Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68

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Sustainable Cities and Society

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Monitoring building energy consumption, thermal performance, and

indoor air quality in a cold climate region
Tanzia Sharmin a , Mustafa Gül a,∗ , Xinming Li a , Veselin Ganev b , Ioanis Nikolaidis b ,
Mohamed Al-Hussein a
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, 9105 116th Street, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
b
Department of Computing Science, 2-21 Athabasca Hall, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Buildings are major consumers of the world’s energy. Optimizing energy consumption of buildings during
Sensor-based monitoring system operation can significantly reduce their impact on the global environment. Monitoring the energy usage
Energy usage and performance is expected to aid in reducing the energy consumption of occupants. In this regard,
Building envelope thermal performance
this paper describes a framework for sensor-based monitoring of energy performance of buildings under
Indoor air quality
occupancy. Different types of sensors are installed at different locations in 12 apartment units in a building
Building management system
in Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada to assess occupant energy usage, thermal performance of the building
envelope, and indoor air quality (IAQ). The relationship between heating energy consumption and the
thermal performance of building envelope and occupant comfort level is investigated by analyzing the
monitoring data. The results show that the extent of heat loss, occupant comfort level, and appliance
usage patterns have significant impacts on heating energy and electricity consumption. This study also
identifies the factors influencing the poor IAQ observed in some case-study units. In the long term, it is
expected that the extracted information acquired from the monitoring system can be used to support
intelligent decisions to save energy, and can be implemented by the building management system to
achieve financial, environmental, and health benefits.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction which can possibly mitigate 12.6 Gt (gigatonnes) of CO2 emissions

The building sector accounts for about 30% of total green-
house gas (GHG) emissions in Canada (NRC, 2006). Furthermore,
the construction and operation of buildings are responsible for
over a third of the world’s energy consumption (Straube, 2006).
Data shows that energy consumption and GHG emissions in build-
ing sector are growing at an advanced rate than in other sectors
(Akashi & Hanaoka, 2012). As a result, reducing energy consump-
tion has become essential to planning, construction, and use of
buildings from the environmental point of view (Stoy, Pollalis, &
Fiala, 2009). This also entails that the building sector has con-
siderable potential for energy and energy-related CO2 emissions
savings (Gökçe & Gökçe, 2013). According to the International
Energy Agency, the building sector can reduce energy consump-
tion with an estimated energy savings of 1509 Mtoe (million tonnes
of oil equivalent) by 2050. Furthermore, through energy-efficient
building design, carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions can be reduced,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 780 492 3002.
E-mail address: mustafa.gul@ualberta.ca (M. Gül).
by 2050 (International Energy Agency, 2010).
Energy consumption by built environments can be reduced
through new designs, technologies, and materials; proper control;
and the use of effective energy management systems by consider-
ing factors such as building orientation, shape, wall–window ratio,
insulation, use of high-efficiency windows, and natural ventila-
tion (Dawood, Crosbie, Dawood, & Lord, 2013). However, electrical
loads, especially miscellaneous electrical loads (involving a range
of products, devices, and electrical equipment in some combina-
tion, common in every household) consume a significant portion
of total building energy (Hendron & Eastment, 2006). In Canada,
the residential building sector consumes approximately 16% of
total secondary energy usage (NRC, 2006). According to Statistics
Canada, in 2007 the average Canadian household consumed 106 GJ
(gigajoules) of energy, with the national total reaching 1,368,955 TJ
(terajoules) (Statistics Canada, 2007). A substantial share of total
energy consumption is due to improper use of appliances, and elim-
inating this wastage can reduce the overall energy consumption
by approximately 30% in buildings (US DOE Energy Information
Administration, 2003). Today it is important to focus on greater
energy efficiency to reduce our impact on the environment by

