CLOSE ENCOUNTERS WITH THE BYZANTINE

BORDER ZONES:
On the Eastern Connections of the Birka Warrior
Charlotte Hedenstierna-Jonson
National Historical Museum, Stockholm
The town-like settlement of Birka was a major center of trade and crafts in the
Eastern region of Viking-Age Scandinavia. The inhabitants constituted a cultural
and social mix including people of various origins and with influences from a vast
region of different cultures. This diverse mix of material culture and social
practices is particularly noticeable in the context of the warriors. Perhaps more
than others, these men were accustomed to the practices and traits of other groups
of people and were impressed by foreign weaponry and warfare techniques. They
combined high mobility with a tight-knit social structure and openness to new
techniques and ideas. Their objective to serve the functions and people of the town,
rather than a regional chieftain or petty king, made them stand out as a group, even
compared to contemporary groups of warriors from nearby places. The strong
presence of influences from the regions east and southeast of Scandinavia is
predominantly evident. So what can be said about the evident Eastern connections
of the Birka warriors?

East in focus
It is a well-known fact that the Viking Age was a period of intensified contacts
with other cultures in an ever-expanding geographical area. These contacts were
varied in character and took place on a number of levels. A foreign object could be
an item of display, signaling far-reaching networks of contact, wealth, situation,
etc., but without actually being used in the way it was originally intended. For that
to occur, a more advanced form of interaction must take place.1 Trade forged
cultural contacts, as it required a certain level of trust, possibly acquired by a
common terminology or even language or some other form of mutual agreement on
terms.2 But even military activities could form in-depth cultural contacts through
alliances, joint preparations, training and campaigning. The high level of mobility
resulted in material wealth as well as in contacts, adaptation, learning and
development.

1
Hedenstierna-Jonson, 2013.
2
See Gustin, 2004.
140 Scandinavia and the Balkans

In the early twentieth century, Swedish archeologist T. Arne noted the

connections between Viking-Age Sweden—Birka in particular—and the “Orient”
or Eastern Realm.3 The material found in Birka, which Arne considered as material
evidence of these contacts, included dress-related objects, personal equipment and
weaponry, coins and luxury items such as glass vessels. Arne’s work still forms the
basis for most studies dealing with the connections between Scandinavia and the
East, but it should be stressed that Eastern influences also included advanced
knowledge and technology. Areas of contact encompassed nomadic cultures of the
Eurasian Steppes, Volga Bulghars, Khazars, Magyars and the great Empires of
Byzantium and the Caliphate with their far-stretching border-zones. Together with
cultural influences from the Western trade routes, the material culture and social
practices of Birka constituted a heterogeneous blend formed into a cultural
expression of its own.4
The pre-requisites for the regional establishment of Birka as a proto-town5
changed at the turn of the tenth century when trade business increased and Birka
evolved into an emporium involved in long-distance trade in silver, slaves and
valuables—goods that could be characterized as complicated, as they demanded a
high level of organization and implied a great economic risk. Local or even
regional figures of power, such as chieftains or kings, would have had limited
control over the extensive geographical areas and huge quantities of moveable
wealth administered by trading families and workshops. Only those who traveled
the route would have been in actual power. Among those were the warriors,
following the trading companies, safeguarding their journeys and taking service in
foreign courts under new masters. These warriors sought glory and fortune in far-
away places and eventually reached the Byzantine realm with all its alluring
splendor.

The Birka warriors and the mounted archer

Most of the research conducted on the Birka warriors has related to the rich
archeological material from the area of the Garrison. With the present on-going
incorporation of archeological material from the settlement area into the collections
of the National Historical Museum in Stockholm, new opportunities to discern and
discuss the presence of the Eastern connections of the Birka warrior in new
contexts are opening up. As the archeological material and the questions are rich
and varied, I have focused on a particular trait of the Birka warriors that singles
them out from armed men in the surrounding region—that of the advanced

