OXFORD REGIONS

AUSTRALIA

AUSTRALIA – 6th biggest producer in 2005. Chile and china catching up. Slight decline now. Painful
reorientation away from inexpensive mass-market wine to more upmarket wine. Production cost
relatively high. Vines have been grubbed-up, mostly in hotter drier regions dependent on water
such as Riverland and Riverina – cost of irrigation made viticulture unsustainable (2007 – 3
consecutive seasons drought).

All types of wine are made. Unique – unwooded Semillons of Hunter Valley and fortified topaques
and muscats of NE VIC.

Over 2500 wineries. 2300 created since 1970, offering weekend and retirement occupations.

Top five producers – Treasury (Penfolds, Wolf Blass, Wynns, Rosemount, Yellowglen, Lindemans),
Accolade (Hardys, Houghton, Banrock Station, Bay of Fires), Pernod Ricard (Jacob’s Creek, Wyndham
Estate, St.Hugo), Australian Vintage (McGuigan, Nepenthe, Tempus Two), and Casella (Yellow Tail).

Standards are high.

Producing only 4% of world’s wine, but 4th biggest exporter in terms of value of exports.

The Australian way is to preserve as much as possible the flavour of the grape, with a delicacy of
touch, producing intensely fruity white wines and soft, mouth-filling reds. Sacrificing structural
complexity for simple fruit flavour. But around 2010 the style is changing in favour of less alcohol
and less obvious oak.

In 2014, white wine 39%, red and rose 32.5% and sparkling 6.7%. fortifieds decline steadily (70% in
50s to under 3% now).

No native Vinifera in AUS. Imported from EUR. Phylloxera started near Geelong. Victoria was the first
biggest producer, but after phylloxera SA with Barossa.

The big three – CHARD, SHIRAZ and CS are now 60% of production. The trend is toward quality.

Climate

Too big for a simple climate description. But two basic weather patterns – one affecting WA, SA, VIC
and TAS, the other NSW and QLD. The southern states have a winter-spring rainfall pattern, with a
dry summer and early autumn. Ridges of high pressure sweep across the southern half of the
continent from Perth to Melbourne during the growing season, uninterrupted by mountain ranges.
Temps are 25-35 degrees. Maritime effect is less than California – the sea is warmer, and diurnal
temp variation is smaller. This even accumulation of heat is seen as a major factor in promoting wine
quality by aus researchers (more controversially, they link it to the wine style, too). Irrigation is
important due to lack of summer rain.

The other, more northerly weather system derives from the tropics. It brings more even rain pattern,
higher temperatures, and higher humidity. Subtropical climate for rapidly increasing QLD wine
industry, and coastal NSW. Hunter Valley gets a lot of rain during harvest, and then suffers winter
and spring drought. But it redeems itself with humidity and afternoon cloud cover which reduce the
stress on the vines.

Geography. Labelling.
From most important to least – SA, NSW, VIC, WA, TAS, QLD, Canberra.

EU laws require officially recognized region on varietally labelled wines, so SE Australia Zone was
created for this, covering top three regions.

Viticulture

Mechanical harvesting about 80%. Also mechanical pruning popular in 90s but now declining.

Canopy management and new trellis system expertise. Sustainable viticulture on the rise. Phylloxera
never entered SA, WA, TAS and most of NSW including Hunter Valley.

Winemaking

Typical winery is better equipped than in EUR. It has a lab, refrigeration, computer control, etc. but it
is the way these are used that differentiates AUS from the rest of the world.

The basic aim – maximum preservation of varietal fruit falvour, and an essentially soft and supple
structure for both wood-matured reds and whites are achieved in a number of ways. Primary
fermentation and MLF are initiated speedily with cultured yeast (but ambient yeast are on the
increase). White wine ferments at relatively low temps of 12-14 usually, typically with clear juice
that has been cold-settled or filtered and protected against prefermentation oxidation. The more
complex, so-called ‘dirty French’ barrel fermentation of cloudy juice, lees contact, MLF etc is used for
most of the best CHARD and some SBs and SSB blends. Majority of aromatics are unwooded and
without MLF. Bottled 6-9 months after the harvest.

Due to warmer regions causing relatively low level of acidity, Tartaric acid is routinely added before
or during the primary fermentation. AUS winemakers believe that if added in these stages rather
than at bottling – the difference cannot be told with natural acidity. Chaptalisation is prohibited
even in coolest regions. But some forms of enrichment are permitted.

Red wines other than PN are fermented at midrange temps of 22-28 degrees. Variety of vessels.
Extended post-fermentaiton maceration is less common than USA or FRA. Fine AUS wines like
GRANGE skip it altogether – they are pressed and put into barrels while still fermenting. The belief is
that postferm maceration extracts more tannins, and then those need to soften by polymerization,
and this process dulls fruit aroma and flavour due to being oxidative process. To reach complexity, it
is common to put still-fermenting half of wine into new oak, and the other half undergoes postferm
maceration and then is put into old oak.

French oak is preferred for PN and most CS. American is more common with Shiraz, Cab-Shiraz
blends and some CS. Chips and staves are winespread for lesser quality wines.

Micro-oxigenation has become standard for lower priced big reds for immediate consumption.

2 recent problems – high occurrence of Brettanomyces – dealt with by increasing SO2, and high
incidence of Random Oxidation, particularly in cork finished white wines, but also reds. Again,
recommendation is higher SO2.

21st century sees a move away from high alcohol (SA Shiraz moving to 13.5 – 14.5 from previous 14.5
– 15.5). chardonnays are down to 12.5-13.5 from 14, realizing that cool-climate grapes can be picked
earlier without significant loss of flavour. Also moving away from new oak. Whole-bunch
fermentation is on the rise for at least a proportion of Shiraz – more complex, aromatic, softer wines
with less assertive tannins and greater drinkability.
2014 – 85-90% of wines screwcaps.

Vine varieties

Shiraz most planted. In 2013 almost 24% of all vine, and 46% of red. Grown in every region. Identical
to syrah. Barossa Valley produces voluptuously rich, potent wines, Hunter Valley wines that become
silky with age. The shiraz boom of the late 1990s led the proliferation of Shiraz in old and new world,
as competitors tried to match the AUS offering. But AUS has four advantages: first, a bank of old
vines from 80-160 years old in NSW, and SA, all ungrafted and usually dry-grown. Second, the
equally long experience growing it and making wine form it. Third, an international icon, Grange,
matched by only northern Rhone. Fourth, diversity from the huge range of climates and terroir, and
emergence of newer regions with promise, like Heathcote, capable of becoming the greatest shiraz
area in AUS.

Cab Sav is second in reds (CHARD is second overall). Coonawarra dominated up till 20th century, but
now Margaret River leads, with a number of outstanding wines. Other great areas outside
Coonawarra are Great Southern, Wrattonbully, Clare Valley and some parts of Victoria.

Merlot – massive growth from 1990. There seems to be confusion over flavour, structure and style,
but there is general consensus that it should be medium bodied, supple, with soft ripe tannins. Some
favour savoury olive tones, others seek sweet red berry fruit.

PN – also growing to surprise of many. The majority is used in sparkling wine. Most consistent
regions are Geelong, Gippsland, Mornington Peninsula, Yarra Valley and TAS. Macedon Ranges and
Adelaide Hills have some excellent producers. Quarantine delayed introduction of the newest Dijon
clone, giving NZ competitive advantage, but now are available.

Ruby Cabernet – non-premium workhorse, declining. Most in Riverland and Riverina. Used for
blending in casks and low-priced generic bottled wine.

Grenache – declining. Until mid 60s, 90% of aus reds were from Grenache, shiraz, mourvedre. Then
CS and PN came. McLAren Vale (especially) and Barossa have century old dry-farmed Grenache
vines. The production drop is mostly due to drop in the irrigated regions of Riverland – the best
producers now produce very premium bottlings.

Petit Verdot – used as a blend component for CS in cooler regions. Greatest success in Riverland and
Riverina where warm climate guerantees ripeness, achieving strong color, flavour, and tannins –
making wines with ample character even if yields are high, enjoying success as a single varietal wine.
Riverland’s Kingston Estate is the champion.

