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x. SURFACE NORMAL
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Fig. 1 Chip load distributions and cutting force changes in the cutting with an end mill of 6 mm diameter
having 4 flutes of 30 degree helix angle in f = 0.03 mm/flute, d„ = 10 mm, d r = 2 mm and down cut
Nomenclature
a, b = empirical constants in the /, = sampling frequency for dig- ah = helix angle of the end mill
minimum surface error equa- itizing of the sensor signal /3 = tool rotation angle for
tion Fx,m, FyM = mean cutting forces during sweeping from the bottom
Ax, Ay = amount of adjustment of the one revolution in X and Y di- to the top of the machined
tool position in X and Y direc- rection surface by a flute
tion Kp, Ki = proportional and integral AFX, AFy = fluctuating cutting force
da = axial depth of cut control gains components during one rev-
dr = radial depth of cut R = radius of the end mill olution in X and Y direction
dF,, dFr = elemental tangential and ra- tc = instantaneous uncut chip 6 = apparent surface error
dial forces on the end mill thickness which means the surface er-
dFx, dFy = elemental forces applied to u = controller output to drive the ror by the tool deflection
the end mill in X and Y direc- actuator without any correction
tion a = cutting edge immersion (j> — tool rotation angle mea-
Ey,mi„ = surface error estimated in Y angle measured from the sured from the point in
direction tool exit point which the machined surface
e = control objective error in the aen = tool engagement angle mea- coincides with the bottom
control loop sured from the tool exit point of a reference flute
/ = feed rate [mm/flute]
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering MAY 1998, Vol. 120 / 223
Compliance
I:
i
16 Strain 2-Axis
Gauges Forces Pulse
Generator
X Strain
Force and Surface
Amplifier
Error Relationship
2-Axes
Tilting
fy Workpiece
the error at the end of the tool is generated as much as 180 fiva, flow is to achieve zero error value, e(z), in the presence of tool
the error at the bottom of the machined surface is more than deflection. Here, a digital PI controller as shown in the following
18 ,um that of the top. Furthermore, in a cutting condition, the Eq. (3) was implemented on the computer:
smaller the difference of the errors in the two positions, the less
tilting is needed. Therefore, adjusting the position of the tool Ki
u(z) = | Kp + •e(z) (3)
by tilting is very effective in controlling the surface errors. 1
2.3 System Configuration. In order to implement this
scheme in reducing machining errors through the adjustment of where u{z) is the controller output for driving the tilting actua-
tool position, the tool deflection compensation system as shown tor, e{z) is the deviation indicating the surface error, and Kp
in Fig. 3 was composed. This system is a computer integrated and Ki are the proportional and integral gains, respectively. In
tool adapter including a force sensor and a tool tilting mecha- the control flow, to estimate the deviation e(z) from the refer-
nism. The systematic procedure for the compensation of the ence of zero, a suitable value about the surface error is needed.
tool deflection is as follows. The cutting forces generated in the As a suitable value, the minimum surface error, which is defined
end milling process are measured by the biaxial force sensor to be the minimum deviation from the surface to be produced
enclosing the tool holder. The measured signals are then fed without tool deflection, is selected. This is because the compen-
into the computer after a low pass filtering and A/D conversion. sation relying on this value could be expected to be effective
The angular positions of a flute on the end mill are monitored for obtaining a satisfactory machined surface without any over-
by a stationary proximity sensor located near the rotating trace cut due to excessive compensation.