3
Arne, 1911; Arne, 1914.
4
Hedenstierna-Jonson, 2006; 2009a.
5
Holmquist Olausson, 2002: 153–75.
Charlotte Hedenstierna-Jonson, Close Encounters 141

knowledge and use of the composite bow and closed quiver. Originally used by the
mounted people of the Eurasian Steppes, the quiver perhaps in particular required a
high degree of skill in order to be used effectively in combat. Both bow and quiver
were designed to function from horseback, but there were a number of advantages
to this type of equipment even for foot soldiers. The quiver was in the form of a
box and the arrowheads, instead of pointing into the bottom, were exposed
upwards. The design of the quiver enabled the archer to grab a handful of arrows
and thus shoot them at high speed. Particular iron fittings constitute characteristic
remains of these quivers, which were otherwise made of organic materials. The
bow, composed of several parts in various materials, was highly flexible and gave,
if the archer was skilled, a higher accuracy than Western bows of the same period.
The bow was kept in a bow case, adorned with mounts. The mount fastening the
case by the belt had a particular design imitating spread wings. Another important
feature was the ring, not often found in archeological contexts, which increased the
archer’s speed and strength.6
All of the specified objects of the Eastern archer are represented in Birka. There
are examples of fittings from closed quivers and the wing-shaped mount from a
bow case, as well as an ear from a composite bow and a very rare example of an
archer’s thumb-ring. These objects were retrieved from various archeological
contexts, opening the way for a more balanced interpretation. The three main
contexts of the Birka construct containing archery equipment of Eastern origin
were the fortifications, settlement and burial grounds. The objects correlate in
varying degrees to a range of activities within these contexts.

Weaponry and acquired skills in the Garrison

The traces of Eastern contacts are most overt in the contexts related to Birka’s
martial activities. The martial side was, to a great extent, formed by the warriors,
who enjoyed a special status in society. They were a dynamic part of a vast
network of contacts, interacting over long periods of time with people from other
areas and cultures. Thus, it is not surprising that the martial material culture
includes a large proportion of foreign objects. The most comprehensive material
has been found in the context of the garrison. A place for work and social
gathering, the Garrison was neither a settlement, nor a burial context. The enclosed
area holds several houses placed on terraces, the largest of which has been
interpreted as the warrior’s hall. Ultimately, the garrison was a battle-scene,
providing a lingering image of a battle fought in the late tenth century. The remains
of Eastern equipment are not a matter of one or two unique finds, but rather a
number of complete sets including weaponry, armor, clothing, etc. The number and
types of iron fittings specific to the closed quiver allows for at least four separate

6
Lundström et al., 2009: 109ff.
142 Scandinavia and the Balkans

quivers. They were not likely to have been the property of the attackers, as they
were found inside the hall building along the walls, much like the other
(Scandinavian) weaponry. Fittings have also been found in the context of the
battle, scattered in places where a concentration of arrowheads were also found.7
The traces of Eastern contacts are not all directly connected to archery. The
archeological material renders a complete picture of a warrior strongly influenced
by the style and techniques found in the border zones of the Great Byzantine realm.
The composite bow and quiver were, in Birka, used in combination with lamellar
armor, Magyar style accessories and Persian or Steppe nomadic dress elements.
The many finds of lamellae most likely derive from several different harnesses,
and their distribution over the area is wide. Larger concentrations of lamellae
(partly corroded together into chunks) have been found within the hall building.
Fragments and single lamellae lay scattered over the rest of the area in connection
to the battle contexts.
There is also the presence of “Eastern” dress elements, including caftans and
oriental belts.8 The spectacular find of two fragments of gilded mounts thought to
have adorned a helmet have been the focus of a study by L. Holmquist and S.
Petrovski.9 The design with parading birds flanking a tree of life is a Christian
motif, although it is known from both Islamic and pagan contexts as well.
Considering the technique and style of the mounts, they were most likely
manufactured “around or beyond the border of the Empire … in a region familiar
with Imperial iconography.”10
Other artefacts that constitute a possible direct link to Byzantium are three
Theophilus copper coins dating to the time of the first documented visit by
Scandinavians to the Byzantine court in AD 839.11 Coins of this type are
exceedingly rare outside Byzantium and they were more likely used as exotic gifts
than a means of payment.

