Topic 8 Acids and Bases

A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor.

A Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton receiver.
Amphiprotic species: a substance which can act as both a proton donor and a proton acceptor.
Amphoteric species:

Conjugate Pairs
𝐻𝐴 + 𝐵 ⇌ 𝐴− + 𝐵𝐻 +
HA acts as an acid donating a proton to B. B acts as a base since it takes the proton released. But
in the reverse reaction we see that BH acts as acid and a acts as a base. That is my we establish
the acid base pairs for the forward and reverse reaction.

NOTE that 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) and 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) are both used to represent a proton in aqueous solution.
To be a conjugate pair, they must differ only by one proton.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞)

Acids react with metals, bases and carbonated to form salts

A salts: refers to the ionic compound formed when the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a
metal or another positive ion. We refer to parent base or parent acid to ones that create these
salts.

Acid and metal

𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 → 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑍𝑛(𝑠) → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 → 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
These reactions with metals with acids are the reason why acids have corrosive properties on
some metals. For example, the acid of the battery of the car must be away from the metal frame.
Less reactive metals like copper are more valuable because they are less vulnerable to corrosion.
Acid and a base
𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

ℎ𝑦𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 → 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
These types of reactions are also known as neutralization reactions. The net reactions looks like
this:
𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Neutralization reactions are exothermic, the enthalpy of neutralization is defined as the
enthalpy change when an acid and a base reacts to create one mole of water.

Acid and carbonates

𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒

2𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)

ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
Reactions that produce gases are called effervescence.

Indicators
We can distinguish between acids and bases using different indicators. The colors are
in the formula booklet.
Indicator Color in acid Color in alkali
Litmus Pink Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink

The pH scale
The pH is a logarithmic expression of [𝐻]+ the concentration of hydrogen ions. Therefore we
can say that:
𝑝𝐻 = − log10 [𝐻 + ]
In other words:
[𝐻 + ] = 10−𝑝𝐻
Example:
𝐴 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 [𝐻 + ] = 0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3 ⟹ 𝑝𝐻 = − log10 0.1 = 1
Range: Most acids and bases will have a positive pH value between 1-14.
Units: They do not have units. A change in pH by 1 represents a decrease or increase by a factor
of 10 in [𝐻 + ].
Solutions with a higher [𝐻 + ] have a lower pH and vice-versa.

The ionic product constant of water

Consider the following equation:
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ⇌ 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)
If we were to calculate the equilibrium constant:
[𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝐾𝑐 =
[𝐻2 𝑂]
Additionally the concentration of water can be considered to be constant due to the fact that so
little of it ionized, we can rearrange the equation and give it a new name.
𝐾𝑐 [𝐻2 𝑂] = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾𝑐 [𝐻2 𝑂] = 𝐾𝑤
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ]
This is known as the ionic product constant of water and at 298 K it has a constant value.
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 + ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.00 · 10−14
In an aqueous solutions, the concentration of hydrogen ions is inversely proportional to the
concentration of hydroxide ions.
Note once again that 𝐻3 𝑂+ can also be used instead of hydrogen.
In pure water since:
[𝑂𝐻 − ] = [𝐻 + ]
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 [𝐻 + ] 𝑜𝑟 [𝐻 + ] = √𝐾𝑤

Strong and weak acids and bases

What determines if it’s a weak or strong acid/base depends on its ability to ionize. The extent to
which it dissociates in solution.
Acids
Strong acid: an acid which dissociated fully, in other words it exists entirely as ions in solution.
- Hydrochloric acid (also nitric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid)
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)
Note that in this case we do not use an equilibrium sign
They are good proton donors and as their dissociation reaction goes to completion this means
that their conjugate bases are not able to accept another proton, which suggests that it has a weak
conjugate base.
Weak acid: an acid which partially dissociates, it produces an equilibrium mixture in which the
undissociated form dominates.
- Ethanoic acid
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞)
Here we do need to use the equilibrium sign
They are poor proton donors and their dissociation reaction lies on the left side (reactants side)
which suggests that their conjugate bases are ready to accept a proton.
Bases
Strong base: a base which fully dissociates. It ionizes fully
- Sodium Chloride
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)
Again no equilibrium sign.
Strong bases are good proton acceptors. They react to form conjugates that do not show acidic
properties.
Weak base: it ionized only partially, so its equilibrium lies to the left and the concentration of
ions is low. An example is ammonia.
𝑁𝐻3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ⇌ 𝑁𝐻4+ (𝑙) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)
Weak bases are poor proton acceptors, they react to form conjugates with stronger acidic
properties.
Note a strong acid or base doesn’t mean that it has a strong base or concentration.

Difference between strong and weak acids and bases

Due to their greater ionization in solution, strong acids and bases will contain higher
concentrations of ions than weak acids and bases. Note that the following properties are only
applied when we compare solutions of the same concentration at the same temperature.
Electrical Conductivity
The conductivity of a solutions depends on the concentration of mobile ions. Strong acids and
bases have higher conductivity than weak acids and bases.
Rate of reaction
The reactions of acids depend on the concentration of [𝐻 + ] ions, this means that rates of
reactions will be greater with strong acids.
pH
We can use the pH scale to compare strengths of acids (since pH is a measure of the
concentration of the hydrogen ions). The higher the concentration of [𝐻 + ], the lower the pH.

Acid deposition
Rain water: is acidic because of the dissolved 𝐶𝑂2 in it. Its pH is 5.6
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) ⇌ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
Carbon dioxide dissolved in water to form a weak acid, carbonic acid. Therefore rain is acid.
Acid rain: refers to solutions with a pH bellow 5.6. The reason why pH may be lower than 5.6 is
due to the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen which are primary pollutants.
Acid deposition: refers to all process by which acidic components as precipitates or gases leave
the atmosphere.
o Wet acid deposition: when precipitation falls to the ground as an aqueous
precipitate.
o Dry acid deposition: acidifying particles, fall to the ground as dust and smoke
which later dissolve in water to form acids.

Sulfur Oxides
Sulfur dioxide is produced from burning fossil fuels (to generate electricity). It dissolves in water
to form sulfurous acid.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
Additionally, sulfur dioxide can be oxidized to create sulfur trioxide which then dissolves in
water to produce sulfuric acid.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑔) → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞)
This causes acid deposition.

Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen monoxide is produced from internal combustion engines which give out heat energy
that causes nitrogen and oxygen to combine. This also produces acid deposition.
Nitrogen oxide can be oxidized to produce nitrogen dioxide which dissolves in water to create a
mixture of nitric acid and nitrous acid.
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝐻𝑁𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
Alternatively nitrogen dioxide can also oxidize to form nitric acid.
2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 4𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 4𝑁𝐻𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)

Effects of acid deposition

Impact on materials
Buildings made of materials like marble and limestone which are forms of calcium carbonate.
When in contact with sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid they form a calcium salt. This washes out
the limestone which erodes structures like old buildings or sculptures.
Impact on plant life
Acid rain directly causes slower growth, injury and even death of plants. Acid rain wash away
important minerals before they can be absorbed by plants which are essential for photosynthesis
to occur.
Impact of water
Acid rain causes some lakes to become unable to support life.
Impact on human health
It does not present a direct threat but some of the sulfate and nitrate particles can teravel long
distances in air and can cause irritation of the respiratory track.

Reducing emission of sulfur dioxide

1. Pre-combustion methods
These are processed which reduce or remove the sulfur present in coal or oil before
combustion. The metal sulfide present can be removed by crushing the coal and washing it
with water. Additionally hydrodesulphurization (HDS) is a process by which sulfur is
removed from petroleum by reacting it with hydrogen to produce hydrogen sulfide.
2. Post-combustion methods
A process called Flue-gas desulfurization is used which can remove up to 90% of the sulfur
dioxide from glue gas in smoke.

Reducing 𝑁𝑂𝑥 emissions

1. Catalytic converters in vehicles
Exhaust gases can be controlled by the use of catalytic converters which convert toxic
emissions into harmless ones.
2. Lower temperature of combustion
The production of nitrogen monoxide is reduced at lower temperature, therefore by
recirculating the exhaust gases back into the engine we can lower the temperature to reduce the
nitrogen oxide emissions.