Other reds. Mourvedre, often called Mataro. Tempranillo is fastest rising star, more than doubled
between 2006-2012. It is well suited to AUS, it’s a wonder why it took so long. Sangiovese, Barbera,
Dolcetto and Nebbiolo are the Italian grapes grown. Some sangiovese. Adelaide Hills and Pyrenees
made some great Nebbiolo. Montepulciano and Nero d’Avola show promise. Malbec has its
moments – Langhorne creek and Clare Valley where it’s blended with CS. Durif popular due to color
and flavour abundant in high yields.

Chardonnay – around the world seen as the grape of today and tomorrow. Still growing, although
slower. Style from simple to complex.

SB – second most planted white. Surprising rise given the competition from NZ – but maybe because
of the success of NZ it is sought after.
Semillon (rarely written as sémillon in the new world) – quite a sharp fall 2004 – 2013. Not
internationally recognized as single varietal – so mixed success in export. Hunter Valley Semillon, 5-
20 years old has a following in Sydney but not elsewhere. But it still is grown more than Riesling.
Hunter does unoaked version, 10.5 – 11% alcohol. Adelaide Hills and Margaret river SSB blends or
varietal Semillon fermented in French oak and conventional alchohol levels. Especially Margret river
is much higher alcohol, richer, and more flavorsome in youth than Hunter Valley.

Muscat Gordo Blanco (AUS’s Muscat of Alexandria) – flavoured wine for cheap cask blends. Together
with Muscat Blanc a petits Grains and Gewurz – lightly sparkling low-alc wines labelled Moscato, in
Aus made from any of the Muscat-flavoured varieties.

Colombard – retains acidity well – good for warmer regions. Fifth most planted white. Very high
yield – ideal for blended cask wine. Riverland and Riverina.

Pinot Gris/Grigio – growing. Grigio to model north Italian version, picked early to create fairly neutral
style. Gris modelled on Alsace style is picked riper to make richer, spicier exotic and textural wine.
Performs well in Mornington Peninsual.

Riesling – lost pre-eminent postion to chardonnay around 1992. But renaissance for it may come.
Clare and eden valleys have near monopoly for top quality. Now challenged by the Great Southern
and Tasmania.

Verdelho – no one else just Aus and Portugal (from where it came in 1825) decided to make table
wine with it. Easy wine for early drinking.

Other whites. Marsanne – in Tahbilk in Goulburn Valley for over 100 years. Until recently Tahbilk was
the largest single-vineyard planting in the world. Rousanne – much smaller plantings, used as a
blending partner to Marsanne. Viognier used for white, but also for co-fermenting with Shiraz.
Gewurz – often blended with Riesling for off-dry blends. Tas makes dry and delicate varietal Gewurz.

Others are Savagnin, Gruner Veltliner, Fiano, Vermentino, Arneis, Cortese, Garganega, Petit
Manseng, Picolit, Schonburnger, Chenin Blanc.

Labelling

SE AUS label is too generic and often is used to denote wine from Riverina/Riverland.

Appellation system applies. If cariety or region specified, min 85% must be as described. Same for
stated vintage. If more than one variety used, they must be stated in descending order.

Divided into Zones, Regions and Subregions. Each state is divided into zones – 8 in NSW, 6 VIC, SA 8,
WA 5.

A region – single tract of land discrete and homogenous in grape growing attributes to a measurable
degree, producing min 500 tonnes of grapes a year, has min 5 differently owned vineyards, each min
5 ha. Subregion same requirements but must be substantially discrete within a region.

Influence

Enormous influence of wine world. Pioneering sophisticated canopy management techniques,

irrigation, hi-=tech soil mapping. Flying winemakers. Hygiene standards. Best institutes sending
people around the world. AUS overtook FRA in exports to UK – one of most important importers,
then same in US (but there it was short-lived due to yellow tail short success).
Australian Wine Research Institute – world leader. Adelaide. Formed 1955. Research aimed at
understanding.

ADELAIDE HILLS

- 450-550m high. Cool wine region.

- One of AUS best for Sauvignon blanc.
- Official subregions are Lenswood and Piccadilly Valley.
- 90 producers.
- Aslo sparkling wine from PN and Chard.
- North part – lower elevation and west –facing = fuller bodied Shiraz. Sometimes married
with viognier.
- Others are increasingly grown – main success is Tempranillo, Nebbiolo, Pinot Gris and Fiano.

ADELAIDE PLAINS

- Flat, warm to hot region immediately north of Adelaide, with one notable winery – Primo
Estate (sourcing a lot of its fruit from outside the region).

ADELAIDE ZONE

- AUS superzone, including Mount Lofty Ranges Zone, Fleurieu Zone, and Barossa Zone.

ALPINE VALLEYS

- NE VIC, encompasses several valleys and produces a range of mainstream as well as ultra-
ecclectic varieties (Arneis, Petit Manseng, Saperavi etc).

BAROSSA VALLEY – most famous region of Aus, and the one with most wine produced, although
many grapes are brought from outside the valley. Increasing trend toward planting away from valley
floor and more on hillsides. This is a heritage area, with shiraz, Grenache and mourvedre up to 170
years old, dry grown and ungrafted. This can be neither duplicated nor replaced. Barossa zone
includes B Valley and Eden Valley.

TASMANIA – cool south of Aus. Most sites around Launceston in the N or Hobart in S, and on the
east coast around Bicheno. So far no move towards registering any regions or even zones. The first
logical step would be creation of two zones – north and south.

Volume-wise tiny. Potential large. Less than 1% of Aus total. Bud demand outstrips supply.

The geography is very complex and so is the terroir, often oversimplified. There are sites warmer and
drier than Victoria (e.g. Coal river/Richmond region, and in terms of warmth Tamar Vally). And there
are cooler and wetter sites – Pipers river east of Launceston.

PN is gronw everywhere.

Major producers now shifting to cooler climate grapes like Riesling, pinot gris, chardonnay and PN.
But climate change (or at least warmer vintages) have produced impressive merlot, CS and shiraz
from the warmer Tamar River and from the Coal river.

Many changes in recent years. Yalumba bought Darlymple and Jansz, and many other transactions.

TAS has emerged as serious producer of Sparkling, and also high level Chard, PN and Riesling table
wines.
Most producers remain tiny.

AUSTRIA

Prominent for the quality of its wines.

History. Long traditions. First world war split of austro-hungarian emire = loss of many vineyards to
other countries. Second world war – vineyards plundered by soviet troops. Then 40 years of
rebuilding, in which Gruner Veltliner came to power as the national grape. But mid 85, dessert wines
from Burgenland contained diethylene glycol to imitate botrytis. Market devastated home and
abroad despite nobody being hurt. Completely fresh start required. Stringent quality standarts
resulted. Late 90s already unprecedented export success continuting to today.

Geography and climate

Niederosterreich, Steiermark and Burgenland are three states that have almost all vineyards.
Riesling and Gruner Veltliner home on the left (and some places right) bank of Danube upstream of
Vienna, towards Czech republic. Cool and dry here. Another feature is wide diurnal variation.

Warm air from Hungarian Pannonian plain dominates sites along the Hungarian border. Reds are
more common here, and the sweet whites have a long tradition.

SE is the third significant region of the country – Steiermark.

Vine varieties

Huge variety grown. Many are indigenous. In whites, gruner veltliner is 30% of plantings. National
grape. Virtually always dry. Capturing unprecedented range of flavours – lentils, green beans,
rhubarb, beetroot, roasted red capsicum, tobacco, white and black pepper, citrus zest, iris, nutmeg.
Sizzling peppery astringency, a tactile ‘bite’, called ‘pfefferl’ is often treated as the signature of the
variety. It can achieve satisfactory ripeness and completeness at alcohol levels from 10.5 to 15% -
this is also unique. Can mature in bottles for decades.

Riesling is less than 5% of vineyards, but quality is top. Most are dry. Aus Riesling is almost uniformly
lower in acidity and tends to have less effusive aromas than GER, but best offer crescendo of
flavours on the finish. Leaner in body, and ages a little faster than GER and Alsace.

Welschriesling – light wines from Steiermark (Styria) and key player in Burgenland for botrytis.

Weissburgunder, Pinot Blanc, is one of AUT hidden strengths. Subtle complexity, natural creaminess,
refreshing.

SB is treted as signature grape of Steiermark.

Gelber Muskateller – a viariant of Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains, has long tradition.

Roter Traminer, Pinot Gris (grauburgunder), roter veltliner, neuburger are others. Furmint has
revival in Rust.