Traces of repairs and production

The settlement area of Birka comprised approximately seven hectares, of which
less than 10% have been excavated. There are a number of Eastern-linked objects
in the settlement context. For the main part, these consist of dress-related items and
mounts; it is not possible to determine if they were used in connection to the
warriors or not. A few artefacts are, however, eastern-type weaponry and can thus
be linked to martial contexts: in this case, the equipment of an Eastern archer. It is,

7
Holmquist Olausson and Kitzler Åhfeldt, 2002; Hedenstierna-Jonson, Stjerna and Kitzler
Åhfeldt, 1998.
8
Hedenstierna-Jonson and Holmquist Olausson, 2006.
9
Holmquist Olausson and Petrovski, 2007.
10
Holmquist Olausson and Petrovski, 2007: 236.
11
Annales of St Bertin; Arne, 1946; Hedenstierna-Jonson, 2006: 84.
Charlotte Hedenstierna-Jonson, Close Encounters 143

however, not possible to determine whether they are remnants of complete sets or
simply single objects of exotic value.
Of special interest are the artefacts that can be considered as indigenous
interpretations or developments of foreign objects. These include a suspension-
mount and several bone/antler fittings for the lid of a closed quiver. To further
develop objects and knowledge of something originally transferred from others
represents the final stage of including something new into local practices.
Development is a way of making something your own. In this case, there seems to
have been some local production of certain fittings for the bow and quiver.
The uses of these artefacts are mere suggestions. For a more definite
identification, more research is needed. Further research should also include
additional interpretations of the contexts in which the objects were found. Many of
the artefacts deriving from the settlement are without their proper context, as they
were excavated in the nineteenth century and there is a lack of documentation.
New investigations were undertaken in the 1990s, the material from which has just
recently been incorporated into the collections of the National Historical Museum.
The majority of artefacts from the settlement that can be properly put into context
derive from workshops. The presence of locally-produced parts for the composite
bow and fittings strongly indicates that there were active Eastern-type archers in
Birka during the tenth century.

The burials of Eastern-type archers

There is more evidence to be found in the burial sites. The Birka complex
contains over 3000 burials. More than 1100 were excavated in the late nineteenth
century and these form an extensive archive covering the burial-practice and
material culture of the settlement’s inhabitants. Of the several burials containing
objects of Eastern origin, two are of particular interest for this paper. Although
different in burial practice, they both contain the particular fittings of the closed
quiver, indicating that archery equipment was a component of the grave goods.
Grave Bj 99612 is a cremation buried underneath a mound, the traditional burial
practice of the Mälar region. Since the grave gifts are cremated, the remains are
few and fragmentary. Apart from the few objects that can be linked to the closed
quiver, the burial included gaming pieces, bread and a possible writing tablet, all of
which indicate the high social standing of the buried individual. As with the burial
practice, the gifts follow regional traditional customs. The fittings for the closed
quiver make this particular burial stand out. Other pieces of archery equipment
have not been found. The bow would not have survived the funeral-pyre, but there
is also a lack of arrow-heads. The grave goods and the burial practice indicate that

12
Arbman, 1943: 419.
144 Scandinavia and the Balkans

the interred was a male of Scandinavian origin, or possibly someone who had
assimilated fully into Viking-Age society.
The other burial in question is a so-called chamber grave (Bj 1125b).13 This
particular burial practice is a somewhat rare bird in most places where it occurs.
Having no geographical place of origin, the custom tends to be connected to the
cosmopolitan centers of trade, mainly along the Eastern trade route. Traditionally,
Scandinavian burial practice included cremation and a mound super-structure.
Chamber-graves are instead inhumations, where the deceased is placed into an
underground chamber without a defining superstructure. In some cases, the
chamber graves are man-and-horse burials where the horse is placed at the man’s
feet on a special ledge.
The chamber-grave Bj 1125b was located in close proximity to the town
rampart, a place of special importance that also emphasized the relation between
the deceased and the town. The grave could, to my mind, be interpreted as a burial
of a mounted Eastern-type archer, complete with quiver, bow case and horse. The
collection of arrows included was a mixture of different types, not necessarily
typical for an Eastern archer. Interesting parallels to chamber-grave Bj 1125b can
be seen in burials interpreted as Magyar warrior graves. One example is a burial
from Przemyśl, Poland.14 The buried horse is in this case placed alongside the
interred. The closed quiver was placed hanging from the right hip and following
down the full length of the upper part of the leg, possibly even longer. Other
parallels have been presented by Hungarian researcher L. Kovacs, who
acknowledged the parallels between man-and-horse burials in Magyar Hungary
and a couple of the chamber graves in Birka. 15

