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3.2 Definition and Examples

The fundamental notions of set, mapping, binary operation, and binary relation were
pre- sented in previous chapters. These notions are essential for the study of an algebraic
system. An algebraic structure, or algebraic system, is a nonempty set in which at least
one equivalence relation (equality) and one or more binary operations are defined. The
simplest structures occur when there is only one binary operation, as is the case with
the algebraic system known as a group.

Definition A group is a set G together with a binary operation ∗ on G such that the following
axioms are satisfied:

1. ∗ is associative on G : a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c for all a, b, c ∈ G.

2. There is an identity element e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a for all a ∈ G.

3. Every element has an inverse: For each a ∈ G, there is an element b ∈ G, such

that a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e.

(G, ∗) is called a abelian or commutative group if a ∗ b = b ∗ a, for all a, b ∈ G.

(G, ∗) is non-abelian if it is not commutative.

Note that a group consists of a pair of a set and a binary operation on that set. and
the set is closed with respect to the binary operation. That is, for x, y ∈ G, x ∗ y is in
G.

For example, the set Z of all integers is a group with respect to addition but not with
respect to multiplication (it has no inverses for elements other than ±1).

Examples Which of these are groups?

1. the set Z with subtraction.

2. The set of even integers with addition.

3. The set of odd integers with addition.

4. The set of positive rational numbers with multiplication.

5. The set of 2 × 2 matrices with integer entries with matrix multiplication.

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Example 1 The congruence modulo n, Zn = {[0], [1], · · · , [n − 1]}forms a group under addition
modulo n. Consider Z5 , consisting of the equivalence classes [0], [1], [2], [3], and [4]. with
addition ⊕.
⊕ 0 1 2 3 4
0
1
2
3
4

Example 2 Zn fails to be a group under modular multiplication . Consider Z6 \{0}.

 1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
5

Example 3 Let S = {a, b, c}. The following table defines an operation on S, and it is known that the
operation is associative.

∗ a b c
a c a b
b a b c
c b c a

Is S together with ∗ a group?

Example 4 (General Linear Group)We use

 M2 (R) to denote the set of all 2 × 2 matrices over R.
n a b o
Consider GL2 (R) = A = : A is invertible under matrix multiplication.
c d
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The group of units of Zn
Every nonzero k does have an inverse in Zn if k is relatively prime to n. Denote the set
of all such nonzero elements in Zn by Un :

Un = {[a] ∈ Zn \{[0]} | gcd(a, n) = 1}.

Then Un is a group called the group of units of Zn .

For example, if n = 8, then the only elements of Z8 that have inverses are [1], [3], [5],
and [7]. U8 = {[1], [3], [5], [7]} In general (Z8 , ) is not a group, but U8 is a group.

Example 5 Construct a Cayley Table for U8 and for U12 using the operation :

U8 ,  [1] [3] [5] [7] U12 ,  [1] [5] [7] [11]

[1] [1]

[3] [5]

[5] [7]

[7] [11]

Definition The Euler phi-function, φ(n), is defined for all positive integer by the followings:
for n > 1,

φ(n) is the number of positive integers less than n and relatively prime to n;

φ(1) = 1.

Theorem
Un is an abelian group under the operation  and |Un | = φ(n).
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Basic Properties of Groups

Definnition Let (G, ∗) be a group.

1. The order of G, denoted by |G|, is the number of elements of G.

2. G is finite, or has finite order, if |G| is finite; otherwise, G is infinite.

The group Z5 is a finite group of order 5; the integers Z form an infinite group under
addition, and we sometimes write |Z| = ∞.

Proposition 1. The identity element in a group G is unique; that is, there exists only one element
e ∈ G such that eg = ge = g for all g ∈ G.

2. Every element g in a group G has a unique inverse, denoted by g −1 .

3. Let G be a group and a, b, c ∈ G.

(a) (a−1 )−1 = a.

(b) (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .
(c) Each of the equations ax = b and xa = b has a unique solution in G.
(d) (Cancellation Law) ba = ca implies b = c and ab = ac implies b = c.

Proof:
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Example 6 Let G = {1, i, j, k, −1, −i, −j, −k} with identity element 1 and multiplication given by

i2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1, ij = −ji = k, jk = −kj = i, ki = −ik = j.

Note that G is a nonabelian group of order 8, called the quaternion group.