CHAPTER 1

CHEMICAL PRINCIPLE
 THE OUTLINES

1. Matter
2. Atoms and Ions
3. Atomic and Molecular Mass
4. Mole Concept
5. Chemical Formula
6. Chemical Equation and Stoichiometry
 MATTER
• It is anything that has mass and occupies
space

Examples
 Classification of MATTER

Physical state Compositions

 Physical state
Depending on its temperature, matter can
be solid, liquid or gas
 Compositions

Pure substances Mixtures

Elements Compounds Homogeneous

Atoms Ions Heterogeneous

Molecules Molecules
 Pure substances
• Pure substances are defined as substances that are
made of only one type of atom or molecule, and the
purity of a substance is the measure of the extent to
which a given substance is pure
• all substances are either elements or
compounds

Pure water – a compound

Pure gold – an element

 Elements
A chemical element, often called simply
element, is a substance that cannot be
divided or changed into different
substances by ordinary chemical
methods.
 The smallest particle of such an element
is an atom, which consists of electrons
centered around a nucleus of protons
and neutrons
 Examples of elements

METALS NON-METAL GAS

• Iron (Fe) • Carbon (C) • Oxygen (O2)
• Gold (Au) • Nitrogen (N2)
• Silver (Ag) • Clorin (Cl2)
• Cuprum (Cu) • Helium (He)
 How to read the periodic
table
The vertical columns of the periodic table (black arrow in the figure) are called groups.
The horizontal rows (red arrow) are called periods. There are 18 groups and 7 periods.
Reading the periodic table:
Carbon

Metals
• Malleable, ductile, have
luster
• oxidize to form +ve ions
• Excellent conductors of
heat and electricity
• can be broken down into
several groups
periodic properties
Transition
metals
• Also called transition
elements
• Able to refract light (have
unpaired electron)
• Ionic solutions usually
coloured (often used as
pigments)
• Lanthanides and actinides
(rarely found)
Nonmetal
• Do not conduct electricity
well because they do not
have free e-
• * Hydrogen is placed with
the metals because it has
only one valence
electron, but it is a
nonmetal
 periodic properties
Some specific families within the three main groups metals, nonmetals, and
metalloids (have properties between metal and non metal)

ALKALI METALS (1A)

• Most reactive metal family
• React violently with water!!

ALKALINE EARTH METALS (2A)

• Reactive metals but they don’t explode in water
• Mostly used in batteries

HALOGENS (7A)
• Known as “salt formers”
• Exist as diatomic molecules
• Used in modern lightning

NOBLE GASES (8A)

Slow reactivity
 Compounds

Substances that composed of two or

more elements; they contain two or more
kinds of atoms

Water: composed of two hydrogen

atoms for every oxygen atom
 Mixtures
•Combinations of two or more
substances in which each substance
remain its chemical identity

• two types of mixtures:

 heterogeneous mixture
 homogeneous mixture
 Heterogeneous mixture
The mixtures do not have the same
composition, properties and appearance;
two or more substances are mixed
together but are not chemically combined

Sand in water

Mixture of oil and water

 Homogeneous mixture
The mixtures that are uniform
throughout; has uniform composition and
appearance

Mixture of air

Metal solution Orange juice

 Atoms and Ions
Atoms
An atom consists of three sub-atomic
particles which are:
Protons - these are positively charged (+)
Electrons - these are negatively charged (-)
Neutrons - these have no charge
Interaction of Atoms
It's the electrons in orbit around the nucleus that allow
one atom to interact with other atoms so they can be
linked together.

For example, H2O consists of an Oxygen atom linked to

2 Hydrogen atoms. The linkage or interaction between
the electrons of the Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms is
called a Chemical Bond.
 Atoms and Ions
Ions
An ion is an atom or group of atoms
with a net electric charge.
Sometimes atoms gain or lose electrons. The atom then loses or
gains a "negative" charge. These atoms are then called ions.

Positive Ion - Occurs when an atom loses an electron (negative

charge) it has more protons than electrons. (CATION)

Negative Ion - Occurs when an atom gains an electron (negative

charge) it will have more electrons than proton (ANION)
Ions
Ions
The following image shows Na losing an electron and Cl gaining an
electron
Thus the Na becomes Na+
The Cl becomes Cl-
Ions

Here are some examples of common ions:

Na+ Sodium
K+ Potassium
Cl- Chloride
Ca+ Calcium
Fe+ Iron
P- Phosphorous
 Ions
Cations & anions
 Atomic and Molecular Mass
Atomic mass is the mass of one atom
expressed in units (atomic mass unit,
amu) where 1 amu is equal to 1/12th
of the actual mass of carbon-12.