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2014.04.009
2210-6707/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
58 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68
reducing fossil fuel consumption (Gua, Sun, & Wennersten, 2013;
Sharmin, Li, Gökçe, Gül, & Al-Hussein, 2012).
Built environments also have a significant impact on human
health. The extent of a building’s impact on human health and
the environment depends on the building design, materials, and
the methods used for construction and operation (Vittori, 2002).
According to the Science Advisory Board of the United States Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA), indoor environment stands
among the top five environmental risks to public health. In Canada,
people spend an average of 89% of their time indoors and 66% of
their time indoors at home (Leech, Wilby, McMullen, & Laporte,
1996), and there is a possibility that people with weak immune
systems may suffer from asthmatic symptoms or other respiratory
health problems as a result of exposure to poor indoor air quality
(Vittori, 2002). Considering the fact that human health is affected by
poor indoor air quality (IAQ), it is important to maintain a healthy
IAQ in the interest of occupant health. Continuous monitoring of
indoor environmental quality (IEQ) can thus play a significant role
in maintaining healthy indoor environments.
A significant aspect of assessing the sustainability of a building
is the monitoring of energy performance (Berardi, 2012). Recent
innovations in sensing, data logging, and computing technologies
have improved monitoring of indoor environment and energy per-
formance of buildings. “Real-time” energy performance and IEQ
monitoring are significant from the perspective of real-time feed-
back to promote energy-saving behavior, and also for maintaining
healthy IAQ. Proper targeting and monitoring of energy consump-
tion and continuous energy management can be effective strategies
for improved energy performance of buildings, and can result in
reductions in operating costs of facilities (Lee & Augenbroe, 2007;
Sapri & Muhammad, 2010). Research studies examining the effect
of energy feedback information on occupant behavior have shown
that real-time feedback can be a powerful impetus for behavioral
change. McClelland and Cook (1980) first tested the impact of con-
tinuous energy feedback on electricity usage. The results showed
that on average electricity usage was lowered by 12% in the homes
with continuous electricity usage feedback compared to the homes
with no usage feedback system (as cited in Allen & Janda, 2006).
In another study, a technical research university has monitored
energy usage to reduce energy costs through an energy awareness
program that offered departments a chance to receive payments
of up to 30% of the savings achieved. The departments had accom-
plished energy savings (saving about $300,000 per year) after one
and half years of monitoring through improved operations and
maintenance procedures and reduced their usage from about 44
million kWh to 40 million kWh (Energy Star, 2002). Hutton, Mauser,
Filiatrault, and Antola (1986) have shown how the feedback pro-
vided by monitoring helped to conserve energy for over 75% of the
subjects in 25 households in three cities. In a case regarding water
usage, the city of Boston, MA, USA was unable to account for the use
of 50% of the water used in its municipal water system and, after
installing meters, water that was unaccounted for had dropped to
36% (Grisham & Fleming, 1989). Another study has shown that an
effective energy management system can identify problems in an
operating system which might not otherwise have been identified
(Mills & Mathew, 2009). Yang and Wang (2013) has shown that
energy management systems can also provide comfortable building
environments with high energy efficiency.
Literature reviews from the last ten years show that usage of
energy can be reduced from 0% to 20% by using a variety of feed-
back mechanisms (Abrahamse, Steg, Vlek, & Rothengatter, 2005).
However, despite the fact that providing appropriate feedback can
significantly reduce the overall energy consumption, relying only
on occupants’ awareness and behavioral change might not be an
effective approach. In a recent study, wireless AC plug-load meters
and light sensors were deployed in a computer science laboratory
as a case study in energy monitoring. The study reported that
more than 30% energy savings were achieved immediately after
installing a monitoring system, but that the savings were subse-
quently reduced to less than 4% of the week one level by the fourth
week of the study. It light of this case, it might be considered that
an effective solution for reducing energy consumption could be an
automated energy management system, in addition to user coop-
eration (Jiang, Van Ly, Taneja, Dutta, & Culler, 2009).
Major progress has been made in recent years in accomplish-
ing greater awareness (Jiang et al., 2009), showing that advanced
measurement of energy usage enables reduction of energy con-
sumption. While the approach of monitoring energy usage is useful
to achieve financial benefits, a holistic monitoring of the perfor-
mance of the building system can also be used to identify the
factors influencing irregular energy usage or non-standard IEQ. Any
information pertaining to irregularity of building system perfor-
mance can contribute to building management systems intended to
support operational improvement, and can also provide the infor-
mation needed to encourage behavioral and operational changes
by building occupants and operators. Monitoring is essential to
achieving an energy-efficient building management system, but
sensor-based monitoring is sometimes costly. In recent years more
cost-effective high performance sensor technologies have been
introduced, such that the benefits of utilizing this technology
outweigh the associated costs. Continuous collection of the indi-