Close encounters
So what do advanced fighting techniques developed in the border zones of the
ever-battling Byzantine Empire have to do with Viking warfare in Central
Scandinavia? The image of the barbarous men from the North with foul tactics
based on ambushes and skirmishes is far from the truth. As with their
contemporaries on the European continent, the Viking warriors were highly skilled
professionals, trained for set-piece battles, with ranking officers and battle order
based on thorough training. They were renowned for their skills in building and
using fortifications as an active part of their fighting technique. Their ships, as well
as their horses, indicate the high level of mobility that was a special mark of the
Viking warriors. They moved in small units over large areas and they were

13
Arbman, 1943: 463ff.
14
Fodor, 1996: 439ff, fig. 443.
15
Kovács, 2003.
Charlotte Hedenstierna-Jonson, Close Encounters 145

particularly adaptive to new techniques and weaponry, which they incorporated

into their own diverse battle techniques.16
The Viking warriors fought by slightly different rules than the Byzantines, as
they were not Christians, and they placed the group first and foremost. They had a
long tradition of archery and were, in all essentials, horsemen. This was true for the
Scandinavian warriors—nevertheless, the Eastern connection was particularly
strong in Birka. Nowhere else in the region is the evidence of advanced contact and
transferred knowledge so overtly demonstrated as in the context of the Birka
Garrison. This is not a question of mere luxury items: Eastern weaponry was
clearly used in battle situations. For advanced warfare techniques, such as using a
composite bow in battle, the warrior would need to have mastered the skills of
Eastern archery. Mastering skills would have required extended, deeper contacts
that included learning processes, transference of advanced knowledge and practice
over a longer period of time. The established contacts between Birka and the
Eastern trade route, ending in the Byzantine border zones or even Constantinople
itself, provided opportunities to see, learn, master and develop these techniques.
The demands of the landscape and social organization of the Viking Age Lake
Mälar region, with its difficult terrain and dispersed settlement pattern, probably
made the benefits of proficient Eastern-type archers evident. Warfare was based on
mobility using horses and ships. There was even a strong element of fortification,
using strongholds and ramparts as means both for defense and attack.17 Ships and
fortifications represented confined spaces in which a composite bow must have
been invaluable. It would have been quite beneficial for a military following to
include skilled Eastern-style archers in their midst.
Should the archeological material in Birka be understood as traces of visiting
archers? Or had local warriors acquired the advanced techniques, dress and
customs of the culturally mixed Byzantine border zones? To my mind, it is clear
that there were warriors in Birka fully accomplished in the fighting techniques and
weaponry of the Steppe nomads. That the Magyars constituted a major contributing
factor is indicated by the specific elements of equipment and dress found. The
composite bow ear and fittings for closed quivers found in the settlement area
indicate local production and even development.
I have claimed in my research that the inhabitants of tenth century Birka
considered themselves part of an urban culture set apart from the surrounding
regional culture of the Lake Mälar region. This urban culture was polyethnic,
formed by the assimilation of different people joined together by common
enterprise in trade, craft and warfare. Stylistic traits from various cultural
expressions were combined in new ways and crafted using techniques borrowed

16
Hedenstierna-Jonson 2006, 2009b.
17
Hedenstierna-Jonson, Holmquist and Olausson, 2007.
146 Scandinavia and the Balkans

from the expert craftsmen of other cultures. An example of this can be seen in the
context of burial Bj 550 in Birka. This was the grave of a distinguished female and
the grave gifts include an elaborate belt buckle in gilded silver. The buckle is
adorned with an animal in a style reminiscent of Scandinavian Viking-Age art. The
overall fashion of the buckle and the technique with which it was produced is,
however, not Scandinavian. An equivalent to the buckle has been found in a
Magyar burial in Ladánybene-Benepuszta in present day Hungary. 18 The origins of
the two buckles should probably be sought in the Byzantine border zones.
The eclectic style of the warriors, combining weaponry and dress elements
from various regions and cultures are perhaps the strongest indication that their
origins should be sought in the Byzantine border zones. The regions surrounding
the Byzantine Empire constituted a melting pot for cultural influences from the
Eurasian Steppes as well as the Caliphate and Eastern Europe. The warriors
serving in these areas were partly trained in the art of Byzantine warfare, in
combination with fighting techniques and weaponry from the Caliphate and
Eurasian Steppes. The use of the composite bow and lamellar armor reflects
contacts with both Steppe nomadic mounted archers and Persian mounted
soldiers.19