Reds: Zweigelt dominates with 14%. Presence in every region. Fruit-forward. Also used for blends
with Bordeaux or AUT varieties. Blaufrankisch 7% - balck fruit, tobacco, resinous herbs, black pepper.

St.Laurent – under 2%. Rich fruit allied to PN (blauburgunder).

Labelling
Similar to GER. But here, ‘Kabinett’ is reserved for unchaptalised, dry Qualitatswein (AUT equivalent
of PDO), up to 13% alc. But the term is rarely used. Same for spatlese – gradually disappearing. The
term RESERVE replaced it in regions where spatlese was previously used for dry wines, while Klassik
is used for wines formerly labelled Kabinett. But Spatlese is still used for some wines in Burgenland
for lightly sweet wines from mainly botrytis-free grapes.

Auslese, BA and TBA are used mainly in Burgenalnd for Botrytised wines. Special categories of
Strohwein, Eiswein and Ausbruch are almost exclusive here.

We can assume AUT wine is dry unless labelled with one of the Predikats. Therefore, growers rarely
use the word trocken on the labels.

All AUT wine meeting the standards for Qualitatswein has the so-called Banderolle – a neck band or
capsule top featuring colors of the national flag, signifying meeting the standards and quality
control, but also tracks the wine with a long string of tiny digits.

Former tafelwein is now simply wein, must have min 8.5% alcohol. It refers to must weights less
than required for qualitatswein. In practice, very little such wine is produced and virtually none
exported. PGI equivalent is Landwein – almost as rare, but some talented and visionary growers
proudly refuse qualitatswein status, frustrated by repeated failures to win that status.

ITALY

ABRUZZO

- mountaneous region of central Italy, with large coastline, south of Marche. 7th largest
production area in ITA. It is famous for Montepulciano d’Abruzzo. Warm climate, and hills
descending towards Adriatic sea. But most production is still undistinguished.
- The famous white is Trebbiano d’Abruzzo. Both (the other is Montepulciano) are
underachievers due to ignorance of site specifics and due to yields over 100 hl/ha are
allowed by law. Also the whole region was until recently covered by a single DOC and thus
only 80% of the principal variety is required.
- Montepulciano – two styles – young, quaffing wine, robustly fruity, best young (drink within
2 years), and more serious, almost Syrah-like style, where wild fruit combines with oak.
- Abruzzo DOC is divided into 5 subzones – Alto Tirino, Casauria, Teate, Terre Dei Peligni, and
Terre dei Vestini – producing finer quality Montepulciano. Plus tiny DOC Controguerra. In all
these the vine density must be higher (4000 vines/ha as opposed to 2500 in the DOC
Abruzzo). This may be the first step to focusing on terroir.
- Only one DOCG here – Montepulciano d’Abruzzo Colline Teramare. Still to prove its worth.
- As for Trebbiano – many Abruzzo’s Trebbiano wines are not made of Trebbiano d’Abruzzo
grape, but of bland Trebbiano Toscano. The yields are not lower as per law and thus we
cannot assess the quality of Trebbiano d’Abruzzo realistically.

ALTO ADIGE – alpine and most northerly part of ITA. Neighbours Trentino, together they grow
international varieties, and both do not have a detailed DOC system. Austrian Tyrol is immediately
north, and culture is Germanic here. First language is German. Officially known as Sudtirol. River
Adige (Etsch). Bolzano is the capital. Isarco (Eisach) river joins here to form a Y-shaped valley.
Viticulture here for millennia. Sites are 300-1000m. valley floor has other fruits, and a few large
vineyards for mechanical harvesting.
Alps protect from the cold northerly winds. Steep slopes provide excellent slow and long ripening.
High diurnal range helps retain acidity = fresh appetizing wines that is famous here. Some districts
even have Mediterranean climate here.

International varieties introduced here in 19th century dominate – Pinot Bianco, PGio, Chardonnay,
and Merlot are the most important. But most planted is Schiava – more than twice the second most
planted. Pale, often dilute, early-maturing red wine – once enormously popular in Ger, SWI, and
AUSTRIA. Some are trying to revive Schiava with an annuam Schiava trophy.

2/3rds are controlled by co-ops, processing harvest of 100s and 1000s of grape farmers. The co-ops
can dictate the cultivation of certain grape considered marketable. This is the main reason why
except for Schiava, AA’s native varieties got little attention in the past and PG became enormously
popular. Limiting yields and changing from pergola to lower-yielding Guyot training system increased
quality. But many old local varieties still on pergolas. Younger generation is re-discovering these
grapes and systems.

DOC is extremely simple. No DOCG, making one think it is all about quantity here rather than
attention to terroir. There are three denominations only: Lago Di Caldaro DOC for Schiava, Valdadige
DOC including the whole of AA and Trentino, and Alto Adige DOC with seven subregions – Colli di
Bolzano, Meranese, Santa Maddalena, Terlano, Valle Isarco, Valle Venosta, and Lago di Caldaro.
Terlano and Valle Isarco rose to prominence – Terlano for its long-lived Pinot Bianco, notably from
Cantina Terlano, with focus on quality, and Valle ISarco for its small estates producing crystalline
wines from sites up to 1000m. matching suitable varieties to subzones has become more precise.
Magre and Cortacia in the SW and Settequerce W of Bolzano for CS and Merlot, Mazzon and
Montagna in SE, and Cornaiano SW of Bolzano for PN (PN here prefers sw aspect due to hotter
temps), Terlano for SB, Appiano and Monte for PBianco, Ora for LAgrein. Termeno for Traminer,
Caldaro and Cortaccia in addition to Santa Maddalena for Schiiava. Cortaccia, Magre and Salorno for
PGio.

Highly original fresh wines. By turning the attention to its diverse terroirs, AA may shake off its
reputation as producer of cheap commodity wines (used to be cheapest in ITA).

AOSTA (or Valle d’Aosta) – Ita’s smallest region. Long narrow valley in extreme NW. many French
speakers. Wine labels may be in French or ITA. Rugged alpine landscape. Steep slopes, frequently
terraced. DOC wine made – Valle d’Aosta. Rich diversity of vine varieties, more than 20, Italian,
swiss, French grapes. Three most important local grapes are Petit Rouge, Prie Blanc and Nebbiolo.
Co-ops handle production, with good reputation. Reviving ancient local practices and favouring local
varieties. Most interesting wines are the Nabbiolo-based Donnas (or Donnaz), and the neighboring
Nebbiolo-based Arnad-Montjovet, as well as family of fruity Petit Rouge reds. But lately delicate
Alpine chardonnay drew attention, as well as minerally Blanc de Morgex et de La Salle from some of
highest vineyards in EUR – up to 1200m. traditional method sparkling is made, too. Numerous sweet
wines thanks to high acidity. Challenge: maintaining steep vineyards with ageing population.

APULIA = eng. Form of the ita Puglia.

AQUILEIA (also FRIULI AQUILEIA) – lesser known DOC from Friuli, the whole province of Udine.
Whites must be min. 50% Friulano, and Rosso must be min 50% Refosco dal Peduncolo Rosso. The
rest can be any authorized variety but are mostly international varieties, potentially compromising
the wines’ originality.
ASTI – town and province in Piemonte. The name appears on local varietal reds from Dolcetto,
Freisa, and Barbera d’Asti. Unlike Barbera d’Alba, made from vines planted in lesser sites where
Nebbiolo won’t ripen, Barbera is given supreme sites in Asti. Barbera d’Asti elevated to DOCG in
2010, with three superior subzones – Tinella, Colli Astiani or Astiano, and Nizza.

Asti, however, is most associated with playful, aromatic, lightly sparkling wine with modest alcohol –
italy’s biggest-selling wine. In 1993, along with the superior Moscato d’Asti, Asti Spumante was
elevated to DOCG and renamed Asti. So the wines now are name Asti and Moscato d’Asti. Both are
produced from Moscato Bianco (Muscat Blanc a petits grains), produces in provinces of Asti, Cuneo
and Alessandria. High denstity and large yields enable large scale production and it has increased
dramatically. Due to small-scale producers, asti is a blended wine from many sources. But more and
more producers bottle their own, artisan wines, and so single vineyard bottling is becoming more
common.