vidualized energy use information would translate into increased
energy use awareness, identification of problems in the building
management system, and notification of irregular energy usage and
non-standard indoor environmental parameters, all of which can
lead to more sustainable building operations. However, it remains
an open question whether the apparent additional understanding
would be enough to justify the cost of installation, maintenance,
and calibration of sensors. This paper thus offers a methodological
approach by which to extract useful information by establishing
relationships and studying patterns across different components
of a building management system, facilitated by the installation of
various sensors in a case study, the “Stony Mountain Plaza” project
in Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada.
1.1. Objective and scope
The objective of the sensor-based monitoring system adopted
in this research is to provide relevant information regarding effec-
tive management of building systems in cold-climate regions. The
implemented monitoring system can be used for increasing energy
performance and occupant comfort while reducing energy and
water consumption. In this study, the ASHRAE standard specifying
environmental parameter ranges (indoor air temperature, RH, CO2
level) has been used to define occupant comfort. A holistic exam-
ination of the performance of the building system (energy usage,
thermal performance, and IEQ) helps to determine whether or not
the system is working efficiently by identifying correlations across
different monitoring components. A more advanced understand-
ing of the recorded data is expected to result in changes in building
operations through the use of intelligent controls that automati-
cally adjust to environmental requirements. It is expected that the
extracted information and strategies acquired from the monitor-
ing system can be implemented within the building management
system to achieve financial, environmental, and health benefits.
2. Methodological approach
In order to conduct a holistic examination of the performance of
the building system under consideration, operating energy usage
(e.g., electrical energy usage, space heating energy usage, and
 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68
Fig. 1. Objective and methodological approach.
household water usage); thermal performance of the building;
and IAQ under occupancy are monitored. Twelve sample units are
chosen in the building to be monitored for energy performance.
Different types of sensors are installed in these individual units
in order to monitor different components. Finally, recorded data
are analyzed in order to extract useful information. Fig. 1 shows
the objective and the monitored components for building energy
performance under occupancy.
2.1. Sample case-study unit
Two four-storey residential buildings have been constructed
as part of the “Stony Mountain Plaza” project in Fort McMurray,
Alberta, Canada. Both buildings are oriented with their longer axis
facing north and south. Building 1 has 70 units while building 2 has
55 units. There are two types of units in building 1: one-bedroom
and two-bedroom units. For monitoring building energy perfor-
mance, three case-study units in each floor of building 1 with the
same relative floor plan position are selected: (1) Type ‘A’ unit
(one-bedroom) facing north, (2) Type ‘A’ unit (one-bedroom) facing
south, and (3) Type ‘B’ unit (two-bedroom) facing south. The sam-
ple households are assigned code numbers 1–12, and the specific
locations of the units in their floors are not revealed for the sake of
privacy. Fig. 2 displays the 12 case-study units.
2.2. Types and locations of installed sensors
Different types of sensors are used for different types of required
information in this assessment of building energy performance
under occupancy. For electrical energy usage, Brultech ECM-1240
power meters are used. Each apartment receives power from two
phases (phases A and B). Two power meters, one for each phase,
recording the total energy for each load (in Ws) are therefore
Fig. 2. Case-study building and selection of case-study units.
59
installed in each case-study unit. One Kamstrup MULTICAL 601
heating meter is used for monitoring the energy from the water
circulation heating system. Three sensors are also used for this
purpose: one flow meter and two temperature probes (for supply
temperature, Ts , and return temperature, Tr ). The heating meter
records the total volume (L), total mass (g), current flow (L/s), cur-
rent Ts and Tr (◦ C), and total energy (Wh). The energy consumed by
the water circulation heating system can be calculated satisfying
Eq. (1).
E = V (Ts − Tr )k (1)
where V: volume; Ts : supply temperature; Tr : return temperature;
k: thermal coefficient.
For monitoring household water usage, Minomess 130 water
meters are used. There are two water meters in each apartment,
one monitoring total incoming water and one monitoring output
(cumulative hot water usage in the apartment) of the hot water
tank. Two heat flux sensors (HFT3 Soil Heat Flux Plate) are used
for monitoring thermal performance of the building envelope: one
measuring the heat flux (W/m2 ) through the studs and the other
measuring the heat flux through the insulation. The sensor used
for IAQ measurement is the IAQ Point air monitoring device man-
ufactured by Honeywell Analytics. This device records real-time
values of CO2 (ppm), RH (%), and temperature (◦ C) (Sharmin et al.,
2012). The locations of the sensors for one-bedroom units and two-
bedroom units are as shown in Fig. 3.
2.3. Development of system architecture
The power consumption meters (Brultech ECM-1240) commu-
nicate using ZigBee with four EtherBee gateways (one on each
floor), which are connected by a CAT5 Ethernet cable to a single-
board computer through a 5-port switch. The energy meter and the
60 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68