of the protrusion on the tool holder. This information enables 2.5 Estimation of Minimum Surface Error. In this kind
a point on the cutting force signal to synchronize with the of control problem, i.e. geometrical adaptive control, in order
angular position of a flute. With the aid of this information, the to avoid the difficulty due to the direct sensing of the dimen-
computer can now estimate the tool deflection and the machin- sional error, the estimation of the control parameter using a
ing error. Using these results, it can control the tool position system model is frequently used. In the end milling, it is difficult
and thus minimize the expected surface error by sending out a to know the exact cutting size, like radial depth and axial depth
tilting command through the interfacing board. This tilting ac- of cuts, prior to the real cutting. This is due to the lack of the
tion by the motor allows the tool to have a different radial depth information about the detailed shape of the raw workpiece. Thus
of cut than before, thus a different tool deflection. The system it is not possible to calculate the machining surface error in a
then makes a loop, and again the process is repeated. manner using the mechanistic cutting model without knowing
the cutting size (Sutherland and Devor, 1986; Smith and Tlusty,
2.4 Control Algorithm. As described in the preceding 1991). Though the estimation of depth of cuts based upon some
section, though the tool deflection changes continuously during measured cutting parameters has been studied by Altintas and
the sweeping of the machined surface by a flute and the surface Yellowley (1987), Tarn and Tomizuka (1989), etc., it is still
error profiles have various shapes according to the given cutting not enough to implement in this system, and also the estimation
conditions, these surface errors could be improved with the
revised tool positions corresponding to the errors. Based on
this concept, a control plan for the compensation system was
established, in which a control action is taken every couple of dr
turns of the end mill. For example, at feed rate of 72 mm/min
and rotating speed of 600 rpm, the tool moves about 0.2-0.3 - CUTTING Force
mm along the feed direction. This method is expected to adapt CONTROLLER Z.0.H PROCESS
to the variation of the cutting loads according to the shape of +
the workpiece and prevent the machining surface from being
damaged with disturbances of the system due to the uneven
ERROR ESTIMATION
cutting forces.
ALGORITHM
The block diagram of the control algorithm for the compensa-
tion system is shown in Fig. 4. The objective of this control Fig. 4 System block diagram
is time consuming process. Therefore as an alternative, the sys- of cut. The experiments were performed on a vertical type CNC
tem predicts the control parameter, that is, the minimum surface milling machine equipped with a Heidenhain TNC 155 control
error, based on the cutting force which is relatively easy to unit. High speed steel end mills of 6 mm diameter with 4 flutes
measure compared with measuring the error directly. Figure 5 of 30 degree helix angle were used. The end mills in all tests
shows the result of the computer simulation representing the were held by a collet, and the effective tool lengths, unsup-
relationship between the errors and cutting forces, where the ported, were 30 mm. Coolant was not used. The work material
mechanistic cutting force model by Kline et al. (1982) and the for the tests was A12014-T6. Following the machining, for the
tool deflection evaluation algorithm evolved from Budak and measurements of the surface errors, a Heidenhain MT12 digital
Altintas (1994) were applied. In part (a) of Fig. 5, the mean prove having the resolution of 0.1 /im and a probe of 0.5 mm
cutting forces, Fym, linearly increase according to the increment in diameter was used with a computer interfaced data acquisi-
of depth of cuts, while part {b) shows that the minimum surface tion. From preceding experiments, the empirical constants a and
error, EyMn, does not increase like Fyjn. This is due to the large b were determined as follows:
fluctuation of the cutting force, as shown in part ( c ) , compelling
the minimum surface errors to be further from their average a = 1.05 X 10"
values, especially in the region of a small cutting load. Thus,
it is considered that the fluctuation of the cutting force becomes b = 0.45 X 10" (5)
a correction factor in the estimation of the minimum surface Figures 7 and 8 are the results of the tests, in which the
error from the mean cutting force. Based upon this, an empirical top figures present the measured cutting forces as well as the
equation is suggested to evaluate the minimum surface error estimated minimum surface errors, and the bottom figures com-
from the measured cutting force. This is shown in following pare the estimated minimum surface errors with the measured
Eq. (4). ones. Figure 7 shows that the mean cutting forces linearly in-
crease according to increment of the radial depth of cuts. The
F • — n'F — h' AF (4) estimated minimum surface errors also increase in the same
manner as the cutting forces, but it shows a rapid increase in
Here, the empirical constants a and b are affected by mechan-
the area of the end of the cutting. This can also be noticed in
ical properties of the workpiece, the tool and the feed rate, but
Fig. 5. The measurement of the machined surface shows that
all of them are factors that can be fixed in the operating the
these are in good agreement with the estimated results. In Fig.
system, and be valid in the change of cutting condition in dr
8, while the mean cutting forces also increase in proportion to
and da. Accordingly, if these are fixed, the empirical constants
the axial depth of cuts, the estimated minimum surface errors
can be determined by the least square fitting method using
increase more rapidly in the region of the relatively small axial
the force and error data obtained from cutting experiments in
depth of cuts, and then nearly level. In this leveled region,
ordinary cutting conditions. Figure (d) shows the result of the
estimation by Eq. (4) and implies this is a good approximation
in comparing it with (b). It is also important to note that the
linear form of this equation suggests a good feature, in which,
even in the case that the normal direction of the machining
surface does not coincide with the principal direction of the
measured force, the 2-dimensional compensation using this
equation is capable of being applied effectively to compensate
the tool deflection in any lateral direction.
In order to prove the validity of this empirical equation, ex-
periments have been executed for the specimens shown in Fig.
6. The specimen (a) is the case where the radial depth of cut
is linearly increased at a constant axial depth of cut. In specimen Fig. 6 Specimens for estimation tests of the minimum surface errors
(£>), the axial depth of cut is changed at a constant radial depth (AI2014-T6)
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering MAY 1998, Vol. 120 / 225
Compliance
y
0 200 -100 0 100 200
LOAD [Ml L0AD[N]
Fig. 10 Static calibration of the devised sensor (The plots for the unloading tests only
slightly differ from the loaded test. To avoid confusion they have been omitted.)
.Ydevised
Ycommercial
X commercial
1000
NO. OF SAMPLE
Fig. 11 Dynamic comparison of the devised sensor to a commercial dynamometer {fs •-
13.6 KHz, end mill of 2 flutes at 1200 rpm)
ment this idea was devised. Figure 12 represents the detailed the initial experiments. Three types of specimens that represent
drawing of the tilting mechanism. Referring to this figure, the the shapes of workpieces commonly encountered in the end
tilting action of the tool is achieved as followings. The rotation milling were prepared as shown in Fig. 14. In the figure, speci-
of the stepping motor is converted into the linear motion of the men ( a ) , with a linearly increased radial depth of cut at a
tilting rod by the cam drive mechanism. At the same time, the constant axial depth, was used to test the adaptability of the
driving force is amplified enough to operate against the cutting
force, and also, the movement becomes more precise to obtain
the required high resolution. The linear displacement of the SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
tilting rod is transformed into the angular displacement through
the spherical bearing. Then the tool holder, which is located in Tilting Com
the center of the spherical bearing and is connected with the
spindle of the machine tools using a flexible coupling, obtains Roller Follower
the tilting motion for the proper adjustment of the tool position.
Since two sets of the tilting driver are actually located perpen- Holder Shaft h
dicular to each other in the circumference of the spherical bear-
ing, the angular motions as above in orthogonal direction make
the system capable of adjusting the tool position in any direc-
tion. By the aid of this mechanism, in the case of using a tool Force Sensor
Compliance
having an effective length of 30 mm, the resolution for the one
step (0.9 degree) of the stepping motor is 4 yum, and the range
of moving to one side is 0.8 mm. Tilting Rod
Spherical Bearing
End mi
4 Compensation Experiments Spherical Joint
The tool deflection compensation system was completed as Guide Pin
a computer integrated tool adapter based on the driving compo-
nents and the operating algorithms explained earlier. In order 11/ Tool Holder
to verify the ability of the system for suppressing the generation
of surface errors by the tool deflection, experiments using this
system have been carried out. Figure 13 shows a typical machin- MOTION TRANSFER ROUTE
ing situation using the system. Stepping Motor - > Tilting Cam - > Roller Follower
In these experiments, the tool and equipment sets in the test - > Tilting Lever - > Spherical Bearing - > Compliance
of Sec. 2.5 were used. A feed rate of 72 mm/min and spindle - > Bearing - > Tool Holder - > Endmill
speed of 600 rpm were applied. The control gains of Kp and £,
appearing in Eq. (3) were set to 0.15 and 1.0 respectively in Fig. 12 Tool tilting mechanism
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering MAY 1998, Vol. 120 / 227
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
while in the case where the system was used they are maintained
within 30 /mi. The results of the second test shown in Fig. 16 CUTTING LENGTH [mm]
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering MAY 1998, Vol. 120 / 229