Asti comes in several versions, determined by alcohol level, residual sugar and intensity of sparkle.
Asti, compared to Moscato d’Asti, is more alcoholic – 6-9.5% as opposed to max 6.5% in Moscato
d’Asti. It is also fizzier (min 3 bar in bottle as opposed to 2 bar in moscato). Best and ripest grapes
are normally reserved for Moscato d’Asti.

BASILICATA – mountainous, land-locked area southern ITA. Associated with poverty. Little
commercial and industrial activity. Drained by emigration. Unspoilt natural beauty still awaits
tourism boost. Not much wine. 4 doc and 1 docg – Aglianico Del Vulture Superiore – slopes of extinct
volcano. Confusingly, only the Superiore version has been elevated to DOCG.

SPAIN

ABONA

- Small ESP wine region in semi-desert south of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. Europe’s
highest vineyard – 1600m is here. Focus is increasing on organic wines, as well of whites of
little distinction from the LISTAN BLANCO grape.

ALICANTE – city on Mediterranean coast, and also a wine zone (DO), now shrinking. 8 styles of wine
allowed. Includes Doble Pasta, fortified wines, and a Solera-aged wine called Fondillon, specialty of
the region made from very sewet overripe grapes. A coastal subzone, Marina Alta, produces muscat-
based wines. The climate is hotter away from the coast and more arid. Principal grape is Monastrell
(Mourvedre). Others are Garnacha and Bobal. 90% is made in co-ops.

Alicante is also a name for Garnacha Tintorera, or Alicante Bouschet, and is sometimes even used as
a synonym for Grenache.

ALMANSA – denominated wine zone (DO) in E corner of Castile-La Mancha central ESP. borders
Levante regions of Jumilla and Yecla. Strong, sturdy red wines, traditionally for blending but
increasingly sold in bottle, mainly from Monastrell and Garnacha Tintorera grapes. Syrah is
increasingly planted. Climate is extreme – 40 degrees in summer and can be below 0 in winter.

ANDALUCIA – southernmost autonomous region of Esp. 8 provinces, and the DO regions of Jerez,
Malaga, Montilla-Moriles, Sierras de Malaga, and Condado De Huelva. Hottest part of Spain.
Traditionally associated with strong, alcoholic wines. Many wines are similar to each other and
particularly to Sherry. Most are fortified. Some are so high in sugar they do not need fortification to
reach 14-18% alcohol.
ARAGÓN – one of ESP 17 autonomous regions. NE. Ebro river valley, mountains in the north feeding
water to arid Ebro plain. S and E climate becomes progressively extreme. Four DO regions –
Somontano which almost entirely left indigenous varieties, and then Campo de Borja, Carinena, and
Catalyud, which benefited from investment in modern technology, revolutionizing modern
Garnacha, sometimes blended with Tempranillo or Syrah. Large co-ops continue to dominate
production, buying grapes from small-holders.

ARLANZA – DOP created in 2008 btw Rioja and Ribera Del Duero along Arlanza river. Fresh, fragrant
wines from old, often mixed vineyards.

PORTUGAL

ALENTEJO – DOP and Vinho Regional (called Vinho Regional Alentejano) in Sthn POR, also the name
of the province here.

DOP wines must come from one of 8 subregions.

Cork is the main industry in this sparsely populated yet large area. Half the world’s corks come from
POR, mainly Alentejo. But wine has risen a lot in recent decades and Alentejo is now leading POR
wine industry.

Summers are very hot, over 35 even 40 degrees. There are cooler locations and patches of schist
retaining water. Irrigation and temperature control is essential. Red dominates, mainly blends from
Aragonez, Tricandeira, Alicante Bouschet and Castelao grapes.

ALGARVE – southernmost province of POR, better known for tourism than wine. The province is in
its entirety designated as a Vinho Regional and its 4 DOPs are centred on one remaining co-
operative. Now more small and boutique wineries capable of medal winners. Climate is hot and
better for corks and citrus fruit. Cliff Richard planted a vineyard here, helping Algarve back on the
wine map.

ALMEIRIM – DOP subregion of Tejo in central, southern POR, dominated by a huge co-op winery.

AZORES – autonomous region of POR. 9 islands. Three grow vines and have own DOP.

BAIRRADA – evolving DOP region in N por. Merchant bottlers (negociants) and co-operatives still
dominate the production. Gradual focus on quality. DOP in 1979. Most of 2000 growers here own a
very small area of vines, so they send the grapes to a merchant or one of three remaining co-ops.
Around 900 of them send fruit for Mateus Rose in Sogrape. A handful of dynamic individual estates
represent the main quality impetus here from the 80s. Baga’s fearsome tannins and acidity were
brought under control with optimal site selection, trimming the yields, and gentler extraction. Since
2003, blending with more approachable varieties is permitted, so touriga nacional, CS, Merlot and
PN is used. Bordeaux varieties suit well here in maritime climate and have produced some promising
wines in their own right. Traditional varieties are Baga, Maria Gomes, Bical. Those devoted to Baga
as varietal wine are making por’s leading reds. They can age two decades or more, but with modern
methods is approachable earlier.

Maria Gomes and Bical are whites – mainly used for traditional method sparkling.

ALGERIA
In 1930s one of leading wine producers as a colony of France. In 50s accounted for two thirds of the
international wine trade. Now once again on the rise, increasing wine production by about 10% a
year. It was phylloxera in FRA that initially brought vinegrowing boom to Algeria. 1962 was the
independence, and half million French left. Wine market collapsed.

GERMANY

AHR – diminutive region specializing in reds. Spatburgunder. 50-51 degrees latitude, so good
microclimate is needed. SE and SW facing slopes, dark soil, rocks reflecting heat, and protection
from northerly wind blowing above the valley. Also portugieser, fruhburgunder and Riesling here.
Spatburgunder here is now typically oak aged, tannic, with good color. 80% are cooperative cellars,
but there are rising private estates enjoying the 1995-2005 red wine boom in Germany.

BADEN – longest region in ger – 400km. from franken in the N to Switzerland in the S. 9 districts
called Bereiche. Southernmost region of GER. Spatburgunder 36%, Grauburgunder 11%,
Weissburgunder (Pinot Blanc) 8%. It’s Ger’s pn stronghold. Warm, dry conditions, and frequent steep
terraced sites of volcanic origin. Riesling 7% found in cooler sites. 80 co-operatives, almost half of
Ger total.

Tauberfranken district – frost-prone. 70% white wine. Muller-thurgau is hardy and is half of all vines
here.

Badische Bergtasse district and Kraichau district – both muller-thurgau and Riesling.

Ortenau, Breisgau, Kaiserstuhl – baden’s most prestigious estates here. Ortenau is 25% Riesling, 50%
PN. Keiserstuhl – volcanic vineyards, most famous sites of Baden here, with mainly PN.

FRANCE

COTEAUX D’AIX-EN-PROVENCE – mainly dry rose and some reds. In Provence. Varied terrain, 0-
400m, with temp variations large. Unsophisticated reds and roses for early, often local consumption.
Cooperatives are common. But some try to establish a style from Grenache with Cinsault,
Mourvedre, local Counoise, Syrah, Carignen, and CS. The climate is Mediterranean and organic
viticulture common.

ALOXE-CORTON – village at N end of Cote de Beaune in Burgundy. First references to vineyards in

696 ad. Aloxe is dominated by the hill of Corton, planted on three sides with vineyards including
Grand Crus Corton (almost all red) and Corton-Charlemgne (white).

Corton is the sole grand cru appellation for red wine in Cote de Beaune, covers several vineyards.
These can be designated as either ‘Corton’ or “corton’ hyphen name of the vineyard.

All Corton tends to be dense, closed wine when young, but Bressandes has suppleness and charm,
Renardes rustic, gamey, Perrieres extra finesse, Clos du Roi balance between weight and elegance
(often considered finest Corton).

Other vineyards are Le Charlemagne, Les Pougets, Les Languette (all focus on white Corton-
Charlemgne more), and Les Chaumes, Les Greves, Les Fietres, Les Meix, Clos de la Vigne au Saint,
and part of Les Paulands and Les Marechaudes. Further Corton vineyards extend into Ladoix-
Serrigny.
Corton is almost entirely PN vines, with tiny amount of white Corton, including Hospices De Beaune
cuvee Paul Chanson from Chardonnay. But the great whites are those made within Corton-
Charlemagne appellation, stretching in a narrow band. The mesoclimate for it is fractionally cooler
than Corton and the soils differ – Corton is mainly on reddish chalky clay rich in marl, while C-
Charlemange is dominated by lighter, whiter, and stony characted, imparting gunflint to the wines.
C-C also has some pinot blanc.

Corton may seem ungainly and sturdy when young, but has potential to develop into rich wine with
complex gamey flavours at 8-10 years. Cortons, together with Pommard, should be the most intense
and longest-lived wines of the Cote de Beaune.

Corton-Charlemgne also needs time, develops into exceptional character of breed, backbone, and
racy power. Minimum 5 years needed, ideally 10.

More than half of area is Grand Crus, but premier cru and village vineyards have their share. Making
mainly reds that are supple, well-colored, but mostly do not justify the premium over the wines of
Saigny-Les-Beaune.

ALSACE – unique style of mainly varietal wine, about 90% white. Many territorial disputes between
Germany (Elsass) and France. Separated now from GER by river Rhine, and from rest of FRA by
Vosges mts. Language and culture reflects the two cultures. Many speak Alsacien, a dialect quite
different from both French and German. Ruined castles and fortresses on the hills.

4000 grape growers. One peculiarity – even small producers make 6-8 different wines each year,
larger ones 20-30 different bottlings. By law, all wines bottled here, in tall bottles called flutes –
some thing this hinders sales because of being out of fashion.

47.5 – 49 degrees latitude. Long. Cool growing season. Maximising sun is crucial – most sites on S,
SW and SE facing slopes. Shelter from wind by Vosges. Rainfall one of lowest in FRA due Vosges
shielding. Elevation for most sites is 175-550m. autumn humidity allows for VT and SGN wines.

Narrow vineyard strip running N to S, along lower contours of the Vosges, spanning over two French
departments, Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin. Majority of large producers are in the more southerly Haut-
Rhin, associated with higher quality, especially for Gewurztraminer and PG, producing fatter, more
powerful wines in the S of the region.

At least 20 major soil formations in the area. Higher, steeper slopes – thin topsoil, with subsoils of
gneiss, granite, sandstone, schist, and volcanic sediments. Lower, gentler slopes have deeper
topsoils, over subsoils of clay, marl and limestone and sandstone. One of most important subsoils is
the pink Gres de Vosges, Vosges sandstone, used for churches and cathedrals. The plains have
alluvial soils, eroded from the vosges, and are rich and fertile, thus more suited for crops other than
vine. Heavier clay and marl soils give wine with broader flavours, more body and weight. Lighter
limestone or sandy soil gives more elegance and finesse. Flint, schist, shale and slate soils tend to
give typical oily, minerally aroma reminiscent of petrol and sometimes described as ‘gunflint’
especially when from Riesling grape.

Winters can be very cold, spring is mostly mild, summer warm and sometimes very dry, with heavy
hail and sotrms possible in summer and autumn. Summer draught can be an issue some years.

The training depends on the steepness of the slope. Single Guyot with up to 15 buds left on the
cane, or double Guyot with up to 8 buds on each cane can be found. There are also cordon-trained
viens, with spur pruning, generally on older viens. Training is 60-90 cm above ground. Plains – higher
training to avoid frosts, while on slopes lower to maximize sunlight (tb – should be warmth not
sunlight?). the steepest sites may be terraced, like grand cru sites of Rangen and Kastelberg, or
planted in rows either following the mountain contours or top to bottom, depending on the risk of
soil erosion.

Many vineyards are too steep for mechanical harvesting, so they are handpicked. The vintage is
always protracted here, with varieties ripening at different times. Mid September start, continues
well into November.

A few growers experiment with botrytised late-picked wines, not only for the 4 permitted varieties,
but also for Auxerrois and Sylvaner (which both can make outstanding wines), and others. Some
make a msall quantity of Vin De PAille, healthy ripe grapes picked in October are dried on straw over
winter months. Also some experiments with Eiswine, picking in Dec and even January.

Currently 8 major varietal wines – Riesling, gewürztraminer, pinot gris, pinot noir, pinot blanc,
muscat, chasselas (mainly for blending), and Sylvaner. Auxerrois also planted, mainly blended and
labelled as pinot blanc. Chardonnay is forbidden but tolerated if labelled as pinot blanc or used in
Cremant d’Alsae. Most growers plant all of the above. A grower must make economic and practical
decision what to plant where. PB and AX ripen first, and are easy to grow. Riesling and SYL need to
be shelterd and are much more demanding. Muscat and GEWRZ are least reliable – unsettled weax
at flowering can seriously shrink the crop, so the site should be sheltered. Sylvaner has been
decreasing, Riesling (now the most widely planted – but not by much) is on the rise. Gewurz has the
smallest yield. PG increasingly popular. PB and AUX also rising. PN as the only red here also rising.

RIESLING – invariably bone dry. Young ones can have floral aromas, but may be fairly neutral. With
age, it takes complex gunflint, mineral aromas, crispy steely acidity and very pure fruit flavours. One
of most difficult varieties for beginners, but one of most rewarding wines for connoisseurs.

GEWURZ – dry to off-dry. Low acidity and high alcohol and glycerol = impression of sweetness.
Lychees and grapefruit aroma. Naturally high sugar levels make it ideal for late-harvest sweet wines
– so it is most common varietal as VT. Poor examples are flat, over-alcoholic, sometimes oily.
GEWURZ from the southern end of Alsace is different – more aromatic and richer weight.

PG – once known as Tokay-Pinot Gris or Tokay d’Alsace. Since 2007 no longer allowed. Pg combines
spicy flavors of Gewurz with firm backbone of acidity found in Riesling, resulting in wine that ages
very well. Young one reminds of peaches and apricot, with a hint of smoke, and with age develops
biscuity, buttery flavours. It can be great as VT style.

MUSCAT - two varieties – M Blanc a Petits Grains (Also Muscat d’Alsace) and M Ottonel. Most blend
the two. Always dry, with fresh grapey aroma and flavour. Taste reminds of biting into fresh grape.
Young, crisp fruitiness. Low in alcohol and acidity. Sensitive to poor weather at flowering, so yields
vary each year.

SYLVANER – difficult to grow, needs warmth. Not much money paid for it. Good Sylvaner has a
slightly bitter, slightly perfumed aroma and flavour, with very firm acidity. Moderate alcohol, and is
best young and fresh.

PINOT BLANC – also labelled Clevner or Klevner – the workhorse of Alsace. It forms the base for
Creamnt d’Alsace. Can make a very good, clean, dry white, not very aromatic but good acidity and
moderate alcohol.
AUXERROIS – rarely mentioned on labels, yet may form all, or majority of wines labelled ‘klevner’ or
pinot blanc. Pure AUX is spicy, soft, broad, with low acidity and good alcohol. Occasionally oaked.

CHASSELAS – also rare on labels. Usually used for Edelzwicker. When doen as varietal wine, quite
lightweight, dry, soft grapey fruit, low acidity and light alcohol.

EDELZWICKER = ‘noble mixture’ – also the term ‘Gentil’ can be used. One of cheapest wines.
Common ingredients are chasselas, PB and AUX.

PINOT NOIR – the only red. Deepens in color and flavour due to climate change. Good, oak matured
wines are being made in warmer vintages.

Winemaking:

Similar to GER, sugar content is measured in degrees Oeschle. Chaptalisation (always outlawed for
late-harvest wines, and since 2011 for AOC Alsace Grand Crus) is now rare even for AOC Alsace, due
to climatic change. Indigenous yeasts are mostly used and sufficient, few add yeast cultures.
Acidification is not practised.

The number of varieties presents a logistical problem, as they need to be vinified separately.
Operations with one press will organize picking to allow each variety enough time in the press.

Most deliberately prevent MLF in whites by keeping them cool and lightly sulphured, preferring to
keep fresh grape aromas. Some cuvees manage MLF, often by accident. It does not seem to alter
quality or keeping ability of the wine, just makes them softer and less floral initially, so an increasing
number of reputable winemakers now allow mlf. PN needs MLF to soften and stabilize – so it is kept
in an isolated cellar part to prevent cross-contamination of lactic acid bacteria.

90% is white, and emphasis is on primary grape flavours, and therefore most wine is vinified and
stored in inert containers. New oak is rare. Traditional cellars have large oval wood casks, many over
100 years old, literally built into the cellar. Traditionally, same cask is used for same variety each
year. Tartrates bulid-up forms a glass-like lining, and there is no chance of oak flavours. If a cask
needs replacing, the new one will be well washed out to remove as much oak as possible, and then
will be used for Edelzwicker until all oak flavours disappear. Some experiment with barrel
maturation, most widely for PN, but also PB, Pg, AUX and even Sylvaner.

Cellars are generally quite cold by the time of fermentation, so many have no cooling system.
Riesling, Sylvaner, and Muscat age best and have best bouquet if fermented at 14-16 degrees, while
GEWRZ up to 21 degrees. Most wines are bottled within a year of the vintage to retain freshness.

Alsace wines are fermented dry. Around the turn of the century some had perceptible residual sugar
that was difficult to predict from the label, but wines have generally become drier. Some introduced
sweetness codes on labels.

Late harvest wines – 1983 set the regulation for VT and SGN.

Vendange Tardive/Vendanges Tardives – late picked wines. Always produced in Alsace in small
quantities in best vintages. Alsace claims exclusive rights in FRA to the term vendange tardive. To
qualify, wine must be from single vintage, from one of four permitted varieties – Riesling, muscat,
gewurz or pinot gris. The wine must not be enriched in any way, and minimum sugar concentration
at harvest must be 220g/L (95 degrees Oeschle) for Riesling and Muscat, and 243 (105) for GEWRZ or
PG. Picking has to be done after certain date, determined annually by authorities, who must be
informed beforehand of the grower’s intention to pick a VT. The wine has to undergo analysis and
tasting after bottling before the label is granted. VT do not have to be affected by botrytis. Most
common variety for VT is GEWURZ, which can easily attain very high sugar levels. Muscat is the
rarest of all, and is only possible in some vintages. VT is not necessarily sweet – may be from bone-
dry to medium sweet. Quality varies.

Selection de Grains Nobles – is a further refinement of VT, where the grapes reach even higher sugar
levels. But they nearly always contain a portion of botrytis affected grapes, picked by hand, typically
in several passages. Same four varieties are permitted. Minimum sugar 256g/l (110) for Riesling and
muscat, 279 (120) for GEWRZ and Pg. Same legislation applies. SGN is always sweet, but quality and
richness varies.

The Appelations Alsace was awarded AOC status in 1962. There is one regional appellation – Alsace,
or Vin de Alsace. In 2011, further 2 appellations were introduced which may complement the
general AOC Alsace – AOC Alsace Communales – stricter than the regional appellation, and specifies
grape variety, vine density, pruning, vine training, ripeness levels and yields. The 11 communes (or
inter-communal entites) may be mentioned on the label alongside ‘AOC Alsace’: Blienschwiller,
Saint-Hippolyte, Cotes de Barr, Scherwiller, Cote de Rouffach, Vallee Noble, Klevener de
Heiligenstein, Val Saint-Gregoire, Ottrott, Wolxheim, and Rodern.

The second one is AOC Alsace lieux-dits – there are wines which express combinations of varietal and
certain terroirs, and have stricter reqs than AOC Communales. Wines from these lieux-dits express
some nuances – primary fruit characters of individual grape varieties are blended with terroir-
derived minerality.

Alsace Grand Cru – in 1975 first defined as a single, sometimes controversial, appellation when
Schlossberg was the prototype. The wine had to come from a single named vineyard site (lieu-dit), a
single vintage, and (initially) be made from one of four varieties – Riesling, muscat, gewurz, or Pg. by
1992 there were 50 lieu-dits. Varietal exceptions have been allowed. 2007 – 51st lieu-dit awarded
AOC Alsace Grand Cru status, and blends based on majority of Gewurz were permitted in addition to
the four varietals. In 2011, the umbrella Alsace Grand Cru AOC was divided into 51 individual AOC
Alsace Grand Crus appellations, which affords each lieu-dit AOP-level guarantees of quality. These
wines make up 4% of Alsace’s total production. The precise boundary of each grand cru is the
subject of much debate. Some producers omit the appellation on the label in favour of their brands
that are well-established. E.g., Trimbach Clos Ste-Hune is grown within the parcel Rosacker Grand
Cru but does not mention Grand Cru on the label. Some grand cru sites are of only moderate quality.
Others cover unreasonably large area, covering a number of soils, aspects, hillsides, some better
than others. Many produce average quality wine cashing in on the grand cru name.

CREMAND d’ALSACE – is an appellation created in 1976, and maended 2011, formalizing the spkkl
wines made in the region for a long time. By 2013, Cremant d’Alsace was 24% of all AOC wines here.
Pinot Blanc is by far main ingredient, but some Riesling and chardonnay are used. PN is the only
variety allowed for Cremant d’Alsace rose. Here also growers have to identify before the harvest
which parcels of vines are destined for Cremant.

ANCENIS, COTEAUX d’ – small AOC zoen in Loire around the town of Ancenis between Nantes and
Angers for light Pgris Wines and reds and roses from Gamay.

ANJOU – western Loire wine region. Centred on Angers town. In middle ages some of most highly
regarded wines in FRA.
Rose is by far the most important of the wines, then red, and then Anjou Blanc on a small scale.

Mild climate, atlantic influence. Woods of the Vendee in SW give protection. Rainfall is particularly
low here. Only 500mm per year.

Grolleau vine and the wine made of it sickly Rose d’Anjou are in retreat, although quality has
improved. Much more refined is Cabernet d’Anjou – made from CS or, more likely, CF. it cab be quite
sweet but usually has very high acidity, which can preserve it for decades.

CF is about a third of vines here, encouraged by the 1987 Anjou-Villages appellation for red wine.
Best area for such reds is immediately S of Angers, in the Coteaux de l’Aubance – given its own
appellation Anjou-Villages Brissac in 1998. Lighter reds are made as Anjou Gamay. Anjou-Rouge is
the catch-all appellation for lighter, often crisp red wines, although some are excessively tannic
when makers draw off too much juice and fruit to make roses.

In dry whites, Anjou Blanc is most common, best from the schist and carboniferous rock close to
river. Must contain min. 80% Chenin Blanc, but Chardonnay and SB are allowed in the blend.

Tiny amounts of sweet white Anjou-Coteaux de la Loire are made. Solely from chenin.

Since 1990s significant development is the emergence of new, high quality style of dry chenin, often
using prime Layon sites to produce healthy golden chenin picked by hand and in successive passages
at full maturity before being fermented and matured in 400l double barriques with partial MLF.
Certain areas have made such great wines they have earned own appellation – Coteaux de
l’Aubance, Bonnezeaux, Coteaux du Layon, Quarts De Chaume – all these for sweet wines, and for
dry wines – Savennieres.

APREMONT – named CRU just south of Chambéry whose name may be added to Vin de Savoie
appel. This is the largest cru in Savoie and its wines are typically light, dry whites from the local
Jacquère grape.

ARBIN – Cru on the steep, warm, south-facing slopes east of Chambéry whose name can be added to
Vin de Savoie appel. Use of this cru is restricted to the local Mondeuse grape, some of the region’s
most concentrated reds.

ARBOIS – most important appel in the Jura region in eastern Fra and named after the region’s main
wine town. About half of wine is red. Light-colored Poulsard grape is a specialty of the
subappellation Arbois-Pupillin, where it’s named Ploussard, and well structured wines are made
from Trousseau in the warmer sites of Montigny-les-Arsures. White wines are often chardonnay in
Burgundian onoxidised style. The old synonym ‘Naturé’ is sometimes used for the local Savagnin,
especially for fresh, lemony or so-called ‘floral’ whites, distinguishing them from the more oxidative
styles. The oxidative styles may be a blend of Savagnin with Chardonnay, or just Savagnin, and they
culminate in the nutty and long-lived Vin Jaune. (a bottle was sold for 57000 eur).

Vin de Paille is made under the Arbois appel, and traditional method sparkling is sold as Cremant du
Jura.

ARDÈCHE – region of FRA on the right bank of the Rhone between the main concentration of
vineyards constituting northern and southern Rhone Valley, and now the name of an IGP for a wide
range of generally varietal wines. Reds are generally light. Chardonnay and also viognier have been
successful here.
AUBANCE, COTEAUX DE l’ – Coteaux de l’Aubance. – smallbut sometimes excellent sweet white wine
appellation in Anjou left bank of river loire just south of Angers town, and immediately north of
Coteaux du Layon. Aubance is a tributary to Loire river. Best wines are from chenin blanc. Series of
picking passes to get the ripest grapes. The wines may be botrytised, depending on vintage, and be
designated SGN on the label, or be partly raisined on the vine.

AUSONE, CHATEAU (Chateau Ausonne) – miniscule but exceptionally fine estate on the edge of St-
Emillion town. Ranked A in 1955 St-Emillion classification, together with Chateau Cheval-Blanc (the
only two). 45% of vine is merlot, 55% cab franc. Steep slopes along right bank of Dordogne.

AUVERGNE, COTES d’ AOC – Cotes d’Avergne AOC – considered administratively part of greater
Loire, but closer to Northern Rhone then to Loire. Mainly Gamay, some PN and some Chard. Most
wines consumend locally. None expensive.

AUXEY-DURESSES – village in Burgundy neighboring Volnay and Meursault producing similar reds
and whites, but more austere. Cooler winds here. Some premier crus here. Some vines are atypically
for Burgundy trained high.

BARSAC – important sweet white wine appel. In Bordeaux, left bank of Garonne. All Barsac wines
can use Sauternes appel (not vice versa). Tradition has it that barsac wines are lighter than
sauternes, perhaps due to soils having more sand and limestone and the land being faltter here.
Some of best Barsac are Chateaux Climens, Coutet and Doisy-Daëne.

BEAUJOLAIS – wine region in east central Fra. Unique fruity wine, often relatively light but
increasingly made with more concentrated ;burgundian’ style. For administrative purposes, B is
often included as a part of greater Burgundy, but it is quite different in terms of climate, topography,
soil types, and even grape variety distribution. Some years B produces more than the rest of
Burgundy combinesd. Almost all of it is Gamay Noir à Jus Blanc. Early-drinking B at its best is the
world’s best effort to put red refreshment into a bottle. It is flirtatious, with juicy aroma. In 70s and
80s the region depended on B Nouveau. The demand for it peaked in 1992, when nearly half of all
wine was BN. Late 90s and early 2000s a large drop in demand. 21st century sees revival attempts –
and much of wine is vinified traditionally rather than carbonic maceration, leading to denser wines.
Burgundynians call B les vins du Rhone – not because they are from rhone, but because the B hills fall
within the Rhone department surrounding Lyon.

Long history, romans, then Benedictine monks. Name comes from Beaujeu city founded in 10th
century. The region achieved identity when Philip the Bold issued edict banning Gamay from
Burgundy proper. Gamay indeed performs better on the granite hillsides of B rather than limestone
escarpment of Cote d’Or.

Geography and climate – climate is temperate and semi-continental. Summers are sufficiently hot,
and there may be snow in winter. Northern, narrower part has varied topography – gentle rolling
hills based on granite and schist with some limestone, and south is flatter, with much richer soils,
often with some clay, making much lighter wines for earlier consumption on the plains stretching
towards Lyons. Due t the hills in the north, apparently paradoxically, picking begins with the better
quality wines (normally the other way).

Appellations – half is sold under generic ‘B’ appel, coming from Bas Beaujolais and flatter land w of
the main n-s autoroute. Second most important appel is B-Villages – must come from the hilier N
part, foothills pushing into the Massif Central. If coming from a single commune or village, it can
append its name to B-Villages. In the finest parts of the N part, there are ten CRUs that produce
wines so good and distinct that the y have earned their own appels. The word Beaujolais is rarely
mentioned on the labels of these. N to S – St-Amour, Julienas, Chenas, Moulin-a-Vnet, Fleurie,
Chiroubles, Morgon, Regnie, Brouilly and Cote de Brouilly.

Small amount of B Blanc and B-Villages Blanc is made each year, mainly from Chardonnay. These
neighbour Macon and taste the same. B Rose is also made in small amounts.

USA

CALIFORNIA

ALEXANDER VALLEY – northern Sonoma.

ARGENTINA

ARGENTINA – most important wine producing country in south America. Since 90s one of most
dynamic wine producers in the world. One of six biggest producers in the world. Almost a quarter is
exported. Shift from quantity to quality in the new century/millennium. By 2012 66% of sites were
planted with high quality wine grapes. Rest are low quality table grape varieties. Research,
innovation, technology cause movement from rustic ferment to world-class quality.

Imported by Spanish colonizers. Jesuit missionaries found the best conditions for growing. Malbec
was imported in the 18th century from France.

Climate

Regions are widely dispersed, but almost all are on the western strip of the country bordering andes
foothills, where the climate is continental, with 4 clearly defined seasons. 23-42 degrees latitude.
Apart fron Rio Negro and Neunquen in the south, the climate is semi-desert, with annual rainfall
rarely more than 250mm. some have temperate to warm summers, others hot (up to 40 degrees).
Heavy winter snows are important, refilling sources of pure mountain water for the irrigation
systems. Piedra, summer hail is the main risk. 6% of sites are netted. It is also customary in Mendoza
to own vineyards in different spots. Therefore, varietal blends of wines are common, despite single-
vineyard and terroir-driven wines are on the rise.

Zonda wind – hot, dry, very strong westerly wind that may affect flowering in late spring/early
summer. Air is dry and so the risk of disease is low. Spraying is less needed. Organic viticulture is
thus relatively easy. Full ripeness is easily achieved, and Chaptalisation is not allowed.

Regions

Provinces are divided into departments, which are subdivided into districts, and then into single
vineyards.

MENDOZA – far west. Only a mountain range away from Santiago Chile. By far the biggest
and most important wine-growing province. Over 70% of ARG wine production. Mount Aconcagua
6960m highest in Americas dominates.

Pink skinned Criolla Grande and Cereza (and others) = a fifth of plantings, used for inexpensive
wines. Red wine more than 50% of plantings. Malbec most, Bonarda second. CS also significant, and
is blended with malbec in many great blends. Then it’s syrah, tempranillo, merlot, sangiovese and PN
– demonstrating a mix of cultures of france, Italy and spain thath characterize argentina.
Pedro Gimenez is most planted white, but focus is on chardonnay. Torrontes Riojano, chenin blanc,
SB are also important. Semillon, traditionally mendoza’s white grape, is now making a comeback.
Over 150 grape varieties a re planted in Mendoza.

Most important areas for wine are

- North Oasis and the East Oasis – these are low elevation warm weather areas, specialising in
large volumes and entry-level wines, though some high quality ones are made, too, mostly
with Tempranillo and bonarda.
o The main departments are Lavalle, Las Heras, Santa Rosa, La Paz, San Martin and
Rivadavia.
- Lujan de Cuyo – upper Mendoza Valley, elev. 800-1100 m. together with Maipu department
they form what the locals call Primera Zona – the first zone. Lujan de Cuyo is the most
traditional high-quality region. Here the first controlled appel for Malbec was created in
1993. Here the most renowned wineries of Mendoza are located.
o The main districts are Las Compuertas, Vistalba (these two are the highest), Agrelo,
Perdriel, Ugarteche, Chacras de Coria, and Mayor Drummond.
o The department of Maipu – east of Lujan. Slightly warmer due lower elev.
 The districts here are Cruz de Piedra, Barrancas, Russell, Coquimbito,
Lunlunta, Fray Luis Beltran, and Maipu (as in Lujan, there is a department
and a district within it with the same name).
- Departments of San Rafael and General Alvear – southernmost wine region in Mendoza.
Lower elevation but higher latitude. Focus on classic varietals. Not so reputable, but can
make some high quality wines.
- Valle de Uco (Uco Valley) – the rising star of Arg. Most fashionable region. 1000-1600m.
cooler weather, very poor soils, good drainage, and continuous breeze – healthy vines with
low yields. Full bodied wines with high natural acidity. Malbec, chardonnay, and CS reach
new heights here.
o Departments of Tupungato, Tunuyan, San Carlos.

SAN JUAN – second biggest wine region. Capital is 150 km N of Mendoza. Lower elevations
and latitude mean much hotter climate, 42 in summer common. Rainfall only 150mm annually.
Temp variation lower. For a long time home of high-yielding pink varieties, especially Cereza = table
wines or raisins. Better quality wine production started in the 90s. Bonarda and Syrah have become
emblematic, planted 50% more than malbec here. Good value basic reds are made with these two.
San Juan also makes decent Sherry style wines, interesting Viognier, Chardonnay and Pgris in whites,
and Petit Verdot and Tannat in reds. It laso provides the base for ARG brandy and vermouths. The
vast majority of wine comes from the Tulum Valley at 650m elevation. Better quality is found further
west at higher elevations, where Ullum-Zonda Valley produces good Reserva-level wines, at 850m.
even higher, Pedernal (1100m) and Calingasta (1500m) valleys in SW are starting to make world class
wines and have the potential to take San Juan to the next level.

LA RIOJA – historically the oldest wine producing province. Little known abroad, partly
because almost entire production is crushed by one giant Co-operativa La Riojana. They make
Torrontes in several styles, inlcluding dry aromatic style, late harvest, and even refreshing sparkling
style. New small-scale producers are now emerging, producing more interesting wines, increasing
interest in the region. The irrigation water here can be sparse.

SALTA, JUJY, TUCUMAN, and CATAMARCA – far northern provinces. Catamarca is now 4th
largest are under vine after Mendoza, San Juan and La Rioja. Viticulture is still rustic here, and lacks
identity. Jujuy and Tucuman are starting to make some interesting wines, but on very small scale.
Salta is most significant here, and widely recognized. It has some of world’s highest vineyards near
the town of Payogasta. 3111m is Donald Hess’s Colome Altura Maxima vineyard.

Calchaqui valley runs through these provinces and has 300 days of sun per year. Also exposure to
wind and ultraviolet radiation. Lower vineyards in Salta are at 1650m – so the vine protects itself by
lowering yield and making thick skins, which produce concentrated, full-bodied wines that are also
extrememly fragrant. Merlot, CS, Bonarda, Syrah and particularly Tannat show promise here.
Torrontes Riojano is at home around Cafayate, making extra aromatic full bodied dryish wine. Sites
are 24-26 latitude. Good acidity and sugar at harvest. World class tourism experience here.

RIO NEGRO, NEUQUEN, CHUBUT – southern area of Patagonia. Much cooler. Neuquen is the
result of 21st century central planning. Cooler climate, heavier soils, and long warm ripening season
under clear skies = ideal for good quality white wine – Torrontes, Semillon and a decent Riesling
recently. Also a fragrant less concentrated Malbec, and great PN, Merlot and CF. Rio Negro has a
valley running west with a green canyon with arid desert on both sides. Humidity and rainfall are
higher than north. Sassicaia owners bought and established projects here. Farmed biodynamically.

Neuquen has no traditon of winemaking, Government, seeing the province running out of
non-renewabl;e resources, constructed a channel that can irrigate large areas of land. Vineyards
have been planted. State-of-the-art wineries. SB, Chardonnay, PN and Malbec are made.

BUENOS AIRES, LA PAMPA, CORDOBA – the winemap of ARG is redrawn almost daily.
Cordoba has history of making wines and now shifted towards high quality. Buenos Aires has some
area on slopes in maritime climate rather than continental.

Wine Varieties

RED MALBEC – 16% of all plantings. Deep colored, robust, fruity wines with weight, alcohol,
structure enough to benefit from oak ageing. Each wine region different expression.

CS is popular and increased enormously. Better and better. Often blended with Malbec in
most celebrated wines of the country.

BONARDA – 2nd most planted red.

SYRAH shot up dramatically. It performs best in hot San Juan province.

Italian and Spanish grapes were brought, but the French CF, Petit Verdot, and Tannat are
currently making waves. Also PN, in Patagonia and Ico Valley.

PEDRO GIMENEZ is most planted white, maily in Mendoza and San Juan, used mostly for
basic blends. Also used for grape concentrate, exported most to Japan.

TORRONTES RIOJANO – 2nd most planted white. Then Chardonnay. Also Moscatel de
Alejandria, Chenin Blanc, SB, Torrontes Sanjuanino, Ugni Blanc, Viognier, Semillon, Pgris, Riesling and
others. Torrontes Riojano is most distinctive white in the country, capable of making light wine with
a strong floral, muscat aroma. Salta the original province, but now also Mendoza. Chardonnay suits
some parts of ARG very well and even own so called Mendoza clone was developed in California and
is widely planted in AUS and elsewhere.

PINKS – grapes that at full ripeness have skins distinctly pink. More than 25% of all vines in
ARG. CRIOLLA GRANDE, CRIOLLA CHICA and CEREZA are the oldest varieties. Extremely productive
varieties – one bunch can weight 4kg! planted in hotter, flatter, most heavily irrigated vineyards.
Moscatel Rosada is another pink – very deeply colored white wine, often quite sweet, sold at bottom
end of the market as everyday wine.

Viticulture

Warm, dry summers, clear skies, poor alluvial soils, pure water for irrigation = promising
combination. Viticulture has improved – better irrigation, canopy management, timing of harvest,
technology, microclimate studies etc.

Most vines are ungrafted. Biotype of phylloxera here is mild, perhaps due to high sand content in the
soil. Some varieties vulnerable to nematodes are grafted. Irrigation is a necessity due to very low
rain. Traditionally – flood irrigation through canals and ditches. ARG water distribution some of best
in the world, despite originating in 16th century. More recently boreholes have been made for the
waters flowing from permanently snow covered peaks – taking water between 60-300m below
surface. They are used with drip irrigation – more efficient, and now about 20% of sites. The areas
under vine resemble oases in scorched desert with majestic Andes in the background. Most soils are
alluvial origin, quite poor and mostly made of sand and stones. Loose sandy texture with gravel,
limestone and clay dominate. Uco valley has some calcerous soils.

Immigrants in early 20th century brough the espaldera training system – low training along three
wires. But the need for greater volume led most to use the productive parral cuyano trellis in 50s
and 60s. but classic system is now returning to facilitate canopy management and drip irrigation.
Cereza and Criolla Grande are still likely to be parral trained. 2013 – about 50% parral, the rest high
or low espaldera VSP system.

Budbreak to harvest is about 5 months. Long ripening season = full maturity. Harvest usually begins
mid Feb. extends till late april. The dates are prescribed by authority. Special permits are needed to
go outside these dates, mostly for late harvest wines. Mechanical harvesters are now more common
since the rise in cost of living – cheap labour not so available.

Winemaking

Quality is now important due to strong export-drive. Foreign consultants and abroad-trained
experts. Locals and foreigners cooperate on all levels. Before competition and secrecy – now makers
taste each others’ wines and share information.

Labelling

Varietal wine min 85% of variety. Any mentioned variety on label min 20% of the blend. Reserva min
ageing 6 moths for whites and roses, 12 months reds, and Gran Reserva double that.

In EUR markets, as a result of 2010 negotiations, wines are classified as either IP – indicacion de
procedencia for table and regional wines, IG – indicacion geografica for specific region with certain
quality standards minima, and DOC denominacion de origen controlado for high quality wines with
restrictions to alc, winemaking, yields, ageing and others. So far 2 DOCs only – Lujan de Cuyo and
San Rafael, and about 90 IGs. Only a handful of producers use DOC so far.

Wine trade organization

Foreign consultants and flying winemakers are a big factor in the improvement. Some ARG
winemakers work in the northern hem during harvest, thus experiencing two vintages a year.

Argentine Viticultural Corporation connects public and private sector very well and all interested
parties are involved in it.
Lots of foreigh owners and investors.

ARMENIA – small, maountaneous. One of oldest viticultural regions. Elevation compensates for
latitude. Only 10-15% of grapes used for wine. Ancient Armenia was much larger. Vine was
indigenous to the valleys where it had good conditions. Over a million years ago vitis there. Earliest
winery in the world found here – 3500-3000bc.

400-1700m elevation range in wine production. Climate is dry continental, to dry subtropical.
Summers are so dry 85% sites need irrigation. 85% also need winter protection. Frost risk is high at
the beginning and end of growing season. Only 10% are grafted vines.

More than 400 varieties, in 5 zones. Russia is main export market. Slowly starting to export to China,
US, France.

Areni grapes make the most sought-after wine.

ASIA – 90s believed Asia will never play a role. But due to economic boom wine has become a status
symbol there. Started with driving prices up at auctions due to interest from Singapore, Hong Kong,
Taiwan.

AZERBAIJAN – now produces only a fraction of wine that it used to before communism fall. 7000BC
wine presence.