Fig. 3. Location of sensors in case-study units.

IAQ sensor use the LonTalk protocol to communicate with an iLON
smart server, which is also connected to the single-board computer
where the data are being encrypted and transmitted to a database
server through a secured connection over the Internet. The heat
flux sensors are connected to the CR1000 data logger (Campbell
Scientific, Inc.) through a Solid State Multiplexer (Campbell Scien-
tific, Inc.), which makes it possible to connect all 24 of the heat flux
sensors to a single data logger. The data logger converts the ana-
log signal from the heat flux sensors into digital values and sends
these values to the SBC through an Ethernet interface (Sharmin
et al., 2012). Fig. 4 provides a flowchart of the data collection system
adopted in this project.
3. Data analysis
This section discusses findings based on the collected data to
assess building energy performance under occupancy. The data sets
used for the analysis presented in this paper have been collected
during regular operation of the building.

Fig. 4. System architecture for data collection.

 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68
Fig. 5. Data analysis framework for electrical energy consumption.
3.1. Measurement of electrical energy usage
According to Statistics Canada (2007), Alberta’s average per
household use of electricity in 2007 was the lowest among all
provinces (26 GJ). A possible reason for this low electricity con-
sumption might be the comparably high rate of natural gas
consumption in Alberta due to the low price of natural gas. In this
paper, 26 GJ is set as the annual per household usage threshold.
We consider the electricity consumption for individual appliances
and the total electricity consumption for the case-study units.
By measuring the electricity consumption of occupants, building
management can pursue appropriate measures (i.e., setting an opti-
mum usage limit) if the electricity usage continuously exceeds the
threshold of electricity usage established.
Fig. 5 shows the data analysis framework for electrical energy
consumption, while Fig. 6 shows the total electricity consump-
tion by case-study unit (except unit 8, because of missing data).
It is observed in Fig. 6 that the electricity consumption by units 7
(Type A) and 9 (Type A) in 2012 exceeds the 26 GJ threshold. Even
though units 7 and 9 are type A (one-bedroom) units, the electric-
ity consumption of these units is higher than the other case-study
units.
The data analysis framework (Fig. 5) adopted in this study identi-
fies factors that influence higher electricity consumption by a given
unit by comparing the electricity consumption of different appli-
ances of the selected unit with the average electricity consumption
of individual appliances of all the case-study units. Fig. 7 presents
the influencing factors for higher electricity consumption of 3 case-
study units (units 7, 9 and 10). These three units are chosen as
examples since two of them (units 7 and 9) exceed the 26-GJ thresh-
old and the other unit (unit 10) has comparatively higher electricity
Fig. 6. Electricity consumption for case-study units.
61
usage but appears to be influenced by different factors than units 7
and 9. Our data analysis shows that the primary factors influencing
the higher electricity consumption in unit 7 are the bedroom appli-
ances, electrical duct heating, kitchen plug, and kitchen-bathroom
lighting, since electricity consumption by these appliances in unit
7 is much higher than the average of the 11 case-study units for
these appliances. A possible reason for higher electricity consump-
tion in the bedroom of unit 7 may be the use of electrical heating
radiators by occupants. On the other hand, bedroom appliances and
oven usage for unit 9 and hot water tank and refrigerator usage for
unit 10 are identified as the primary influencing factors accounting
for the higher electricity consumption of the respective units.
It is worth noting that household energy use can vary based on
a number of factors, including the number of occupants, lifestyle,
and usage of different appliances. With the continuous monitor-
ing of electrical energy consumption, it is possible to identify the
influencing factors of higher electricity consumption of occupants
and to set an optimum value for electrical energy usage accord-
ingly. Based on the monitoring of electricity usage carried out in
this study, building management can set an appropriate optimum
range of yearly energy usage by occupants.
3.2. Measuring thermal performance of building envelope and
space heating energy usage
For this research, the heat flux—the rate of heat energy
transfer—through studs and insulation is also monitored. Since
studs (working as thermal bridges between outdoor and indoor
environments) lose more heat than does insulation, this research
measures heat flux through studs and insulation separately. In
order to assess the impact of orientation on heat flux for the case-
study units, annual average heat flux through studs and annual
average heat flux through insulation are compared for north-facing
and south-facing units. At each floor level, one north-facing unit and
one south-facing type A (one-bedroom) unit are selected in order
to compare heat flux. As expected, the collected data in Fig. 8 shows
that north-facing units have greater heat loss than south-facing
units when considering the 2nd and 3rd floor. However, contrary to
expectations, at the ground (stud) and top floor, south-facing units
have greater heat loss than north-facing units. The recorded data
in Fig. 8 gives an inconclusive result. In order to identify long-term
patterns (if any) of heat flux for different orientations, it is impor-
tant to monitor the data for a few years. If patterns of heat flux for
different floor levels (variations with respect to height) or differ-
ent orientations are identified, measures (i.e., increased insulation)
62 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68

Fig. 7. Electricity consumption of individual appliances by units 7, 9 and 10.

Fig. 8. Heat flux for different orientations and floor levels in 2012.

can be taken to reduce heat flux for the units with higher rates.
Increasing the thermal performance of the building envelope also
provides an opportunity to reduce significantly the heating loss of
a building, but this is beyond the scope of this study.
Fig. 9 shows the data analysis framework adopted in this study
for heating energy consumption. The framework examines the
impact of heat flux and outdoor temperature on heating energy
consumption. The indoor air temperature maintained in the unit
is also compared with the standard indoor temperature range in
order to gain understanding of the relationship between occupant
comfort level and heating energy consumption.
As expected, the recorded data (Fig. 10) shows that apart-
ments consume more heating energy as the outside temperature
decreases. Fig. 10 also shows the relationship between heat flux
and heating energy consumption such that units with higher heat
flux in general have higher heating energy consumption, with some
exceptions, e.g., unit 12 in October and unit 7 in January; (in these
exceptions, even though heat loss was high, heating energy con-
sumption was comparatively low). In general, variations in the
occupancy, such as vacations and other absences, can directly
impact the energy consumption, and the absence of residents ren-
ders the heat comfort level of individuals irrelevant with respect to
its impact on energy consumption over these periods of absence.
Another exception is with respect to unit 7 in November and
December. Data shows that even though heat flux was lower in
unit 7, heating energy consumption was higher (compared to unit
12) in November and December. There is a possibility that occupant
comfort level with a higher temperature range may have resulted in
higher heating consumption in unit 7. Recorded data indicates that
the indoor air temperature in unit 7 has always been maintained
at a higher level (sometimes exceeding the standard temperature
range) compared to unit 12, indicating that occupant preference
for a higher temperature range may be the reason for higher heat-
ing consumption during October-December in unit 7, even though
heat loss was less than for unit 12. It should be noted that occupant
lifestyle and comfort level may affect the heating energy consump-
tion significantly. In order to manage heating energy effectively,
it is necessary to monitor and analyze the heating energy usage
 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68 63