Atomic mass is also called as

relative atomic mass or atomic
weight.
 Average Atomic Mass
Most elements have several naturally
occurring isotopes with different
abundance.

Isotopes are atoms with the same number of

protons, but differing numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes are different forms of a single element.
 Average Atomic Mass
– Example 1 –
Bromine:
50.69% bromine – 79, mass = 78.9183
49.31% bromine – 81, mass = 80.9163
Average atomic mass of Br
= (50.69% x 78.9183)
+ (49.31% x 80.9163)
=79.9035
 80
 Average Atomic Mass
– Example 2 –
Magnesium:
78.99% magnesium–24, mass = 23.9850
10.00% magnesium–25, mass = 24.9858
11.01% magnesium-26, mass = 25.9826

Average atomic mass of Mg

= (78.99% x 23.9850) + (10.00% x 24.9858)
+ (11.01% x 25.9826)
= 24.3050
 24
Average Atomic Mass: Exercise
Isotopes Mass Abundance (%)
6Li 6.015 7.59
7Li 7.016 92.41
16O 15.995 99.757
17O 16.999 0.038
18O 17.999 0.205
Calculate the average atomic
mass of lithium and oxygen.
 Average Atomic Mass

The atomic mass shown in the periodic

table for an element is actually a weighted
average of the masses of all isotopes of the
element.
 Molecular Mass
The molecular mass of a substance
(less accurately called molecular
weight and abbreviated as MW) is
the mass of one molecule of that
substance, relative to the unified
atomic mass unit (u)
 Molecular Mass
• The molecular mass can be
calculated as the sum of the
atomic masses of all the atoms of
any one molecule.
• The molar mass of a substance is
numerically equal to the molecular
mass, but expressed in mass units
per mole (e.g. grams per mole)
 Molecular Mass
For example: the atomic mass of hydrogen is
1.00784 u and that of oxygen is 15.9994 u;
therefore:

the molecular mass of water

with formula H2O is
= (2 × 1.00784 u) + 15.9994 u
= 18.01508 u.

Therefore, one molecule of water weighs 18.01508 u,

and one mole of water weighs 18.01508 grams.
 Molecular Mass
• Molecular mass or molar mass are
used in stoichiometry calculations.
Stoichiometry is the part of chemistry that studies amounts of substances that are
involved in reactions.
1. You might be looking at the amounts of substances before the reaction.
2. You might be looking at the amount of material that is produced by the
reaction.
Stoichiometry is all about the numbers

When you're doing problems in stoichiometry, you might look at..

1. Mass of Reactants (chemicals before the reaction)
2. Mass of Products (chemicals after the reaction)
3. Chemical Equations
4. Molecular Weights of Reactants and Products
5. Formulas of Various Compounds
 Mole Concept
The mole (symbol: mol) is one of the
seven SI base units and is commonly
used in chemistry.
Mole is a unit of measurement used in chemistry to
express amounts of a chemical substance, defined as the amount
of any substance that contains as many elementary entities
(e.g., atoms, molecules, ions, electrons) as there are atoms in
12 grams of pure carbon-12 (12C)

Mole of substance A = Mass of substance A(g)

Mass of Formula A(g.mol-1)
 SI base units
SI BASE UNITS

QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Temperature kelvin K

Time second s

Amount of substances mole mol

Electric current ampere A

Luminous intensity candela cd

 Mole Concept

Avogadro's number
Avogadro's number is the number of particles found in
one mole of a substance.
It is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams
of carbon-12.
This experimentally determined value is approximately
6.022 x 1023 particles per mole.
 Chemical Formula

There are two types of chemical

formulas:
(a) Empirical Formula,
(b) Molecular Formula .
Empirical formula and molecular
formula are used for different purposes.
 Empirical Formula
The Empirical Formula gives the simplest
whole-number ratio of atoms of each
element present in a compound.

Example:
Acetylene (C2H2) and benzene (C6H6)
– the simplest ratio C : H = 1 : 1
 Empirical Formula = CH
 Molecular Formula
The Molecular Formula gives the actual
number of atoms of each element present
in a molecule.

Example:
a) Acetylene – C2H2
b) Benzene – C6H6
c) Glucose – C6H6O6
d) Water – H2O
 Chemical Equation

aA + bB  cC
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical
reaction wherein the reactant entities are given on the left-hand
side and the product entities on the right-hand side

The coefficients next to the symbols and formulae of entities

are the absolute values of the stoichiometric numbers.

