lations of ietercated communities of acces ‘ Which woy is up? (Communities of practice canoe he romanticized. They are bom of learn but they can also learn not to learn. They are the eradles of the human spirit, but they can also be its cages. Afterall, witch hunts neve also commen nity practice, Iris useful, therefore, to articulate some dimensinon of Progress + Enterprise: the level of leaming energy. How much initiative docs the community take in keeping learning at the centre ofits enterprise? community must show leadership in pushing its development alumg and maintaining a sptie of inquiry. Ie muse recognize and adress yaps tn ts knowledge a8 well as remain open co emergent directions and oppor, tunities * “ a Mutua the dp of social copa. How deep is the tense of comm: nity generated by matual engagement over ine! People must noe ee oxher well enough to know howto interact prdhcively and whee cal fr helper advice. They must tat each ether ot on pearly, er ate in er ably cntabute to teen othe communis 6 they fl comsnuable adding el prolertoetier ad seal ‘twuthfully. erie i ‘raking Repertoire: the degree of self-awareness. How self-conscious is the com- ‘munity aout the repertoire that it is developing and its effects on its Practice! The concepts, language, and tol fa community of each embody its history and its Perspective on the world. Being reflective nits repro enables «community to understand oe sane of development from multiple Perspectives, reconsider assumptions and Patterns, uncover hidden possibilities, and use self-awareness to. move forward. pe hes Esienre Wenger 165 Table 10.1 Community mensions Ener ‘Muay Repere: fearing every seca etal selfowareness Engagemene What are the ‘What evenssand—_‘Towhat extent have copportunies to Inceractions weave shared experience, egovate a jolt langage sreface, inguiry ad imporane stories and questions? Do members mehods Seaumulated over ident ens hie ee ‘dive, and with what knowledge and work together to address rcnsons! potential for forther them? Interactions and row meanings! Imagination What sons of the What do people know Are there sl potential of dhe about eachother and representations that Communiy are guiding about the meanings woid alow the the thoughe leaders, that paripation in cormiy to soe Inspiring parccputon, the communiy kes sdf in ew ways? and defing learning in thir ves more Is rere a language sgenda? Andwhat ready? to all about the lure of the weld conmaniey na Eerves a¢ 3 contont Feflecove mods! for such vse! ‘Alignment Have members Wha defriions Wat eatons, artcubted shared of roles norms. mehods sandards, purpose! How widely codes of betavlour, runes, ana fo they subscribe toe? shared prinples, frameworks define How accountable do. and negocated the practice! Who hey fel to? And commutments and uplds ther? To how distrbuted is expectations hold the what extant are they leadership? communiy together? Coated! How are they eranemieed 0 few generasons? “The three dimensions work together. Without the learning ener of those who tak initiative, the community becomes stagnant, Without stong tlar Cionships of belonging, i is torn apart. And without the ability to reflect, i¢ becomes hostage to its own history. The work associated wits each mode of tefonging can contribute to these criteria. Table 101 ilutrates how the tnodes of belonging interact with community elements What is doable? When designing itl, a community should look at the following elements: ‘events, leadership, connectivity, membership, projects, and artefacts.166 _ Supporting flong learning: orgeniting learning Events You can organize public events chat bring the community. cogether, Obviously, these may or may not be attended, but i they are well tuned to the communiey’s sense ofits purpose, they will help it develop an identity A community will have to decide the eype of activ ties it needs: formal oF informal meetings, problem-solving sessions, or guest speakers. It will also have to consider the rhythm of these everts given other responsibilities ‘merabers have: ta0 often and people just stop coming, too rare and the ‘community does not gain momentum. This rhythm may also have co change ‘over time or go through cycles, Leadership Communities of practice depend on internal leadership, and enabling the leaders to play their role is a way to help the community develop. The role ‘of ‘community co-ordinator’ who takes care ofthe day-to-day work is crucial, but a community needs multiple forms of leadership: thought leaders, net. workers, people who document the practice, pioneers, etc Connecsvty Building a community is nor just @ matter of organising community everits but alse of enabling a rich fabric of connectivity among people. This could snwolve brokering relationships between people. Ie is also important to make '« possible for people to communicate and inceract in muitiple media, Membership A community's members musc have critical mass so that there is interest, bat it stould not become so wide that the focus of the community is diffuse and participation does not grab people's identities. Including those who ate ‘missing can be very helpful in consolidating the legitimacy of the commu nity to itself and in the wider organization, Conversely, realizing that the membenhip is overextended allows the community to split up into sub. roups. Finally, devising processes by which newcomers can become full ‘members helps ensure access for newcomers without diluting the eommu- ney’ focus Learning projects ‘Communities of practice deepen their mutual commitment when they take tesponsiility for a leaming agenda, which pushes their practice further. ‘Activities toward this goal include exploring the knowledge domain, finding Etienne Wenger 167 42s in the community practice, and defining projects to close these gaps. Such leaming projects could involve, for instance, assessing some tools, building a genetic design, doing a literature search, cteating a connection with a university doing research in the ares, or simply interviewing some experts to create a beginner's guide. Artefocts All communities of practice produce their own set of artefacts: documents, 100, stories, symbols, websites, etc. A community has & consider what ace” facts ie needs and who has the energy to produce and maintain them so they will remain useful asthe communiey evolves, Boundaries ‘The term ‘boundary’ often has negative connotations because it conveys limitation and lack of access. But the very notion of community of practice implies the existence of boundary. Unlike the boundates of organisational tunis, which are usually well defined because affliation is offically sanc- tioned, the boundaries of communities of practice are usualy rather fluid ‘They arise from different enterprise; different ways oF engaging with one another; diferent histories, repertoires, ways of communicating and capa bilities. That these boundaries are often unspoken does not make then less significant. Sit for lunch by a group of high-energy particle physicists and you know about boundary, not because they intend io exclude you, but hecause you cannot igure out what they are talking about. Shared practice by its very nature creates boundaries ‘Yet if youre like me, you will actualy enjoy this experience of boundary. ‘There is something disquieting, huraling at times, yet exciting and atteac tive about such close encounters with the unknown, with the mystery of ‘othetness': a chance to explore the edge of your comgetence, leatn some: thing entirely new, revisit your litle truths, and pethags expand your horizon, Why focus on boundaries? Boundaries are important to learning systems for two reasons. They connect communities and they offer learning opportunities in theie own right. These leaming opportunities are of a different kind from the ones offered by communities. Inside a community, leaning takes place because competence and experience need to converge for a community to exist. At the bound: aries, competence and experience tend to diverge: a boundary inceraction is usually an experience of being exposed to a foreign competence. Such re- configurations of the relation between competence and experience are an168 Supporting lifelong learning: organizing learning important aspect of leaming. If competence and experience are too close, if they always match, not much learning is likely to take place. There are no challenges; the community is losing its dynamism and the practice is in dlanger of becoming stale. Conversely, if experience and competence are too disconnected, if the distance is too great, not much learning is likely to take place either. Sitting by that group of high-energy partcle physicists, you ‘might not learn much, because the distance between yout own experience and the competence you are confronting is just t00 great. Mostly what you ate learning is that you do noe belong, Learning at boundaries is likely to be maximized for individuals and for communities when experience and competence are in close tension, ‘Achieving a generative tension between them requires something co interact abour, some intersection of interest, some activity: + open engagement with real differences as well as common ground; * commitment co suspend judgement in order to se the competence of a ‘community in its terms; ‘+ ways to translate between repertoires so that experience and competence actually interact. Boundaries are sources of new opportunities as well as potential dificul- ‘ies. Ina leaning system, communities and boundaries can be learning asets (and liabilities) in complementary ways, + Communities of practice can steward a critical competence, but they can also become hostage to their history, insular, defensive, closed in, and oriented to their own focus + Boundaries can create divisions and be a source of separation, fragrnen tation, disconnection, and misunderstanding. Yer, they enn also be areas ‘of unusual learning, places where perspectives meet and new posibil ties arise. Radically new insights often arise at the boundaries between ‘The learning and innovation potential ofa social learning system lies in is configuration of strong ore practices and active. hmundary processes (Wenger, 1998) Which way is up? No all boundary processes create bridges that actually connect practices in deep ways, The actual boundary effects of these processes can be assessed along the following dimensions: + Co-ordination. Can boundary processes and objects be interpreted in different practices in a way that enables co-ordinated action? They must Exenne Wenger 169 accommodate the practices involved without hurdening others with the details of one practice and provide enough standaediatien for people ‘know how to deal wich them locally. + Transparency. Do boundary processes give access to the meanings they have in various practices? For instance, forms like US tax returns enable co-ordination across boundaries (you know how to fil them out by following instructions line by line), hut often afford ne windows into the logic they are meant co enforce ‘+ Negotibiiry, Do boundary processes provide a one-way oF a two-way connection? For instance, a hasiness process re-engineering plan may be very detailed about implementation (co-ordination) and explicit about lis intentions (eransparency), but reflect or allow hile negotiation between the perspectives involved. Boundary proceses ean. merely reflect relations of power among practices, in which case they are likely to reinforce the boundary rather than bridge it. They will bridge prac tices to the extent that they make room for multiple voices Table 10.2 explores how the three modes of belonging affce these qual ‘of boundary processes. What Is doable? Boundary process=s are crucial to the coherent functioning ofsocial learning systems. A number of elements can be intentionally promoted in an effare to weave these systems more tightly together. Here, Iwill talk abouc three types of bridges across boundaries: people who act as ‘brokers’ between, ‘communities, artefacts (things, cools, terms, reprerencations, ete) that serve as what Scar and Griesemer (1989) call ‘boundary objets, and a variety of forms of interactions among people from different communities of practice. Brokering Some people act as brokers between communities. They can inteoduce ¢’lements of one practice into another. Although we all do some brokering, my experience is that certain individuals seem to thrive on being brokers. they love to create connections and engage in “import-export, and so would rather stay at the boundaries of many practices than move to the core of any one practice. Brokering can take various forms, including: + bowulary spanners: taking care of one specific boundary ever time; + roamers going from place ro place, cteating connections, moving know- ledge; + ouposts: bringing back news from the forefront, exploring new tertito- ries; * pairs: often brokering is done through a personal relationship.170 _ Supporting lfelong learning: organizing learning Toble 10.2 Boundary dimensions Oo Coordination Transparency Negeoabiey ie, Selene, ne conte Symes Somels at emarace Snatengiet Regn Seecaiecs Tages, oa action? “other's practices? to apres ach others compatances? Inapeaton Do pepe ve What oie Can both sides ‘ouh nderaning documents and mode Senses fects” Renee” Rr me Sew ee, Semen =" gas See eae Alignment Are instructions, 0a, and methods ‘Are intentions, Who has as in commitments, norms, negotiating eoracts Imerpreable into and radcors mace anf densep poker: ear enough co reveal compromines! cmon ground Siference pespecver and ectations? ching mowed delicate i requires ‘enough legitinacy to be listened ernest oninay na coed aa Homsnes rape, sl seen ee ete fotenal Ina of bok Delong the Tenney nee a iether broke two frsane reason done pas ge Pte Boundary objects Some object find thee value, not just a artefacts of one practice, ut most) to the extentthat they support connecti boundary beet can ake moll omnes neritic Such Frienne Wenger 171 + Artefacts, such as tools, documents, or models For instance, medical records and architectural blueprints play a cucial role in connect- ing multiple practices (doctorsinuses/insurers,architectycontractors city planners). © Discourses. A critical boundary object is the existence of a common language that allows people to communicate and negotiste meanings across boundaries. This was an important thrust behine the quality + Processes, Shared processes, including explicit routines and procedures, allow people to co-ordinate their actions across boundaries. Boundary objects do not necessarily bridge across boundaries because they may be misinterpreted or interpreted blindly. Rethinking areefacts and designs in tests of their function as boundary objects often illuminates hhow they contribute t0 oF hinder che functioning of learning systems. An nganizational structure, for instance, is often considered as at overarching ‘umbrella that incorporates multiple parts by specifying theit elationships But, in fac, i is mote usefully designed as a boundary object intended to tenable multiple practices to negotiate thei relationships and connect their perspectives. Boundary interactions * Boundary encounters. These encounters ~ visits, discussion, sabbaticals ~ provide direct exposure to a practice. They can take diferent forms for different purposes. When one person visits, asin a sabbatical, cis easier to get fully immersed in the practice, bue more dificult to bring the implications home because the very immersion inco a foreign’ prac tice tends co isolate you fiom your peers. When a delegation of two o more people visit. ab in a benchmarking expedition, they may not get as fully immersed, bu they can negotiate among themselves the meaning of the boundary interaction for their own practice, and cherefoee find it easier co bring theie learning back home, 1+ Boundary practices. In some ease, a boundary requires so mach sustained work that it becomes the topic ofa practice of its own. A: Xerox asin any companies, some peogle are charged with th task of maintaining connections between the R&D lab and the rest ofthe corporation. They fare developing a practice of crossing these boundaries effectively + Peripheris. Communities often have to take steps to manage theit bound- aties to serve people who need some service, are curious or intend to become members. Many communities have found it useful wo create some facilities by which outsiders can connect with their practce in periph eral ways. Examples of such facilities include lists of “requently askee questions, visitors’ rooms on websites, open howses and ft.172_Supporting Matong learaing: organizing learning Cross-dscilinary projects {mx most organizations, members of communities of practice conteibute their competence by participating in cross-functional projects and teams that combine the knowledge of multiple practices to ge- something done Simultaneous participation in communities of practice and project teams prelate in learning stems a well Knowledge production stxcoming more ds uted, amples, ad diverse, in csciplines and indies (Olbbons eal 1994); eplonal economies sch s Seon Valley (Sueenan, {996 and among consumers who have the potent fortng sommes (Ser, 1999). , * Sov In these leeing ayers, onginidons fd he lene they need, new ideas tecnologia developments, best practices, an arg panes. The tues of partclpon nso leming tens ve free om hoe OF pace markets You dent simply compete, in bet Your most the Ening competitor may be your best partner hen comes to lenning together I you hoard your knowledge inasoctal learing tem, youl, appear staking more han jou ve and yo wl he pepesvely eluded trem the most significant exchanges Ina knowledge economy, ssined succes for any orgenetion will depend not only on fective particpaion in economia, bua importarly an wih many ofthe sme pays on knowing ho pace pate in kroader social learning systems. * ® sate Eveane Wenger 179 References ‘Anderson, B. (1983) Imaghed Commanites. London: Verso. Brow, JS. and Duguid P. (1999) ‘Organing Knowledge’, Refecton 1(2. Eckert, P. (1989) Jocks and Burnes: Soil Catgois ar Meni in the High Schoo New York: Teachers College Pres Gibbons, Metal. (1994) The New Freducton of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Sence and Research in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage. Gikkiens, A. 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