Fig. 9. Data analysis framework for heating energy consumption.

Fig. 10. Heat flux and heating energy consumption in north- (unit 7) and south-facing (unit 12) units.

regularly and to set realistic targets for improving energy effi- project energy is drawn from used hot water through drain water
ciency. heat recovery (DWHR), there is a possibility that this gray water
could be used for toilet flushing. It should be noted that the use of
3.3. Measurement of household water usage gray water in the case-study units is beyond the scope of this study.

Household water usage is also being monitored as part of this
study. According to Environment Canada, in 2009 average resi-
dential water use was 72.38 gallons per capita per day, which
corresponds to 26,420 gallons per capita per year (Municipal Water
Use Report, 2011). Fig. 11 shows the water consumption by case-
study unit in 2012. The results indicate that even though unit
9 is a one-bedroom unit (assumed to be accommodating fewer
residents than two-bedroom units), it exhibits the highest water
consumption. By measuring the water usage of occupants, build-
ing management can pursue appropriate measures (i.e., optimum
usage range) if the water usage per person for a particular unit is
continuously higher than the Canadian average residential water
usage per capita per day.
The recorded data in Fig. 11 shows that hot water consumption
typically accounts for more than 30% of total water consumption
in the case-study units, with the exception of unit 11. Since in this
3.4. Indoor air quality (CO2 concentration and relative humidity)
measurement
Elevated CO2 levels affect occupant comfort and IAQ. With ele-
vated CO2 levels, occupants may complain of perceived poor air
quality and may face health problems such as headaches, fatigue,
and eye and throat irritation. Poor air quality may reduce the effi-
ciency of the occupants (Wyon & Wargocki, 2006) and this loss can
be reduced through proper design strategy (Wyon, 1996). The rela-
tionship between indoor CO2 concentration and IAQ is in terms of
the impact of elevated CO2 on comfort, and the correlation between
CO2 and ventilation (Aglan, 2003). According to the American Soci-
ety of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers Inc.
(ASHRAE), buildings with proper ventilation should have CO2 lev-
els not in excess of 1000 ppm (Quinn, 2011). Exceeding this level is
likely indicative of inadequate ventilation. In consideration of this,
64 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68

Fig. 11. Total water consumption of case-study units in 2012.

Fig. 12. IAQ data analysis framework for CO2 .

Fig. 13. IAQ data analysis framework for RH.

 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68 65

Fig. 14. Monthly average CO2 concentration level in case-study units.

Fig. 15. Average CO2 level and ERV electricity consumption in case-study units for February and March, 2012.

Figs. 12 and 13 show the framework of IAQ data analysis (CO2 and
RH, respectively) considered in this project.
The results of data analysis (Fig. 14) show that CO2 concentra-
tion levels exceed the 1000 ppm threshold in units 1, 3, 4, 5, 8,
and 9 for several months of 2012. In order to determine if lack
of energy recovery ventilation (ERV) usage is the reason for the
elevated level of CO2 , electricity consumption by the ERV is inves-
tigated for the case-study units for February and March, 2012. These
two months are chosen as examples since most of the units exceed
the threshold during these two months. Fig. 15 shows the CO2 con-
centration and ERV electricity consumption by unit, exhibiting that
the units with higher ERV usage have in general relatively lower
CO2 concentration (units 7, 10, and 11), while units with lower ERV
usage have higher CO2 concentration (units 1, 3, 4, 5, and 9).
An improper heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system
(HVAC), as well as unvented appliances (space heaters, dryers,
stoves, and any other unvented gas appliances) in a house, can lead
to high levels of indoor CO2 (Health Canada, 1995). Complementing
the recorded data (ERV usage record), interviews with occupants
may be helpful for identifying the factors influencing higher CO2
levels in the identified units. Once the causal factors are identified,
necessary steps (e.g., imposing the use of ERV, proper maintenance
of HVAC system and appliances) should be taken in the interest of
occupant health.
66 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68

Fig. 16. Average relative humidity and total water consumption in case-study units in 2012.

3.5. Relative humidity (RH) level
ASHRAE guidelines suggest that relative humidity (RH) level be
maintained between 30% and 60% with indoor temperatures in the
winter between 20 ◦ C and 23.89 ◦ C and in the summer between
22.78 ◦ C and 26.1 ◦ C. Elevated (RH) can increase the growth of mold,
bacteria, and dust mites, which can aggravate allergies and asthma,
and long-term excessively low RH (below 20%) can also cause
dryness and irritation (Quinn, 2011). Our recorded data indicates
that in all the case-study units, the indoor temperature remains
between approximately 20 ◦ C and 27 ◦ C, which satisfies the ASHRAE
guidelines.
The recorded data (Fig. 16) shows that the humidity levels for
most of the apartments are within the suggested limits; one apart-
ment (unit 5) does exceed the recommended maximum indoor RH
in February and December, 2012 (although the yearly average for
this unit is within the recommended indoor RH) and there are two
units (2 and 11) which are below the recommended minimum level
of indoor RH. In order to identify whether or not household water
consumption has contributed to the below- (units 2 and 11) and
above-standard (unit 5) RH levels, the monthly household water
consumptions for these three units are compared in relation to
monthly average RH. Our data analysis (Fig. 17) shows that unit
5, which has the highest RH, has higher water consumption than
units 2 and 11, with the exceptions of June and July, 2012. Fig. 17
also shows that, for unit 11, RH is below-standard when water con-
sumption is low (January–May, 2012); however, the absence of all
the occupants in unit 11 may be a possible reason for the low water
consumption during that period. In any case, with the increase of
water consumption, RH increases (June–December, 2012). Our data
analysis also indicates that low water consumption may be the
reason for below-standard RH in unit 2.
It should be noted that there are various contributing factors to
high RH levels, including outdoor humidity level and daily occupant
activities such as hanging of wet clothing to dry, food prepara-
tion, and showering. Since elevated RH can lead to problems such

Fig. 17. Monthly average RH and water consumption of units 2, 5, and 11.
 T. Sharmin et al. / Sustainable Cities and Society 13 (2014) 57–68
as proliferation of mold, bacteria, dust mites, and other moisture-
related deterioration (Quinn, 2011), and since sub-standard RH can
lead to respiratory problems for some people (Lstiburek, 2008), it
is necessary to identify the causal factors of unacceptably low and
high levels of RH.
4. Conclusion
This paper has presented the methodology of an ongoing moni-
toring study where building energy performance under occupancy
is monitored with “real-time data” collected from sensors installed
in case-study units. In order to examine holistically the perfor-
mance of the building system, multiple aspects of the building
system have been monitored, including operating energy usage
(electrical energy usage, space heating energy usage, household
water usage); building thermal performance; and IAQ under occu-
pancy. The monitoring system adopted in this study captures
real-time energy usage information to determine the influencing
factors for any irregular or non-standard building performance
by establishing relationships between different measured compo-
nents.
The findings of the data analysis have established the relation-
ships among heating energy consumption, thermal performance of
the building envelope, and occupant comfort level. The space heat-
ing energy usage pattern has indicated that greater heat loss and
higher indoor temperature (maintained by occupants) in the case-
study units in general leads to higher heating energy consumption.
The results have also underscored the need to monitor the thermal
performance of the building envelope in order to manage heat-
ing energy effectively. The thermal performance data analysis has
shown that north-facing units in general have greater heat loss than
south-facing units (as expected) on the ground and top floors. Con-
trary to expectations, on the middle floors (2nd and 3rd floor), the
south-facing units have been found to have greater heat loss than
the north-facing units. The results suggest the need for different
insulation (R-value) for different orientations. In order to validate
observed patterns for heat flux at different floor levels and different
orientations, it is important to monitor the data for a few years. If
patterns of heat flux for different floor levels (variations in height)
or different orientations are identified, measures can be taken to
reduce heat flux for the units with higher rates. Increasing the ther-
mal performance of a building envelope provides an opportunity to
reduce the heating energy use of a building, but this topic is beyond
the scope of this paper.
The data analysis has shown that 53% of total water consump-
tion by the case-study units is hot water consumption. This result
suggests that the hot water collected for drain water heat recovery
could be used as gray water for toilet flushing, which could sig-
nificantly reduce demand for potentially costly municipal sources
of fresh water. It should be noted that using gray water in the
case-study building is, at the moment, outside the scope of this
study.
The IAQ data analysis has demonstrated that some of the case-
study units had CO2 levels greater than 1000 ppm for certain
periods of 2012. In order to determine if the lack of ERV usage is the
reason for the elevated level of CO2 , the electricity consumption by
the ERV has been investigated for the case-study units. The data
analysis has shown that the units with higher ERV usage have rel-
atively lower CO2 concentration in general, while units with lower
ERV usage have higher CO2 concentration. Furthermore, since in the
case-study building the ERV system is operated manually, based on
the data we believe that lack of awareness of how to effectively use
the ERV system has influenced the higher CO2 level. It is assumed
that offgassing of new building materials may also have contributed
to higher CO2 levels during the first year of occupancy. The data
67
analysis suggests that the units with higher CO2 levels and the cor-
responding influencing factors be monitored and identified on a
continuous basis, and that necessary steps be taken, such as enfor-
cing the usage of ERV and properly maintaining HVAC systems and
appliances in the interest of occupant health. The IAQ data analysis
has shown that the IAQ and RH levels for most of the units are within
the suggested limits. There are, however, case-study units which
have exceeded the recommended maximum indoor RH, and some
units which are below the recommended minimum level of indoor
RH. The data analysis has also shown a correlation between house-
hold water consumption and RH. The results suggest the need for
IAQ monitoring, since elevated CO2 level and sub-standard RH can
lead to occupant health issues, and since elevated RH in particular
can lead to moisture-related deterioration of the built form.
The focus of the data analysis has been on gaining a better under-
standing of energy usage patterns for the case-study building. The
results can set a basis for providing automated solutions through
appropriate management of appliances. It is expected that the real-
time energy usage record can be used to make intelligent decisions
to save energy in the case-study building. A considerable amount
of further research must be conducted in order for these measures
to become truly viable and cost-effective. However, in order to
achieve more conclusive results, more data needs to be collected
and analyzed over a longer period of time.
Acknowledgements
This study has been carried out as part of an ongoing research
project at the University of Alberta. The authors would like to
thank the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada (NSERC) (CRDPJ 411101 – 10) and all the partners who have
funded or otherwise contributed to this research project: Cormode
& Dickson Construction Ltd., Integrated Management and Realty
Ltd., Hydraft Development Services Inc., TLJ Engineering Consul-
tants, BCT Structures, and Wood Buffalo Housing and Development
Corporation. The authors also would like to thank Mr. Gurjeet Singh
and Mr. Ahmed Alrifai, Research Engineers at University of Alberta,
for their valuable contributions to this research project.
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