Conclusion
Numerous finds in the settlement, burial and martial contexts reflect the
extensive network of which the inhabitants of Birka were an active part. Among
these objects are remains that bear witness to the warriors’ close engagement with
the Byzantine border zones. The warriors gained knowledge and experience
through long-term periods of service in these regions. They must have appreciated
the many benefits of the composite bow and closed quiver and learnt to master the
skills required. The Birka warriors used weaponry usually linked to the mounted
warriors of the Eurasian Steppes in combination with lamellar armor and so-called
Eastern dress, such as caftans and belts. This cultural mix of styles and objects can
most likely be seen as a product of the vivid border regions of Byzantium, where
people from a vast geographical area met and joined forces. The warriors who went
to fight in this cultural melting pot acted as ministers of culture, bringing
influences and knowledge home with them on their return journey.
The warfare techniques and skills acquired during these periods of service were
applicable to the situation in the Lake Mälar region. They fulfilled both practical
and tactical functions and were administered by the returning warriors to such an
extent that local production of fittings and mounts was initiated.

18
Fodor, 1996: 338; Hedenstierna-Jonson, 2013.
19
Lundström et al., 2009: 114; Hedenstierna-Jonson, 2009a.
Charlotte Hedenstierna-Jonson, Close Encounters 147

Acknowledgements
This study is part of the research project Birka, Rus’ and Nordic Gentes, funded
by Riksbankensjubileumsfond, Sweden. The participation in the conference
“Scandinavia and the Balkans” in Sofia on 24–28 September 2012 was made
possible by a generous travel grant from Kungliga Vitterhetsakademien.

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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1 A reconstruction showing a warrior from Birka’s garrison (drawing by
Ahlin-Sundman) based on fittings from closed quivers and other items related
to the Eastern-type archer found in the garrison
Figs 2, 3, 4. Fittings for the lid of the closed quiver and a suspension-mount,
locally produced in Birka (photo: Hedenstierna-Jonson)
Fig. 5 A drawing by the nineteenth-century excavator Hjalmar Stolpe of burial Bj
1125b and the fittings for a closed quiver (Arbman, 1943: 465, Abb. 434–435)
Fig. 6 Burial 6 in the burial-field of Przemyśl, Poland (Fodor, 1996: 443)
Fig. 7 The Lake Mälar region constitutes a difficult terrain with restricted mobility
(map by L. Bergström)
Figs 8, 9. Buckles from Birka burial Bj 550 and Ladánybene-Benepuszta (Photos
Hedenstierna-Jonson)
Charlotte Hedenstierna-Jonson, Close Encounters 149

Fig. 1 A reconstruction showing a warrior from Birka’s garrison

(drawing by Ahlin-Sundman) based on fittings from closed quivers
and other items related to the astern-type archer found in the garrison

Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Figs. 2, 3, 4. Fittings for the lid of the closed quiver and a

suspension-mount, locally produced in Birka
(photo: Hedenstierna-Jonson)
150 Scandinavia and the Balkans

Fig. 5 Fig. 6

Fig. 5 A drawing by the nineteenth-century excavator Hjalmar Stolpe of burial Bj

1125b and the fittings for a closed quiver (Arbman, 1943: 465, Abb. 434–435)
Fig. 6 Burial 6 in the burial-field of Przemyśl, Poland (after Fodor, 1996: 443).
Charlotte Hedenstierna-Jonson, Close Encounters 151

Fig. 7 The Lake Mälar region constitutes a difficult terrain with restricted mobility
(map by L. Bergström)
152 Scandinavia and the Balkans

Fig. 8 Buckles from Birka burial Bj 550 (Photo Hedenstierna-Jonson)

Fig. 9 Buckle from Ladánybene-Benepuszta (Photo Hedenstierna-Jonson)