A chemical equation consists of the chemical formulas of the

reactants (the starting substances) and the chemical formula of
the products (substances formed in the chemical reaction)
-A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens
during a chemical reaction

-As an example, the equation for the reaction of hydrochloric

acid with sodium can be denoted:

2 HCl + 2 Na → 2 NaCl + H2
 Chemical Equation

3 ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O

reactants products
 How to “Read” Chemical Equations

2 Mg + O2 2 MgO

2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 makes 2 formula units MgO

2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 makes 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 makes 80.6 g MgO
 Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left

side and the correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the
right side of the equation.

Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients)

to make the number of atoms of each element the same
on both sides of the equation. Do not change the
subscripts.
2C2H6 NOT C4H12
 Balancing Chemical Equations…..contd
3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only one
reactant and one product.

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O start with C or H but not O

2 carbon 1 carbon multiply CO2 by 2

on left on right

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O

6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
multiply H2O by 3
on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
 Balancing Chemical Equations….contd

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or more reactants

or products.
7
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O multiply O2 by 2

2 oxygen 4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

on left (2x2) (3x1) on right

C2H6 + 7O 2CO2 + 3H2O remove fraction

2 2 multiply both sides by 2
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
 Balancing Chemical Equations…contd

5. Check to make sure that you have the same number of each
type of atom on both sides of the equation.

2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

12
4 CH
14 O(2(2
(7xx2)6)
2) 1412
OH(44(6
xC 2x +2)6)

Reactants Products
4C 4C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
EXERCISE:
Write a balanced chemical equation for:

Magnesium nitride reacting with water to form magnesium oxide and

ammonia

Mg3N2 + H2O  MgO + NH3

 Mass Changes in Chemical Reactions

1. Write balanced chemical equation

2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the number of moles
of the sought quantity
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units
3.8
 Methanol burns in air according to the equation
2CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 4H2O
If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion,
what mass of water is produced?
grams CH3OH moles CH3OH moles H2O grams H2O

molar mass coefficients molar mass

CH3OH chemical equation H2O

1 mol CH3OH 4 mol H2O 18.0 g H2O

209 g CH3OH x x x =
32.0 g CH3OH 2 mol CH3OH 1 mol H2O

235 g H2O
 Limiting and Excess Reagents
Limiting Reactant - The reactant in a chemical reaction that limits the amount of product
that can be formed. The reaction will stop when all of the limiting reactant is consumed.

Excess Reactant - The reactant in a chemical reaction that remains when a reaction
stops when the limiting reactant is completely consumed. The excess reactant remains
because there is nothing with which it can react.

No matter how many tires there are, if there are only 8 car bodies, then only 8 cars can
be made. Likewise with chemistry, if there is only a certain amount of one reactant
available for a reaction, the reaction must stop when that reactant is consumed
whether or not the other reactant has been used up.
6 green used up
6 red left over
 Do You Understand Limiting Reagents?

In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3

2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2Fe

Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.

g Al mol Al mol Fe2O3 needed g Fe2O3 needed

OR
g Fe2O3 mol Fe2O3 mol Al needed g Al needed

1 mol Al 1 mol Fe2O3 160. g Fe2O3

124 g Al x x x = 367 g Fe2O3
27.0 g Al 2 mol Al 1 mol Fe2O3

Start with 124 g Al need 367 g Fe2O3

Have more Fe2O3 (601 g) so Al is limiting reagent

Use limiting reagent (Al) to calculate amount of product that
can be formed.

g Al mol Al mol Al2O3 g Al2O3

2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2Fe

1 mol Al 1 mol Al2O3 102. g Al2O3

124 g Al x x x = 234 g Al2O3
27.0 g Al 2 mol Al 1 mol Al2O3

3.9
Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would
result if all the limiting reagent reacted.

Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained

from a reaction.

Actual Yield
% Yield = x 100
Theoretical Yield
 Chemical Equation
and Stoichiometry
When a stream of chlorine gas, Cl2, is
directed onto solid phosphorus, P4, the
mixture bursts into flame, and a chemical
reaction produces liquid phosphorus
trichloride, PCl3.
This reaction can be represented by using
a balanced chemical equation:
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g)  4PCl3(l)
 Chemical Equation
and Stoichiometry
The problem is:
How we get the chemical equation?
Look at the data given:
1. chlorine gas, Cl2
2. solid phosphorus, P4
3. liquid phosphorus trichloride, PCl3.
 Chemical Equation
and Stoichiometry

So, the chemical equation should be:

Cl2 + P4  PCl3

Consider the chemical phase:

Cl2(g) + P4 (s)  PCl3 (l)
 Chemical Equation
and Stoichiometry

Balance the chemical equation:

66Cl2(g) + P4 (s)  4 PCl3 (l)

or
P4 (s) + 6Cl2(g)  4PCl3 (l)
 Chemical Equation and Stoichiometry
(Exercise)

1. Write the balanced equation for the

combustion of ethyl alcohol:
C2 H5 OH (l) + O2(g)  CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Answer
Chemical Equation and Stoichiometry
(Exercise)

2. Determine the number of grams of

lead(II) sulfide, PbS, that can be
oxidised by 5.22 mol of oxygen gas
according to the following equation.
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g)  2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)

Answer
 Solution and Mixtures
Solutions are groups of molecules that are
mixed up in a completely even distribution
is basically two substances that are going to be
combined
Mixtures are absolutely everywhere we look.
Most things in nature are mixtures. Look at
rocks, the ocean, or even the atmosphere.
They are all mixtures, and mixtures are
about physical properties, not chemical ones

One of them is called the solute. A solute is the

substance to be dissolved (sugar). The other is
a solvent. The solvent is the one doing the
dissolving (water)
 UNITS OF CONCENTRATION

There are a number of different ways of expressing solute concentration that are
commonly used

Molarity, M = moles solute/liter of solution

Normality, N = equivalents of solute/liter of solution

Weight %, Wt % = mass ratio x 100% = mass of solute/mass of solution x 100%

Parts per million, ppm = mass ration x 106 = mass of solute/mass of solution x 106
Mass per volume, mg/L = mass of solute/liter of solution
molality, m = moles of solute/mass of solvent

mole fraction, χ = moles of solute/total moles

Concentrations of Solutions
Molarity (M)
The most widely used to quantify
the concentration of solutions.
Concentrations of Solutions
Molarity (M)
The molarity of a solution is
defined as
molessolutes
Molarity 
volume of solution(L)
n
or M 
V
Molarity – Exercise 1

Calculate the molarity of a

solution made by dissolving
23.4 g of sodium sulphate in
enough water to form 125 mL of
solution.
Answer 1.32 M
 Molarity – Exercise 2
How many grams of sodium
sulphate, Na2SO4 are required to
make 0.350 L of 0.500 M Na2SO4?

Answer

24.8 grams
 Normality (N)
The normality of a solution is the gram equivalent weight of a solute per liter of solution. A
gram equivalent weight or equivalent is a measure of the reactive capacity of a given chemical
species (ion, molecule, etc.). Normality is the only concentration unit that is reaction
dependent.

Here's an example of how to calculate the normality of a solution.

Normality Example #1

1 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is 2 N for acid-base reactions because each mole of sulfuric acid
provides 2 moles of H+ ions.
1 M sulfuric acid is 1 N for sulfate precipitation, since 1 mole of sulfuric acid provides 1
mole of sulfate ions.
Molarity vs Normality (N)

The difference is that molarity is way to provide information

about the number of molecules in a liter of solution and
normality provides information about the number of reactive
units in a liter of solution
 Molality (m @ b)

As is clear from its name, molality involves moles!!!

A molality is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one kilogram of solvent.

Question:

A 4 g sugar cube (Sucrose: C12H22O11) is dissolved in a 350 ml teacup of 80 °C water. What is

the molality of the sugar solution?

Given: Density of water at 80° = 0.975 g/ml

Definition

Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

Step 1 - Determine number of moles of sucrose in 4 g

Solute is 4 g of C12H22O11
C12H22O11 = (12)(12) + (1)(22) + (16)(11)
C12H22O11 = 144 + 22+ 176
C12H22O11 = 342 g/mol
divide this amount into the size of the sample
4 g /(342 g/mol) = 0.0117 mol
Step 2 - Determine mass of solvent in kg.
density = mass/volume
mass = density x volume
mass = 0.975 g/ml x 350 ml
mass = 341.25 g
mass = 0.341 kg

Step 3 - Determine molality of the sugar solution.

molality = molsolute / msolvent
molality = 0.0117 mol / 0.341 kg
molality = 0.034 mol/kg

Answer:
The molality of the sugar solution is 0.034 mol/kg.
 Mole fraction (X)
The mole fraction, X, of a component in a solution is the ratio of the
number of moles of that component to the total number of moles
of all components in the solution.

To calculate mole fraction, we need to know:

>> The number of moles of each component present in the solution.

The mole fraction of A, XA, in a solution consisting of A, B, C, ...

is calculated using the equation:
To calculate the mole fraction of B, XB, use: