Reinforced Concrete Design

INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL CENTER
IPRC-SOUTH
SOUTHERN PROVINCE
Building Sustainable Self Reliance
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
OPTION OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
LECTURE NOTES
MODULE TITLE: DESIGN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
MODULE CODE: CET 301
ACADEMIC YEAR 2016-2017
LEVEL THREE
Compiled by Eng. Bonfils NSHIZIRUNGU

Assistant Lecturer/ Civil Engineering
JANUARY 2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. i
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ v
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS ...................................................................................................................... x
UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1
1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS .............................................................................. 1
1.2 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ......................................................... 1
1.3 DESIGN PROCESS.............................................................................................................. 2
1.4 LIMIT STATE DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 2
1.4.1 Ultimate limit state (ULS) ............................................................................................. 2
1.4.2 Serviceability limit state (SLS) ...................................................................................... 3
1.5 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................... 3
1.5.1 Concrete ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.5.3. Composite action ........................................................................................................ 14
1.5.4 Reinforced concrete ..................................................................................................... 15
1.6 LOAD ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 24
1.6.1 Types of loads on structures. ....................................................................................... 24
1.6. 2. Dead Loads (DL) ....................................................................................................... 24
1.6.3 Imposed Loads or Live Loads (IL or LL) .................................................................... 26
1.6.4. Wind loads .................................................................................................................. 27
1.6.5. Snow Loads (SL) ........................................................................................................ 28
1.6.6. Earthquake Loads (EL) ............................................................................................... 29
1.7 DESIGN CODES. ............................................................................................................... 29
1.7.1 Purpose of design codes:.............................................................................................. 29
1.7.2 Following are the functions of design codes: .............................................................. 30
1.7.3 Standard ....................................................................................................................... 30
UNIT TWO: ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION ............................................................................ 32
2.1 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS ....................................................................................... 32
2.2 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS AND STRESSES ACROSS A SECTION ..................... 35
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2.3 BENDING AND EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR STRESS BLOCK .......................... 37
UNIT THREE: ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SECTION ................................. 39
3.1: ANALYSIS OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR CONCRETE SECTION . 39
3.1.1 Moment of resistance for rectangular stress block ...................................................... 39
3.1.2 Procedure for the design of singly reinforced rectangular beam ................................. 42
3.1.3 Analysis of equations for a singly reinforced section. ............................................ 45
3.2 ANALYSIS OF DOUBLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR CONCRETE SECTION. 47
3.2.1 Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement at the Ultimate Limit State... 47
3.2.2 Analysis of Doubly reinforced rectangular section ..................................................... 54
3.3 FLANGED SECTION IN BENDING AT THE ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE .................. 55
3.3.1. Flanged Section - the Depth o-f the Stress Block Lies Within the Flange, s <hf ....... 56
3.3.2 Flanged Section - the Depth of the Stress Block Extends below the Flange, s> hf ..... 58
3.3.3 Flanged Section with Compression Reinforcement ..................................................... 64
UNIT FOUR: REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM DESIGN. ................................................... 65
4.1 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS AND MEMBER SIZING .................................................. 65
4.2. DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR BEAMS ........................................................................ 68
4.3 DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS ..................................................................................... 71
4.3.1. Flanged Beam under Negative Moment ..................................................................... 71
4.3.2. Flanged Beam under Positive Moment ....................................................................... 71
5.3.3. Minimum and maximum reinforcement ..................................................................... 74
4.4. DESIGN BEAM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT ............................................................... 76
4.4.1. Determine Shear Stress ............................................................................................... 76
4.4.2. Determine Required Shear Reinforcement ................................................................ 77
4.5. CONTINUOUS, L AND T BEAMS ................................................................................ 96
UNIT 5 REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS DESIGN. .......................................................... 108
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 108
5.2 TYPES OF SLABS ........................................................................................................... 109
5.3 DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SPANNING SOLID SLAB .................................................... 114
5.3.1 Depth of slab (clause 3.5.7, BS 8110) ....................................................................... 115
5.3.2 Steel areas (clause 3.5.4, BS 8110) ............................................................................ 116
6.2.3 Shear (clause 3.5.5 of BS 8110)................................................................................. 117
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5.3.4 Reinforcement details (clause 3.12, BS 8110) ........................................................... 117
5.4 CONTINUOUS ONE-WAY SPANNING SOLID SLAB DESIGN................................ 126
5.5 TWO-WAY SPANNING RESTRAINED SOLID SLAB DESIGN ................................ 131
5.6 STAIR SLABS.................................................................................................................. 140
5.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 140
5.6.2 Stair slab spanning horizontally ................................................................................. 140
5.6.3 Stair slab spanning longitudinally .............................................................................. 142
5.6.3 Example of design of a stair slab ............................................................................... 143
UNIT 6 REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN DESIGN. ..................................................... 146
6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 146
6.2 COLUMN SECTIONS ..................................................................................................... 146
6.3 SHORT AND SLENDER COLUMNS ............................................................................ 148
6.4 BRACED AND UNBRACED COLUMNS (CLAUSE 3.8.1.5, BS 8110) ...................... 149
6.5 EFFECTIVE HEIGHT...................................................................................................... 150
6.6 SHORT BRACED COLUMN DESIGN .......................................................................... 152
6.6.1 Axially loaded columns (clause 3.8.4.3, BS 8110) .................................................... 154
6.6.2 Columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams (clause
3.8.4.4, BS 8110) ................................................................................................................ 155
6.6.3 Columns resisting axial load and bending ................................................................. 156
6.7 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS ....................................................................................... 163
6.7.1 Longitudinal reinforcement ....................................................................................... 163
6.7.2 Links (clause 3.12.7, BS 8110) .................................................................................. 164
UNIT SEVEN: REINFORCED CONCRETE FOUNDATION DESIGN. ................................ 173
7.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 173
7.2 FOUNDATION TYPES ................................................................................................... 174
7.3 FOUNDATION DESIGN ................................................................................................. 176
7.3.1 Pad footing ................................................................................................................. 177
7.3.2 Combined footings ..................................................................................................... 182
UNIT 8: REINFORCED CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS DESIGN ................................. 188
8.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 188
8.2 GRAVITY WALLS ......................................................................................................... 189
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8.3 FLEXIBLE WALLS ........................................................................................................ 189
8.3.1 Cantilever walls. ........................................................................................................ 190
8.3.2 Counterfort walls. ...................................................................................................... 190
8.4 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER WALLS ............................................................................ 191
8.4.1 Soil pressures ............................................................................................................ 192
8.4.2 Stability ..................................................................................................................... 194
8.4.3 Reinforcement areas .................................................................................................. 196
UNIT 9: REINFORCED CONCRETE WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES DESIGN. ..... 203
9.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 203
9.2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS ............................................................ 204
9.3 JOINTS IN WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES ....................................................... 205
9.3.1 Construction Joints..................................................................................................... 206
9.3.2 Movement Joints ........................................................................................................ 207
9.3.3 Provision of movement Joints .................................................................................... 210
9.4 DESIGN METHODS........................................................................................................ 212
9.4.1 Limit State Design ..................................................................................................... 212
9.4.2 Elastic Design ............................................................................................................ 221
9.5 WATER TANK DESIGN EXAMPLE ............................................................................. 226
REFERENCE .............................................................................................................................. 231
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure1-1 stress strain curve for concrete in compression........................................................ 5
Figure1-2 increase of concrete strength with age....................................................................... 6
Figure1-3 Dynamic modulus of elasticity. .................................................................................. 8
Figure 1-4 Modulus of elasticity of concrete............................................................................... 8
Figure 1-5Stress-strain curves for high yield reinforcing steel ............................................... 12
Figure 1-6 strain hardening ....................................................................................................... 12
Figure 1-7simply supported beam subjected to bending......................................................... 15
Figure 1-8 Shrinkage strains ...................................................................................................... 18
Figure 1-9 shrinkage forces adjacent to a crack .................................................................. 20
Figure 1-10 Typical increase of deformation with time for concrete ..................................... 22
Figure 1-11 Types of Loads on structures ................................................................................ 24
Figure2-1Stress-strain diagrams (a) concrete; (steel) .............................................................. 33
Figure2-2(a)Section; (b)strain; (c) rectangular parabolic stress diagram; (d)simplified
stress diagram.............................................................................................................................. 34
Figure2-3Rectangular section with typical stress blocks ........................................................ 35
Figure 2-4 singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block ........................................ 38
Figure 3-1lever arm curve .......................................................................................................... 40
Figure3-2Section with compression reinforcement. ................................................................ 47
Figure3-3Typical design hart for doubly reinforced beams ................................................... 51
Figure3-4T-section, stress block within the flange, s less than hf ........................................... 56
Figure3-5Flanged section with depth of neutral axis x=d/2 .................................................... 63
Figure4-1 beam analysis flow chart........................................................................................... 66
Figure 4-2 beam dimension ........................................................................................................ 67
Figure4-3Effective section of a rectangular beam, stress and strain distributions............... 69
Figure4-4Effective section of a T-beam, stress and strain distributions................................ 71
Figure4-5Floor slab; (a) plan; (b) cross-section ....................................................................... 97
Figure4-6 Small building to design.......................................................................................... 100
Figure5-1Floor slab as a series of beams connected transversely ........................................ 108
Figure5-2Vrious applications for slabs in reinforced concrete structures. ......................... 109
Figure5-3solid slab .................................................................................................................... 110
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Figure5-4flat slab ...................................................................................................................... 110
Figure5-5Methods of reducing shear stresses in flat slab construction: (a) deep slab and
large column; (b) slab with flared column head; (c) slab with drop panel and column head.
..................................................................................................................................................... 111
Figure5-6Prefabricated punching shear reinforcement for flat slabs: (a) shear hoops; (b)
ACI shear stirrups; (c) shear ladders; (d) stud rails. Typical arrangement for an internal
column ........................................................................................................................................ 112
Figure5-7Ribbed slab ............................................................................................................... 113
Figure5-8Precast concrete floor units: (a) hollow core plank; (b) double T unit ............... 113
Figure5-9 One-way spanning solid slab: (a) plan; (b) elevation ........................................... 114
Figure5-10Plan of two way spanning slab. lx length of shorter side, ly length of longer side.
Provide ly/lx less or equal to 2 slab span two direction as indicated.................................... 114
Figure5-11Effective span of simply supported slab ............................................................... 115
Figure5-12Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in slabs: (a) simply supported ends; (b)
continuous slab (based on fig 3.25, BS8110) ........................................................................... 119
Figure5-13Definition of panels and bays ................................................................................ 127
Figure 5-14Bending of two way spanning slabs ..................................................................... 132
Figure5-15Locations of moments ............................................................................................ 133
Figure5-16Plan view of panel to design .................................................................................. 134
Figure 5-17Stairs main technical terms .................................................................................. 140
Figure 5-18Stairs spanning horizontally ................................................................................. 141
Figure 5-19Cantilevered stairs................................................................................................. 142
Figure 5-20Stair spanning into landings ................................................................................. 143
Figure 5-21Stairs supported by beams ................................................................................... 145
Figure 6-1Functions of a column ............................................................................................. 147
Figure 6-2Column cross-section .............................................................................................. 147
Figure 6-3Short column............................................................................................................ 149
Figure 6-4 Slender column ....................................................................................................... 149
Figure 6-5Columns braced in y direction and unbraced in the x direction. ....................... 150
Figure 6-6Columns braced in both directions ........................................................................ 150
Figure 6-7Column unbraced in both directions ..................................................................... 150
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Figure 6-8Column and restraint conditions ........................................................................... 151
Figure 6-9Floor plan ................................................................................................................. 154
Figure 6-10Cross-section of a column ..................................................................................... 154
Figure 6-11Column design chart (based on chart 27, BS 8110: Part 3)............................... 158
Figure 6-12Column with moments .......................................................................................... 163
Figure 6-13Axial load on longitudinal reinforcement ........................................................... 164
Figure 6-14Links to resist buckling forces.............................................................................. 165
Figure 6-15Arrangement of links in columns ......................................................................... 166
Figure7-1 Loading on foundation ............................................................................................ 173
Figure7-2 Foundation failure: (a) sliding failure; (b) overturning failure .......................... 174
Figure .7-3 Pad footing: (a) plan; (b) elevation ...................................................................... 174
Figure7-4stip footings: (a) footing supporting column; (footing supporting wall) ............. 175
Figure7-5Raft foundation. Typical sections through raft foundation: (a) flat slab; (flat slab
and downstand); (c) flat slab and upstand ............................................................................. 175
Figure7-6Pile foundation .......................................................................................................... 176
Figure7-7critical section for bending ...................................................................................... 177
Figure7-8critical section for shear........................................................................................... 177
Figure7-9Combined bases ........................................................................................................ 182
Figure7-10Combined footing example .................................................................................... 183
Figure8-1Section through rod embankment incorporating a retaining wall ...................... 189
Figure8-2Gravity retaining wall: (a) mass concrete; (b) masonry wall ............................... 190
Figure8-3Cantiler wall.............................................................................................................. 191
Figure8-4Counterfort retaining wall....................................................................................... 191
Figure8-5Active and Passive pressure acting on a wall ......................................................... 192
Figure8-6Modes of failure: (a) sliding; (b) overturning; (c) slip circle ................................ 195
Figure8-7Restoring moment and overturning moment ........................................................ 196
Figure9-1construction joints .................................................................................................... 206
Figure9-2construction procedure for walls ............................................................................ 207
Figure9-3Partial Contraction joint ......................................................................................... 208
Figure9-4complete movement joints ....................................................................................... 209
Figure9-5typical sliding joint between slab and wall ............................................................ 209
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Figure9-6Nuetral axis depths for cracked rectangular section-elastic behavior ................ 220
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1 Characteristic strength of concrete .......................................................................... 10
Table 1-2Short-term modulus of elasticity of normal-weight gravel concrete...................... 11
Table 1-3 Strength of reinforcement ......................................................................................... 13
Table 1-4 Unit weights of some of the common materials ....................................................... 25
Table 1-5 lives loads .................................................................................................................... 27
Table 3-1the value of z/d based on the calculated K ................................................................ 40
Table4-1minimum and maximum tensile reinforcement ........................................................ 75
Table4-2Minimum and maximum compression reinforcement ............................................. 75
Table4-3Asv/Sv for varying stirrup diameter and spacing ..................................................... 78
Table4-4cross-sectional areas of groups of bars (mm2) .......................................................... 80
Table5-5 Values of design of concrete shear stress, vc for fcu = 25N/mm2 concrete. ............ 81
Table4-6Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces ................................................ 97
Table5-1Basic Span- to- effective depth ratio as provided by BS 8110 ............................... 116
Table5-2Form and area of shear reinforcement in solid slabs. ............................................ 117
Table5-3Ultimate bending moments and shear forces in one-way spanning slabs with
simple end supports (table 3.12, BS8110) ............................................................................... 127
Table5-4Bending moments coefficients, βsx and βsy for restrained slabs (based on table
3.14, BS8110) ............................................................................................................................. 133
Table5-5Shear force coefficients, βvx and βvy for restrained slabs (based on table 3.15, BS
8110) ........................................................................................................................................... 133
Table 6-1Values of beta for braced columns (Table 3.19, BS 8110) ..................................... 151
Table 6-2 Values of coefficient beta (Table 3.22, BS 8110) ................................................... 162
Table8-1values of unit weight of soil types with their corresponding internal angle of
friction ........................................................................................................................................ 193
Table9-1Limit state method-limitations for reinforced concrete ......................................... 211
Table9-2Suggested joint and reinforced combination for thermal and shrinkage effects . 211
Table9-3Elastic method-strength calculations, permissible concrete stresses .................... 222
Table9-4Elastic method-strength calculations, permissible steel stresses ........................... 223
Table9-5Elastic method-cracking calculations, permissible stresses ................................... 223
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
Ac: Area of the transversal cross section of the column

𝑨𝐬𝐜 :: Area of the compression reinforcement
𝑨𝑺 : Area of the tensile reinforcement
𝑨𝐬𝐯 : Area of the nominal links or stirrups
𝑨𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒏 : The minimum required area of the reinforcement
b: The width of the member
𝛃𝐬𝐱 : Short span coefficient for all values of Ly/Lx
𝛃𝐬𝐲 : Long span coefficient for all values of Ly/Lx
bw:The width of the web(for the T- beam)
C: Concrete cover
d: The effective depth of the member
dw: The depth of the web
fcu: The compressive strength of the concrete
fy: The tensile strength of the reinforcement
F: The concentrated load
fyv:The characteristic strength of the stirrups
Gk: The dead load
h:The overall depth of the member
hf:The overall depth of the flange
hagg: The maximum diameter of the coarse aggregate.
M: Moment
𝐌𝐬𝐗𝐧 : negative moment in the direction of Lx at the support
𝐌𝐬𝐲𝐧 : negative moment in the direction of Ly at the support
𝐌𝐬𝐗𝐩 : positive moment in the direction of Lx at the mid span
M𝐬𝐲𝐩 : positive moment in the direction of Ly at the mids pan
n: The uniformly distributed ultimate load
Qk: The live load
𝒗: Shear stress
Sv: Nominal links spacing
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Z: The lever arm
@: Spacing (between two reinforcement)
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UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

A structural design project may be divided into three phases, i.e. planning, design and
construction.
1. Planning: This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting
the general layout and dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of one or perhaps
several alternative types of structure, which offer the best general solution. The primary
consideration is the function of the structure. Secondary considerations such as aesthetics,
sociology, law, economics and the environment may also be taken into account. In addition there
are structural and constructional requirements and limitations, which may affect the type of
structure to be designed.
2. Design: This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions defined in the
planning phase and results in the determination of the most suitable proportions, dimensions and
details of the structural elements and connections for constructing each alternative structural
arrangement being considered.
3. Construction: This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and
equipment, including their transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection. During this
phase, some redesign may be required if unforeseen difficulties occur, such as unavailability of
specified materials or foundation problems.
1.2 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Design is a term that is often used in engineering which refers to deciding on the parameters of
an engineering system by performing calculations or using software tools. That engineering
system could be anything ranging from a bridge to a water treatment plant. These parameters can
be related to various fields of study, so we can have structural design or hydraulic design or
others. There could be overlapping of the same parameter and that's where designing a system
holistically comes into picture.
Analysis is a procedure to find information and a better idea about the engineering system. This
helps to decide the parameters of the system i.e. design. It means that analysis is done before
design.
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1.3 DESIGN PROCESS
The attainment of design objectives requires compliance with defined standards for materials,
production, workmanship, maintenance and use of the structure. Design, construction and service
use should be considered as a whole and the performance requirements should be clearly
defined, wherever possible, early in the design process.
1.4 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

The structural design of any structure first involves establishing the loading and other design
conditions, which must be supported by the structure and therefore must be considered in its
design.
A limit state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the relevant design
criteria. The condition may refer to a degree of loading or other actions on the structure, while
the criteria refer to structural integrity, fitness for use, durability or other design requirements.
A structure designed by LSD is proportioned to sustain all actions likely to occur during its
design life, and to remain fit for use, with an appropriate level of reliability for each limit state.
Building codes based on LSD implicitly define the appropriate levels of reliability by their
prescriptions.
Limit state design requires the structure to satisfy two principal criteria: the ultimate limit state
(ULS) and the serviceability limit state (SLS).
1.4.1 Ultimate limit state (ULS)
ULS is not a physical situation but rather an agreed computational condition that must be
fulfilled, among other additional criteria, in order to comply with the engineering demands for
strength and stability under design loads.
The ULS condition is computationally checked at a certain point along the behavior function of
the structural scheme, located at the upper part of its elastic zone at approximately 15% lower
than the elastic limit.
That means that the ULS is a purely elastic condition, located on the behavior function far below
the real Ultimate point, which is located deeply within the plastic zone.

A structure is deemed to satisfy the ultimate limit state criterion if all factored bending, shear and
tensile or compressive stresses are below the factored resistances calculated for the section under
consideration. The factored stresses referred to are found by applying Magnification Factors to
the loads on the section. Reduction Factors are applied to determine the various factored
resistances of the section.
Complying with the design criteria of the ULS is considered as the minimum requirement
(among other additional demands) to provide the proper structural safety.
1.4.2 Serviceability limit state (SLS)

The aim is to prove that under the action of Characteristic design loads (un-factored), and/or
whilst applying certain (un-factored) magnitudes of imposed deformations, settlements, or
vibrations, or temperature gradients etc. the structural behavior complies with, and does not
exceed, the SLS design criteria values, specified in the relevant standard in force.
These criteria involve various stress limits, deformation limits (deflections, rotations and
curvature), flexibility (or rigidity) limits, dynamic behavior limits, as well as crack control
requirements (crack width) and other arrangements concerned with the durability of the structure
and its level of everyday service level and human comfort achieved, and its abilities to fulfill its
everyday functions. In view of non-structural issues it might also involve limits applied to
acoustics and heat transmission that might also affect the structural design.
To satisfy the serviceability limit state criterion, a structure must remain functional for its
intended use subject to routine (read: everyday) loading, and as such the structure must not cause
occupant discomfort under routine conditions.
1.5 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
1.5.1 Concrete
Concrete is arguably the most important building material, playing a part in all building
structures. Concrete is produced by the collective mechanical and chemical interaction of a
large number of constituent materials.
The concrete-producing material includes: Cement; Fine and coarse aggregate; Water; Air; and
Admixtures.
1. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement is the commonest type in use: (lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide)
When water is added to cement and the constituents are mixed to form cement paste. Chemical
reactions occur and the mix becomes stiffer with time and sets
The addition of gypsum mentioned above retards and controls the setting time
This ensures that the concrete does not set too quickly before it can be placed or too slowly so as
to hold up construction.
2. Aggregates
Aggregates are: sand gravels which are bound together by cement. Aggregate is classed into
the following two sizes: coarse aggregate—gravel or crushed rock 5 mm or larger in size;
fine aggregate—sand less than 5 mm in size and Natural aggregates are classified according
to the rock type, e.g. basalt, granite, flint.
3. Admixtures
Admixtures are materials other than water, aggregates, or hydraulic cement that are used as
ingredients of concrete and that are added to the batch immediately before or during the
mixing. Their purpose is modify the properties of the concrete, i.e., to make it more suitable
for the work at hand, or for economy, or for other purposes such as saving energy.
Admixtures covered by B.S are as follows: hardening or setting accelerators or retarders;
Water-reducing admixtures which give an increase in workability with a lower water- to-cement
ratio; air-entraining admixtures, which increase resistance to damage from freezing and thawing;
Super plasticizers, which are used for concrete in complicated sections and waterproof cement,
which is used in hydraulic structures( water containing structures).
Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression
Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain curves. A
typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure 1.1. As the load is applied, the ratio
between the stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and the concrete behaves almost
as an elastic material with virtually full recovery of displacement if the load is removed.
Eventually the curve is no longer linear and the concrete behaves more and more as a plastic
material. If the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be
complete and a permanent deformation would remain.

The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be a constant value of approximately
0.0035, although this is likely to reduce for concretes with cube strengths above about
60N/mm2. BS EN 1.992
'Design of Concrete Structures' - commonly known as Eurocode 2 (or EC2) recommends
values for use in such cases. The precise shape of the stress-strain curve is very dependent on
the length of time the load is applied, a factor which will he further discussed in section
1.5.4 on reinforced concrete properties ( on creep). Figure 1.1 is typical for a short-term
loading.
Figure1-1 stress strain curve for concrete in compression
Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic is illustrated by the graph
in figure 2.3 which shows how the increase is rapid at first, becoming more gradual later. The
precise relationship will depend upon the type of cement used. That shown is for the typical
variation of an adequately cured concrete made with commonly used class 42.5
Portland cement. Some codes of practice allow the concrete strength used in design to be varied
according to the age of the concrete when it supports the design load. European Codes, however,
do not permit the use of strengths greater than the 28-day value in calculations, but the modulus
of elasticity may be modified to account for age as shown later.

Figure1-2 increase of concrete strength with age.
Typical curve for a concrete made with a class 42.5 Portland cement with a 28 day compressive
strength of 30 N/mm2
In the United Kingdom, compressive stress has traditionally been measured and expressed in
terms of 150 mill cube crushing strength at an age of 28 days. Most other countries use 150 mm
diameter cylinders which are 300 mm long. For normal strength concretes, tire cylinder strength
is, on average, about 0.8xthe cube strength. All design calculations to EC2 are based on the
characteristic cylinder strength fck as defined in section below. Cube strengths may however
be used for compliance purposes, with the characteristic strength identified as fck,cube.
Concretes will normally be specified in terms of these 28-day characteristic strengths, [or
example strength class C35/45 concrete has a characteristic cylinder strength of 35N/mm2
and a characteristic cube strength of 45N/mm2. It will be noted that there is some 'rounding
off' in these values, which are usually quoted in multiples of 5N/mm2 for cube strength.
Concretes made with lightweight aggregates are identified by the prefix LC.

Modulus of elasticity of concrete
It is seen from the stress-strain curve for concrete that although elastic behaviour may be
assumed for stresses below about one-third of the ultimate compressive strength, this relationship
is not truly linear. Consequently it is necessary to define precisely what value is to be taken as
the modulus of elasticity.
A number of alternative definitions exist. but the most commonly adopted is E=Ecm where
Ecm is known as the secant or static modulus. This is measured for a particular concrete by
means of a static test in which a cylinder is loaded to just above one-third of the
corresponding mean control cube stress fck,cube or 0.4 mean cylinder strength. and then cycled
back to zero stress. This removes the effect of initial 'bedding-in' and minor stress
redistributions in the concrete under load. The load is reapplied and the behaviour will then
be almost linear; the average slope or the line up to [he specified stress is taken as the value
for Ecm. The test is described in detail in BS1881 and the result is generally known as the secant
modulus of elasticity.
The dynamic modulus of elasticity, Ed, is sometimes referred to since this is much easier to
measure in the laboratory and there is a fairly well-defined relationship between Ecm and Ed.
The standard test is based on determining the resonant frequency of a prism specimen and is
also described in BS 1881. It is also possible to obtain a good estimate of E" from ultrasonic
measuring techniques, which may sometimes he used on site to assess the concrete in an
actual structure. The standard test for Ed is on an unstressed specimen. It can be seen from
figure 1.4 that the value obtained represents the slope of [he tangent at zero stress and Ed is
therefore higher than Ecm. The relationship between the two moduli is often taken as Secant
modulus
Ecm=(1.25Ed-19)kN/mm2
This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes.
The actual value of E for a concrete depends on many factors related to the mix, but a general
relationship is considered to exist between the modulus of elasticity and the compressive
strength.

Figure1-3 Dynamic modulus of elasticity.
Figure 1-4 Modulus of elasticity of concrete
Typical values of Ecm for various concrete classes using gravel aggregates which are suitable for
design are shown in table 1.1. For limestone aggregates these values should be reduced by a
factor of 0.9, or for basalt increased by a factor of 1.2. The magnitude of the modulus of
elasticity is required when investigating the deflection and cracking of a structure. When
considering short-term effects, member stiffness will be based on the static modulus
Ecm.defined above. If long-term effects are being considered, it can be shown that the effect of
creep can be represented by modifying the value of Ecm to an effective value Ec,eff , and this will
be discussed further sections.
The elastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from this table by using
the anticipated strength value at that age. If a typical value of Poisson's ratio is needed, this
should be taken as 0.2 for regions which are not subject to tension cracking

Specification of concrete
The selection of the type of concrete is frequently governed by the strength required, which in
turn depends on the intensity of loading and the form and size of the structural members. For
example, in the lower columns of a multi-storey building a higher-strength concrete may be
chosen in preference to greatly increasing the size of the column section with a resultant loss in
clear floor space.
The concrete strength is assessed by measuring the crushing strength of cubes or cylinders of
concrete made from the mix. These are usually cured, and tested after 28 days according to
standard procedures. Concrete of 0a given strength is identified by its 'class' - a Class 25/30
concrete has a characteristic cylinder crushing strength (fck) of 25 N/mm2 and cube strength of
30 N/mm2 Table 1.2 shows a list of commonly used classes and also the lowest class normally
appropriate for various types of construction.
Exposure conditions and durability can also affect the choice of the mix design and the class of
concrete. A structure subject to corrosive conditions in a chemical plant, for example, would
require a denser and higher class of concrete than, say, the interior members of a school
or office block. Although Class 42.5 Portland cement would be used in most structures,
other cement types can also be used to advantage.
Blast-furnace or sulfate resisting cement may be used to resist chemical attack, low-heat
cements in massive sections to reduce the heat of hydration, or rapid-hardening cement when a
high early strength is required, In some circumstances it may be useful to replace some of the
cement by materials such as Pulverised Fuel Ash or Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
which have slowly developing cementitious properties. These will reduce the heat of
hydration and may also lead to a smaller pore structure and increased durability. Generally,
natural aggregates found locally arc preferred: however, manufactured lightweight material
may be used when self- weight is important, or a special dense aggregate when radiation
shielding is required.
The concrete mix may either be classified as 'designed' or 'designated'. A 'designed concrete' is
one where the strength class, cement type, and limits to composition, including water- cement

ratio and cement content, are specified. With a 'designated concrete' the producer must
provide a material to satisfy the designated strength class and consistence (workability) using a
particular aggregate size. 'Designated concretes' are identified as RC30 (for example) based on
cube strength up to RC50 according to the application involved. 'Designed concretes' are
needed in situations where 'designated concretes' cannot be used on the basis of durability
requirements.
Table 1-1 Characteristic strength of concrete
Detailed requirements for mix specification and compliance are given by BS EN206
'Concrete - Performance, Production, Placing and Compliance Criteria' and BS8S00 'Concrete -
Complementary British Standard to BS EN206'
1.5.2 Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement consists of Bars, Wires, Welded wire fabric
The most important properties of steel are:
– Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity), E
– Yield Strength, fy
– Ultimate Strength, fu
– Steel Grade Designation.

– Size or Diameter of the bar or wire.
Figure 1.5 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) hot rolled high yield steel, and (b) cold-
worked high yield steel. Mild steel behaves as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to
the stress up to the yield, at which point there is a sudden increase in strain with no change in
stress. After the yield point, this becomes a plastic material and the strain increases rapidly up to
the ultimate value. High yield steel, which is most commonly used for reinforcement, may
behave in a similar manner or may, on the other hand, not have such a definite yield point
but may show a more gradual change from elastic to plastic behaviour and reduced ductility
depending on the manufacturing process. All materials have a similar slope of the elastic
region with elastic modulus Es=200 kN/mm2 approximately.
Table 1-2Short-term modulus of elasticity of normal-weight gravel concrete

Figure 1-5Stress-strain curves for high yield reinforcing steel
The specified strength used in design is based on either the yield stress or a specified proof
stress. A 0.2 per cent proof stress is defined in figure 2.5 by the broken line drawn parallel to
the linear part of the stress-strain curve. Removal of the load within the plastic range would
result in the stress-strain diagram following a line approximately parallel to the loading
portion - see line BC in figure 2.6. The steel will be left with a permanent strain AC, which is
known as 'slip'. If the steel is again loaded, the stress-strain diagram will follow the unloading
Curve until it almost reaches the original stress at B and then it will curve in the direction of the
first loading. Thus, the proportional limit for the second loading is higher than for the initial
loading. This action is referred to as 'strain hardening' or 'work hardening'.
Figure 1-6 strain hardening
The load deformation of the steel is also dependent on the length of time the load is applied.
Under a constant stress the strains will gradually increase - this phenomenon is known as
'creep' or 'relaxation'.
The amount of creep that takes place over a period of time depends on the grade or steel and
the magnitude of the stress. Creep of the steel is of little significance in normal reinforced
concrete work, but it is an important factor in prestressed concrete where the prestressing steel
is very highly stressed.
Specification of steel reinforcement
Table 1.3 lists the characteristic design strengths of some of the more common types of
reinforcement currently used in the UK. Grade 500 (500N/mm2 characteristic strength) has
replaced Grade 250 and Grade 460 reinforcing steel throughout Europe. The nominal size of a
bar is the diameter of an equivalent circular area.

Grade 250 bars are hot-rolled mild-steel bars which usually have a smooth surface so that the
bond with the concrete is by adhesion only.
High-yield bars are manufactured with a ribbed surface or in the form of a twisted square.
Square twisted bars have inferior bond characteristics and have been used in the past,
although they are now obsolete. Deformed bars have a mechanical bond with the concrete, thus
enhancing ultimate bond stresses as described in this module.
The bending or high-yield bars through a small radius is liable to cause tension cracking of
the steel, and to avoid this the radius of the bend should not be less than two times the nominal
bar size for small bars (≤16 mm) or 3 times for larger bars. The ductility of reinforcing steel is
also classified for design purposes. Ribbed high yield bars may be classified as:
Class A - which is normally associated with small diameter (≤12 mm) cold-worked bars used
in mesh and fabric? This is the lowest ductility category and will include limits on moment
redistribution which can be applied and higher quantities for tire resistance.
Class B - which is most commonly used for reinforcing bars.
Class C - high ductility which may be used in earthquake design or similar situations
Floor slabs, walls, shells and roads may be reinforced with a welded fabric of reinforcement,
supplied in rolls and having it square or rectangular mesh. This can give large economies in
the detailing of the reinforcement and also in site labour costs of handling and fixing.
Prefabricated reinforcement bar assemblies are also becoming increasingly popular for
similar reasons. Welded fabric mesh made of ribbed wire greater than 6mm diameter may be
of any of the ductility classes listed above.
Table 1-3 Strength of reinforcement
The cross-sectional areas and perimeters of various sizes of bars, and the cross- sectional area
per unit width of slabs-are listed in the Appendix. Reinforcing bars in a member should either
be straight or bent to standard shapes.
These shapes must be fully dimensioned and listed in a schedule of the reinforcement which is
used on site for the bending and fixing of the bars. Standard bar shapes and a method of
scheduling are specified in BS8666.
The bar types as previously described is commonly identified by the following codes: H for
high yield steel, irrespective of ductility class or HA, HB, HC where a specific ductility class is
required; this notation is generally used throughout this book.
1.5.3. Composite action

The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength.
Because of this, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed on the assumption that the
concrete does not resist any tensile forces. Reinforcement is designed to carry these
tensile forces which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two materials. If this
bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the concrete and there will not be
a composite action.
Thus members should be detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around the
reinforcement during construction. In addition, bars are normally ribbed so that there is an
extra mechanical grip.
In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed that
there is a perfect bond, so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the strain in the
adjacent concrete. This ensures that there is what is known as 'compatibility of strains' across
the cross-section of the member.
The coefficients of thermal expansion for steel and for concrete are of the order of 10x10-6
per "C and 7-12x 10-6 per "C respectively. These values are sufficiently close that problems with
bond seldom arise from differential expansion between the two materials over normal
temperature ranges.

Figure 1.7 illustrates the behaviour of a simply supported beam subjected to bending and shows
the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the compression forces in
the top 0f the beam are carried by the concrete.
Figure 1-7simply supported beam subjected to bending
Wherever tension occurs it is likely that cracking or the concrete will take place. This
cracking, however, does not detract from the safety of the structure provided there is good
reinforcement bonding to ensure that the cracks are restrained from opening so that the
embedded steel continues to be protected from corrosion.
When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of concrete, then steel
reinforcement must again be provided, but in these cases it is only required to supplement the
load-carrying capacity of the concrete. For example, compression reinforcement is generally
required in a column, where it takes the form of vertical bars spaced near the perimeter. To
prevent these bars buckling, steel binders are used to assist the restraint provided by the
surrounding concrete.
1.5.4 Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is the composite material of concrete and steel reinforcements. Concrete is
weak in tension but strong in compression. Therefore, reinforcement is needed to resist the
tensile stresses resulting from the applied loads.

Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into many varied
shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender curved dome or
shell.
Its utility and versatility is achieved by combining the best features of concrete and steel.
Consider some of the widely differing properties of these two materials that are listed below.
It ca n be seen from this list that the materials are more or less complementary .Thus, when
they are combined the steel is able to provide the tensile strength and probably some of the
shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the steel to give durability and
fire resistance.
Properties of reinforced concrete

1. Shrinkage and thermal movement
As concrete hardens there is a reduction in volume, This shrinkage is liable to cause cracking of
the concrete, but it also has the beneficial effect of strengthening the bond between the concrete
and the steel reinforcement, Shrinkage begins to take place as soon as the concrete is mixed,
and is caused initially by the absorption of the water by the concrete, and the aggregate.
Further shrinkage is caused by evaporation of the water which rises to the concrete surface.
During the setting process the hydration of the cement causes a great deal of heat to be
generated, and as the concrete cools, further shrinkage takes place as a result of thermal
contraction. Even after the concrete has hardened, shrinkage continues as drying out persists
over many months, and any subsequent wetting and drying can also cause swelling and
shrinkage. Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by restricting the temperature rise during
hydration, which may be achieved by the following procedures:

1. Use a mix design with a low cement content or suitable cement replacement (e.g.
Pulverised Fuel Ash or Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag)
2. Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground cement if possible.
3. Keep aggregates and mixing water cool.
4. Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray.
5. Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hydration to dissipate.
A low water-cement ratio will help to reduce drying shrinkage by keeping to a minimum the
volume of moisture that can be lost.
If the change in volume of the concrete is allowed to take place freely and without restraint,
there will be no stress change within the concrete. Restraint of the shrinkage, on the other hand,
will cause tensile strains and stresses.
The restraint may be caused externally by fixity with adjoining members or friction against an
earth surface, and internally by the action of the steel reinforcement. For a long wall or floor
slab, the restraint from adjoining concrete may be reduced by constructing successive bays
instead of alternate bays. This allows the free end of every bay to contract before the next bay
is cast.
Day-to-day thermal expansion of the concrete can be greater than the movements caused by
shrinkage. Thermal stresses and strains may be controlled by the correct positioning of
movement or expansion joints in a structure. For example, the joints should be placed at an
abrupt change in cross-section and they should, in general, pass completely through the
structure in one plane.
When the tensile stresses caused by shrinkage or thermal movement exceed the strength or
the concrete, cracking will occur. To control the crack widths, steel reinforcement must be
provided close to the concrete surface: the codes of practice specify minimum quantities of
reinforcement in a member for this purpose.

Calculation of stresses induced by shrinkage
(a) Shrinkage restrained by the reinforcement
The shrinkage stresses caused by reinforcement in an otherwise unrestrained member may be
calculated quite simply. The member shown in figure 1.7 has a free shrinkage strain of εcs if
made of plain concrete, but this overall movement is reduced by the inclusion of' reinforcement,
giving a compressive strain εsc in the steel and causing an effective tensile strain εct in the
concrete.
Figure 1-8 Shrinkage strains
The stresses produced in members free from external restraint are generally small as in
example 1, and can be easily withstood both by the 'steel and the concrete.

(b) Shrinkage fully restrained
If the member is fully restrained, then the steel cannot be in compression since εsc = 0 and
hence fsc = 0 (figure 1.7). In this case the tensile strain induced in the concrete εct must be
equal to life free shrinkage strain εcs, and the corresponding stress will probably be high
enough to cause cracking in immature concrete.
EXAMPLE 2:
When cracking occurs, the uncracked lengths of concrete try to contract so that the embedded
steel between cracks is in compression while the steel across the cracks is in tension. This
feature is accompanied by localised bond breakdown, adjacent to each crack. The equilibrium of
the concrete and reinforcement is shown in figure 2.8 and calculations may be developed to
relate crack widths and spacings to properties of the cross-section; this is examined in
more detail in chapter which deals with serviceability requirements.
Figure 1-9 shrinkage forces adjacent to a crack

2. Thermal movement
The overall thermal contraction of concrete is, however, frequently effective in producing the
first crack in a restrained member, since the required temperature changes could easily occur
overnight in a newly cast member, even with good control of the heat generated during the
hydration processes.
EXAMPLE 3:
3. Creep
Creep is the continuous deformation of a member under sustained load. It is a phenomenon
associated with many materials, but it is particularly evident with concrete. The precise
behaviour of a particular concrete depends on the aggregates and the mix design as well as
the ambient humidity, member cross-section, and age at first loading, but the general pattern is'
illustrated by considering a member subjected to axial compression. For such a member, a
typical variation of deformation with time is shown by the curve in figure 2.9.
Figure 1-10 Typical increase of deformation with time for concrete
The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being transferred to
the reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive stresses in the steel are increased so that the steel
takes a larger proportion of the load.
The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased deflections may
cause the opening of cracks, damage to finishes, and the non-alignment of mechanical
equipment. Redistribution of stress between concrete and steel occurs primarily in the
uncracked compressive areas and has little effect on the tension reinforcement other than
reducing shrinkage stresses in some instances. The provision of reinforcement in the
compressive zone of a flexural member, however, often helps to restrain the deflections due to
creep.

4. Durability
Concrete structures, properly designed and constructed, are long lasting and should require little
maintenance. The durability of the concrete is influenced by
1. The exposure conditions;
2. The cement type;
3. The concrete quality;
4. The cover to the reinforcement;
5. The width of any cracks.
Concrete can be exposed to a wide range of conditions such as the soil, sea water, deicing salts,
stored chemicals or the atmosphere. The severity or the exposure governs the type of concrete
mix required and the minimum cover to the reinforcing steel.
Whatever the exposure, the concrete mix should be made from impervious and chemically inert
aggregates. A dense, well-compacted concrete with a low water-cement ratio is all
important and for some soil conditions it is advisable to use a sulfate-resisting cement.
Air entrainment is usually specified where it is necessary 10 cater for repealed freezing and
thawing.
Adequate cover is essential to prevent corrosive agents reaching the reinforcement through
cracks and pervious concrete. The thickness of cover required depends on the severity of the
exposure and the quality of the concrete. The cover is also necessary to protect the
reinforcement against a rapid rise in temperature and subsequent loss of strength during a
fire. Part 1.2 of EC2 provides guidance on this and other aspects of fire design.

1.6 LOAD ANALYSIS
1.6.1 Types of loads on structures.
The types of loads acting on structures for buildings and other structures can be broadly
classified as vertical loads, horizontal loads and longitudinal loads. The vertical loads consist of
dead load, live load and impact load. The horizontal loads comprises of wind load and
earthquake load. The longitudinal loads i.e. tractive and braking forces are considered in special
case of design of bridges, gantry girders etc...
Figure 1-11 Types of Loads on structures
Types of loads are:
1. Dead loads
2. Imposed loads
3. Wind loads
4. Snow loads
5. Earthquake loads
6. Special loads
1.6. 2. Dead Loads (DL)

The first vertical load that is considered is dead load. Dead loads are permanent or stationary
loads which are transferred to structure throughout the life span. Dead load is primarily due to

self weight of structural members, permanent partition walls, fixed permanent equipments and
weight of different materials. It majorly consists of the weight of roofs, beams, walls and column
etc. which are otherwise the permanent parts of the building.
The calculation of dead loads of each structure are calculated by the volume of each section and
multiplied with the unit weight. Unit weights of some of the common materials are presented in
table below.
Table 1-4 Unit weights of some of the common materials

1.6.3 Imposed Loads or Live Loads (IL or LL)
The second vertical load that is considered in design of a structure is imposed loads or live loads.
Live loads are either movable or moving loads without any acceleration or impact. These loads
are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building including weights
of movable partitions or furniture etc...
The code gives the values of live loads for the following occupancy classification:
Residential buildings–dwelling houses, hotels, hostels, boiler rooms and plant rooms, garages
Educational buildings
Institutional buildings
1. Assembly buildings
2. Business and office buildings
3. Mercantile buildings
4. Industrial buildings, and
5. Storage rooms.
The code gives uniformly distributed load as well as concentrated loads. The floor slabs have to
be designed to carry either uniformly distributed loads or concentrated loads whichever produce
greater stresses in the part under consideration. Since it is unlikely that any one particular time
all floors will not be simultaneously carrying maximum loading, the code permits some
reduction in imposed loads in designing columns, load bearing walls, piers supports and
foundations.
Some of the important values are presented in table below which are the minimum values and
wherever necessary more than these values are to be assumed.

Table 1-5 lives loads
1.6.4. Wind loads

Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to earth. Wind
load is required to be considered in structural design especially when the heath of the building
exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface.
For low rise building say up to four to five stories, the wind load is not critical because the
moment of resistance provided by the continuity of floor system to column connection and walls
provided between columns are sufficient to accommodate the effect of these forces. Further in
limit state method the factor for design load is reduced to 1.2 (DL+LL+WL) when wind is
considered as against the factor of 1.5(DL+LL) when wind is not considered.

The horizontal forces exerted by the components of winds are to be kept in mind while designing
is the building. The calculation of wind loads depends on the two factors, namely velocity of
wind and size of the building. Complete details of calculating wind load on structures are given
below (by the IS-875 (Part 3) -1987).
Using colour code, basic wind pressure ‘Vb’ is shown in a map of India. Designer can pick up the
value of Vb depending upon the locality of the building.
To get the design wind velocity Vz the following expression shall be used:
Vz= k1.k2.k3.Vb
Where k1= Risk coefficient
k2= Coefficient based on terrain, height and structure size.
k3= Topography factor
The design wind pressure is given by
Pz= 0.6 V2z

Where pz is in N/m2 at height Z and Vz is in m/sec. Up to a height of 30 m, the wind pressure is
considered to act uniformly. Above 30 m height, the wind pressure increases.
1.6.5. Snow Loads (SL)

Snow loads constitute to the vertical loads in the building. But these types of loads are
considered only in the snow fall places. The IS 875 (part 4) – 1987 deals with snow loads on
roofs of the building.
The minimum snow load on a roof area or any other area above ground which is subjected to
snow accumulation is obtained by the expression
Where S = Design snow load on plan area of roof.
= Shape coefficient, and
S0 = Ground snow load.

1.6.6. Earthquake Loads (EL)
Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces on the building. The total
vibration caused by earthquake may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular directions,
usually taken as vertical and two horizontal directions.
The movements in vertical direction do not cause forces in superstructure to any significant
extent. But the horizontal movement of the building at the time of earthquake is to be considered
while designing.
The response of the structure to the ground vibration is a function of the nature of foundation
soil, size and mode of construction and the duration and intensity of ground motion. IS 1893–
2014 gives the details of such calculations for structures standing on soils which will not
considerably settle or slide appreciably due to earthquake.
The seismic accelerations for the design may be arrived at from seismic coefficient, which is
defined as the ratio of acceleration due to earthquake and acceleration due to gravity. For
monolithic reinforced concrete structures located in the seismic zone 2, and 3 without more than
5 stories high and importance factor less than 1, the seismic forces are not critical.
1.7 DESIGN CODES.

Many countries have their own structural design codes, codes of practice or technical documents
which perform a similar function. It is necessary for a designer to become familiar with local
requirements or recommendations in regard to correct practice. In this chapter some examples
are given, occasionally in a simplified form, in order to demonstrate procedures.
1.7.1 Purpose of design codes:

National building codes have been formulated in different countries to lay down guidelines for
the design and construction of structures. The codes have been evolved from the collective
wisdom of expert structural engineers, gained over the years. These codes are periodically
revised to bring them in line with current research, and often current trends.

1.7.2 Following are the functions of design codes:
Firstly, the design codes ensure adequate structural safety, by specifying certain essential
minimum reinforcement for design.
Secondly, they render the task of the designer relatively simple, often the result of sophisticate
analysis is made in the form of a simple formula or chart.
Thirdly, the codes ensure a measure of consistency among different designers.
Finally, they have some legal validity in that they protect the structural designer from any
liability due to structural failures that are caused by inadequate supervision and/or faulty material
and construction.
1.7.3 Standard
The design and construction of buildings is regulated by municipal bylaws called building
codes. These exist to protect the public's health and safety. Each city, town, country or
country union is free to write or adopt its own building code, and in that area only that
particular code has legal status.
A thorough knowledge of the codes is one of the essential requirements of a designer.
The codes set out the design loads, load combinations and partial factors of safety, material
strengths, design procedures and sound construction practice.
The main codes involved have been mentioned below.
Each nation or group of nations in Europe has its own building code for reinforced concrete.
The CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures, published in 1978 and revised in 1990 by
the Comité Euro-International du Béton, Lausanne, was intended to serve as the basis for
future attempts to unify European codes. The European Community more recently has
published Eurocode No.2, Design of Concrete Structures.
Eventually, it is intended that this code will govern concrete design throughout the European
Community.
In the UK, design is generally to limit state theory in accordance with BS8110:1985: Structural
Use of Concrete. Part 1: Code of Practice for Design and Construction
BS8110:1985: Structural Use of Concrete. Part 2: Code of Practice for Special Circumstances

BS6399:1984: Design Loading for Building. Part 1: Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed
Loads
CP3:1972: Chapter V: Loading. Part 2: Wind Loads
The definitive design specification for reinforced concrete buildings in North America is the
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary (ACI
318R-08). The code and the commentary are bound together in one volume. This code,
generally referred to as the ACI Code, has been incorporated by reference in the
International Building Code and serves as the basis for comparable codes in Canada, New
Zealand, Australia, most of Latin America, and some countries in the middle east.
The new Zealand NZS 3101 in most of the provisions of ductility detailing for beams and
columns,
The ACI Code ACI 318-2011 for modifications of some of the detailing;
The china code GB 50011-2010 in some respects of detailing including that of wall.
The Eurocode BSEN 1536 for the detailing of bored pile and diagram wall.
N.B.: Our design will refer to BS8110:1985: Structural Use of Concrete

UNIT TWO: ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION
2.1 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS
1. The strains in the concrete and reinforcement are derived assuming that plane sections remain
plane;
2. The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived using either:
(a) The design stress-strain curve given in Fig.2.1 (a) with γm=1.5 or
(b) The simplified stress block shown in Fig.2.2 (d) where the depth of the stress block is 0.9 of
the depth to the neutral axis denoted by x.
Note that in both cases the maximum strain in the concrete at failure is 0.0035;
3. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored;
4. The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the stress-strain curve shown in Fig.2.1(b)
where γm=1.15;
5. Where the section is designed to resist flexure only, the lever arm should not be assumed to be
greater than 0.95 of the effective depth, d. This is because of the fact that at the top face during
compaction water tends to move to the top and causes higher water cement ratio than the rest of
the beam. In addition weathering also affects the strength. Because of that a layer of concrete at
the top is likely to be weak and by limiting the value of the lever arm z, one avoids the
possibility of expecting a weak layer of concrete to resist the compressive stress due to bending.

Figure2-1Stress-strain diagrams (a) concrete; (steel)
On the basis of these assumptions the strain and stress diagrams for the two alternative stress
distributions for the concrete in compression are as shown in fig 2.2. Where the following
symbol are used:

Figure2-2(a)Section; (b)strain; (c) rectangular parabolic stress diagram; (d)simplified
stress diagram
Where h = overall depth of the section; d = effective depth, i.e. depth from the compression face
to the centroid of tension steel; b = breadth of the section; x = depth to the neutral axis; fs =
stress in steel; As = area of tension reinforcement; εc= maximum strain in the concrete (0.0035)
and εs = strain in steel
The alternative stress distributions for the compressive stress in the concrete, the rectangular
parabolic stress diagram and the simplified stress block, are shown in Figs 2.2(c) and 2.2(d)
respectively.
The maximum strain in the concrete is 0.0035 and the strain εs in the steel depends on the depth
of the neutral axis. Stress-strain curves for concrete and for steel are shown inn Figs 2.1(a) and
2.2(b) respectively.

2.2 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS AND STRESSES ACROSS A SECTION
The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the
regions of tensile strains and that, after cracking, all the tension is carried by the reinforcement.
It is also assumed that plane sections of a structural member remain after straining, so that
across the section there must be a linear distribution of strains.
Figure2-3Rectangular section with typical stress blocks
Figure 2.3 shows the cross-section of a member subjected to bending and the resultant
strain diagram together with three different types of stress distribution in the concrete.
1. The triangular s t r e s s distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly
proportional to the strains, which generally occurs at the loading levels
encountered under working conditions and is, therefore, used at the serviceability
limit state.
2. The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the
compressive strains are within the plastic range. And it is associated with the design at
the ultimate limit state.
3. The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular-

parabolic distribution.
As there is compatibility of strains between the reinforcement and the adjacent concrete the
steel strains εst in tension and εsc in compression can be determined from the strain diagram,
The relationships between the depth of neutral axis (x) and the minimum concrete strain εcu and
the steel strains are given by
(1) and (2)
where d is the effective depth of the beam and d' is the depth of the compression
reinforcement.
Having determined the strains, we can evaluate the stresses in the reinforcement from the
stress-strain curve of figure 4.2, together with the equations developed in section
For analysis of a section with known steel strains, the depth of the neutral axis can be
determined by rearranging equation (1) as
(3)
At the ultimate limit state the maximum compressive strain in the concrete is taken as
εsc=0.0035
For steel with fy = 460N/mm2 the yield strain is 0.002. Inserting these values into equation
(3).
Hence, to ensure yielding of the section steel at the ultimate limit state:

At the ultimate limit state it is important that member sections in flexure should be ductile
and that failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by a
sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete.
Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that
redistribution of maximum moments can occur, resulting in a safer and more economical
structure. To be very certain of the tension steel yielding, the code of practice limits the
depth of neutral axis. So that
Where
Thus with moment redistribution not greater than 10%, and
This limit will normally be adopted for ultimate limit state design, but larger degrees of
moment redistribution will require a smaller limit to x to ensure that plastic hinges can form,
providing adequate rotation at the critical sections.
2.3 BENDING AND EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR STRESS BLOCK

For the design of most reinforced concrete structures it is used to commence the design for the
conditions at the ultimate limit state, which is then followed by checks to ensure that the
structure is adequate for the serviceability limit state without excessive deflection or cracking of

the concrete. For this reason the analysis in this chapter will first consider the simplified
rectangular stress block which can be used for the design at the ultimate limit state.
The rectangular stress block as shown in figure 2.4 may be used in preference to the more
rigorous rectangular-parabolic stress block. This simplified stress distribution will facilitate the
analysis and provide more manageable design equations, in particular dealing with non
rectangular cross-sections.
It can be seen from the figure that the stress block does not extend to the neutral axis of the
section but has a depth s = 0.9 x. this will result in the centroid of the stress block being s/2 =
0.45x from the top edge of the section, which is very nearly the same of the two types of stress
block are approximately equal.
Thus the moment of resistance of the section will be similar using calculations based on either of
the two stress blocks.
Figure 2-4 singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block

UNIT THREE: ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SECTION
3.1: ANALYSIS OF SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR CONCRETE SECTION
Bending of the section will induce a resultant tensile force Fst in the reinforcing steel
and a resultant compressive force in the concrete Fcc which acts through the centroid of
the of the effective area of concrete in compression, as shown in figure 2.4.
3.1.1 Moment of resistance for rectangular stress block
Fig.2.4 (d) shows the assumed stress distribution. The concrete stress is
0.67 fcu/γm=0.67 fcu/ (γm=1.5) =0.447fcu which is generally rounded off to 0.45fcu.
The total compressive force C is given by C=0.447 fcu×b×0.9x=0.402 b×x×fcu
The lever arm z is z=d−0.9x/2=d−0.45x
If M is the applied moment, then M=C×z=0.402 b×x×fcu×(d−0.45x)
Setting, k=M/ (b d2 fcu); k=0.402(x/d) (1–0.45 (x/d))
Rearranging, 0.1809 (x/d)2-0.402(x/d) + k = 0
Solving for x/d
X/d= {0.402−√ (0.1616–0.7236 k}/ 0.3618
=1.11−√ (1.2345−5.5279k)
Z/d=1–0.45(x/d); z/d=0.5+√ (0.25−k/0.9).
Z, the lever arm can calculated based on the above equation or the table 3.1 or the figure
3.1.

Table 3-1the value of z/d based on the calculated K
Figure 3-1lever arm curve
Total tensile force T in steel is T=As×fs
For internal equilibrium, total tension T must be equal to total compression C. The forces
T and C form a couple at lever arm of z.
M=T z=As fs z so that As=M/(fs z)
The stress fs in steel depend on the strain εs in steel. As remarked in section 4.3, it is highly
desirable that final failure is due to yielding of steel rather than due to crushing of concrete. It is
useful therefore to calculate the maximum neutral axis depth in order to achieve this. Assuming
that plane sections remain plane before and after bending, an assumption validated by
experimental observations, if as shown in Fig.2.2(b), the maximum permitted strain in concrete

at the compression face is 0.0035, then the strain εs in steel is calculated from the strain diagram
by
Strain εs in steel at a stress of fy/γm is given by
Where fy=yield stress, γm=material safety factor and Es is Young’s modules for steel.
Taking fy=460 N/mm2, γm=1.15, fy/γm=438 N/mm2, Es=200 kN/mm2, εs= 0.0022
For εs=0.0022, the depth of neutral axis x is given by
X/d=0.6140
However in order to ensure that failure is preceded by steel yielding well before the strain in
concrete reaches 0.0035 resulting in the desirable ductile form of failure, in clause
3.4.4.4, the code limits the ratio x/d to a maximum of 0.5. If x=0.5 d, then
C=0.447 fcu×b×0.9x=0.402×b×0.5d×fcu
C=0.201×fcu×b×d
z=d−0.45x=d−0.45×0.5d=0.775 d
M=C×z=0.156×b×d2×fcu
k=M/(bd2fcu)=0.156
This is the maximum value of the applied moment that the section can resist because it utilizes
fully the compression capacity of the cross section. This formula can be used to calculate the
minimum effective depth required in a singly reinforced rectangular concrete section.

In practice the effective depth d is made larger than the required minimum consistent with the
required headroom.
The reason for this is that with a larger depth, the neutral axis depth is smaller and hence the
lever arm is larger leading for a given moment M, to a smaller amount of reinforcement.
It has the additional advantage that in the event of unexpected overload, the beams will show
large ductility before failure.
If x/d≤0.5, steel will always yield,
fs=fy/1.15=0.87fy
M=T z=As 0.87 fy z,
As=M / (0.87 fy z)
3.1.2 Procedure for the design of singly reinforced rectangular beam
The steps to be followed in the design of singly reinforced rectangular beams can be summarized
as follows.
• From the minimum requirements of span/depth ratio to control deflection, estimate a suitable
effective depth d.
• Assuming the bar diameter for the main steel and links and the required cover as determined by
exposure conditions, estimate an overall depth h.; h=d+bar diameter+Link diameter+Cover
• Assume breadth as about half the overall depth.
• Calculate the self-weight.

• Calculate the design live load and dead load moment using appropriate load factors. The load
factors are normally 1.4 for dead loads and 1.6 for live load
In the case of singly reinforced sections, calculate the minimum effective depth using the
formula
Adopt an effective depth greater than the minimum depth in order to reduce the total tension
reinforcement.
• Check that the new depth due to increased self-weight does not drastically affect the calculated
design moment. If it does, calculate the revised ultimate moment required.
• Calculate k=M/ (b d2 fcu)
• Calculate the lever arm z
z=d{0.5+√ (0.25–k/0.9)}≤0.95d
Note that z/d≤0.95 if k≥0.0428
• Calculate the required steel As
As=M /{0.87 fy z}
• Check that the steel provided satisfies the minimum and maximum steel percentages specified
in the code.
EXAMPLE
The ultimate design moment to be resisted by the section in figure below in 185 KNm.
Determine the area of tension reinforcement (As) required given the characteristic strengths are
fy = 460 N/mm2 and fcu = 30 N/mm2.

all dimensions in mm.
Solution

3.1.3 Analysis of equations for a singly reinforced section.
The following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of a given section
with a known area of steel reinforcement.
For equilibrium of the compressive force in the concrete and the tensile force in the steel
Theses equations assume the tension reinforcement has yielded, which will be the case if x
greater than 0.636 d. if this is not the case, the problem would require solving by trying
successive values of x.
Fcc = Fst
Example
Determine the ultimate moment of the resistance of the cross-section shown below. Given that
the characteristic strength fy = 460 N/mm2 and fcu = 30 N/mm2.

3.2 ANALYSIS OF DOUBLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR CONCRETE SECTION.
3.2.1 Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement at the Ultimate Limit State
1. Derivation of basic equations.
It should be noted that the equations in this section have been derived for the case where the
reduction in moment at a section due to moment redistribution is not greater than 105.
Figure3-2Section with compression reinforcement.
From the section dealing with the analysis of a singly reinforced section when
M> 0.156 fcubd2
The design ultimate moment exceeds the moment of resistance of the concrete and therefore
compression reinforcement is required. For this condition the depth of neutral axis x not greater
than 0.5d, the maximum value allowed by the code to ensure a tension failure with a ductile
section.
Therefore,

Multiplying both sides of equation above by z =0. 775 d and rearranging gives
With z = 0. 775 d
Substituting K' =0.156 and K =M/bd2feu into these equations would convert them into the same
forms as in the code of practice, BS 8110, which are

In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yielded so that the steel stress
fsc = 0.87 [y. From the proportions of the strain distribution diagram:
So that
Or
At yield with fy = 460 N/mm2, the steel strain esc = 0.002. Therefore for yielding of the
compression steel

The ratio of d'/d for the yielding of other grades of steel can be determined by using their yield
strain in equation
If d'/d >0.21 S, then it is necessary to calculate the strain esc from equation
and then determine fsc from
fsc = Es X Esc = 200000 Esc
This value of stress for the compressive steel must then be used in the denominator of equation
In place of 0.87fy in order to calculate the area of compression steel. The area of tension steel is
calculated like:

2. Design charts
Figure3-3Typical design hart for doubly reinforced beams
The equations for the design charts are obtained by taking moments about the neutral axis. Thus,
So this equation and equation
may be written in the form

For specification of A's/bd, x/d and d'/d, the two non-dimensional equations can be solved to give
values for As/bd and M/ bd2 so that a set of design charts such as the one shown in figure 3.3 may
be plotted. Before the equations can be solved, the steel stresses fst and fsc must be calculated
for each value of x/d. This is achieved by first determining the relevant strains from the starin
diagrams and then by evaluating the stresses from the stress strain curve of figure. Values of x/d
below 0.5 apply when moments are redistributed.
Example
The shown figure below is to resist an ultimate design moment of 285 KNm. the characteristic
strength fy = 460 N/mm2 and fcu = 30 N/mm2. Determine the areas of reinforcement required.

3.2.2 Analysis of Doubly reinforced rectangular section
Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross section shown below. Given the
characteristic strength fy = 460 N/mm2 and fcu = 30 N/mm2.
For equilibrium of the tensile and compressive forces on section: Fst =Fcc+ Fsc:
Assuming initially that the steel stresses fst and fsc are the design yield values, then

3.3 FLANGED SECTION IN BENDING AT THE ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE

Figure3-4T-section, stress block within the flange, s less than hf
T-section and L-section which have their flanges in compression can both be designed or
analysed in a similar manner, and the equations which are derived can be applied to either type
of cross-section. As the flanges generally provide a large compressive area. It is usually
unnecessary to consider the case where compression steel is required.
For the singly reinforced section it is necessary to consider two conditions:
(1) The stress block lies within the compression flange, and
(2) The stress block ex tends below the flange.
3.3.1. Flanged Section - the Depth o-f the Stress Block Lies Within the Flange, s <hf
For this depth of stress block, the beam can be considered as an equivalent rectangular section of
breadth br equal to the flange width. This is because the non-rectangular section below the
neutral axis is in tension and is, therefore, considered to be cracked and inactive. Thus K =
M/brd2fcu can be calculated and the lever arm determined from the lever-arm curve of figure 2.1
The relation between the lever arm ; z, and depth, x , of the neutral axis is given by
z=d-0.5s or s = 2(d - z)
If s is less than the flange thickness (hf). the stress block does lie within the flange as assumed
and the area of reinforcement is given by
Example Analysis of a Flanged Section
Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T-section shown in figure below. The
characteristic material strengths are fy =460 N/mm2 and fcu =30 N/mm2.

Assume initially that the stress block depth lies within the flange and the reinforcement is
strained to the yield, so that fst = 0.87fy.
For no resulting axial force on the sections Fcc = Fst
Therefore
And solving for the depth of stress block.
Hence the stress block does lie within the flange and with this depth of neutral axis steel will
have yielded as assumed. Lever arm:

Taking moments about the centroid of the reinforcement the moment resistance is
3.3.2 Flanged Section - the Depth of the Stress Block Extends below the Flange, s> hf
For the design of a flanged section, an alternative procedure is to calculate the moment of
resistance, MR, of the section with s=hf the depth of the flange. Hence if the design moment,
M,is such that M greater than MR then the stress block must extend below the flange, and s
greater than hf.
In this case, the design can be carried out by either
1. Using an exact method to determine the depth of neutral axis.

2. Designing for the conservative condition of x=d/2.
Example: Design of a Flanged Section with the Depth of the Stress Block Below the Flange
The T-section beam shown below is required to resist an ultimate design moment of 180 KNm.
fy = 460N/mm2 and fcu = 30 N/mm2. Calculate the area of reinforcement required.

In the figure Fcf is the force developed in the flange
Fcw is the force developed in the area of web in compression.
Moment of resistance, Mf, of the flange is
Therefore, the stress block must extend below the flange. It is now necessary to determine the
depth, Sw., of the web in compression, where Sw = S-hf.
For equilibrium: applied moment

Example; Analysis of a flanged section
Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T-beam section shown in figure below.
Given fy = 460 N/mm2 and fcu = 30 N/mm2.

And the force in the web is
Example; Design of a flanged section with depth of neutral axis = d/2
A safe but conservative design for a flanged section with s >hr can be achieve< setting the depth
of neutral axis to x = d/2. The maximum depth allowed in the code. Design equations can be
derived for this condition as follows.

Figure3-5Flanged section with depth of neutral axis x=d/2

3.3.3 Flanged Section with Compression Reinforcement
With x=d/2 in figure 3.5 and takinf moments about As, the maximum resistance moment of the
concrete is
Note that the value of 0.156 was derived in previous for the rectangular section. Dividing
through by fcu brd2
This is similar to the equation given in BS8110. If the applied design moment, M greater than
Me compression reinforcement is required in which case the areas of steel can be calculated
from:
And considering the equilibrium of forces

on the section.

UNIT FOUR: REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM DESIGN.
Reinforced concrete beam design consists primarily of producing member details which will
adequately resist the ultimate bending moments, shear forces and torsional moments. At the
same time serviceability requirements must be considered to ensure that the member will behave
satisfactorily under working loads. It is difficult to separate these two criteria; hence the design
procedure consists of a series of interrelated steps and checks. These steps are shown in detail in
the flowchart in figure 4.1, but may be condensed into three basic design stages
1. Preliminary analysis and member sizing;
2. Detailed analysis and design of reinforcement;
3. Serviceability calculations.
4.1 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS AND MEMBER SIZING
Design and detailing o f the bending reinforcement must allow for factors such as anchorage
bond between the steel and concrete. The area of the tensile bending reinforcement also affects
the subsequent design of the shear and torsion reinforcement.
Arrangement of reinforcement is constrained both by the requirements of the codes of practice

for concrete structures and by practical considerations such as construction tolerances, clearance
between bars and available bar sizes and lengths. Many of the requirements for correct detailing
are illustrated in the examples which deal with t h e design of typical beams.
All calculations should be based on the effective span of a beam which is given by:

The layout and size of members are very often controlled by architectural details, and clearances
for machinery and equipment.
Figure4-1 beam analysis flow chart
The engineer must either check that the beam sizes are adequate to carry the loading or
alternatively decide on site that are adequate. The preliminary analysis need only provide the
maximum moment and shears in order to ascertain reasonable dimensions.
Beam dimensions required are
1. Cover to tile reinforcement
2. Breadth (b)

3. Effective depth (d)
4. Overall depth (h)
Figure 4-2 beam dimension
Adequate concrete cover is required to protect the reinforcement from corrosion and damage.
The necessary cover depends on tile grade of concrete, the exposure of the beam and the required
fire resistance. This cover should additionally never be less than the bar size. And it may also
need to be increased to meet the fire resistance requirements of the Code of Practice.
The beam should not be too narrow. If it is much less than 200 mm wide there may be difficulty
in providing adequate side cover and space for the reinforcing bars. Suitable dimensions for b
and d can be decided by a few trial calculations as follows:

4.2. DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR BEAMS
For rectangular beams, the limiting moment capacity as a singly reinforced beam, M single, is
first calculated for a section. The reinforcement is determined based on M being greater than,
less than, or equal to M single. See Figure below.

1. Calculate the ultimate limiting moment of resistance of the section as singly reinforced.
Figure4-3Effective section of a rectangular beam, stress and strain distributions

The tensile reinforcement required for balancing the compression in the concrete and the
compression reinforcement is calculated as:

4.3 DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS
4.3.1. Flanged Beam under Negative Moment
In designing for a factored negative moment, M (i.e., designing top reinforcement), the
calculation of the reinforcement area is exactly the same as described previously, i.e., no flanged
beam data is used.
4.3.2. Flanged Beam under Positive Moment
With the flange in compression, the program analyzes the section by considering alternative
locations of the neutral axis. Initially the neutral axis is assumed to be located in the flange.
Based on this assumption, the program calculates the exact depth of the neutral axis. If the stress
block does not extend beyond the flange thickness, the section is designed as a rectangular beam
of width bf. If the stress block extends beyond the flange depth, the contribution of the web to
the flexural strength of the beam is taken into account. See Figure below.
Figure4-4Effective section of a T-beam, stress and strain distributions

Assuming the neutral axis to lie in the flange, the normalized moment is given by:

In that case, the ultimate resistance moment of the flange is given by:
If Kw ≤ 0.156 the beam is designed as a singly reinforced concrete beam. The reinforcement is
calculated as the sum of two parts, one to balance compression in the flange and one to balance
compression in the web.

Where, d’ is the depth of the compression reinforcement from the concrete compression face,
And
The area of tension reinforcement is obtained from equilibrium as:
5.3.3. Minimum and maximum reinforcement
The minimum flexural tension reinforcement required in a beam section is given by the
following table, which is taken from BS with interpolation for reinforcement of intermediate
strength.

Table4-1minimum and maximum tensile reinforcement
The minimum flexural compression reinforcement, if it is required, provided in a rectangular or

flanged beam is given by the following table, which is taken from BS Table
Table4-2Minimum and maximum compression reinforcement

4.4. DESIGN BEAM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
The shear reinforcement is designed for each load combination at each station along the length of
the beam. In designing the shear reinforcement for a particular beam, for a particular load
combination, at a particular station due to the beam major shear, the following steps are
involved:
 Determine the shear stress, v.

 Determine the shear stress, VC that can be resisted by the concrete.
 Determine the shear reinforcement required to carry the balance.
The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with these steps.
4.4.1. Determine Shear Stress
In the design of the beam shear reinforcement, the shear forces for each load combination at a
particular beam station are obtained by factoring the corresponding shear forces for different
load cases with the corresponding load combination factors. The shear stress is then calculated
as:
The maximum allowable shear stress, vmax is defined as:

For light-weight concrete, vmax is defined as:
4.4.2. Determine Required Shear Reinforcement
The usual form of stirrup is a closed link. This helps to make a rigid cage of the beam
reinforcement and is essential if there is any compression steel present. all of the tension steel
must be enclosed by links, and if compression reinforcement steel is not present, hanger bars are
required to anchor the links in the compression zone.(see figure below). The minimum spacing
of links is determined by the requirement of placing and compacting the concrete, and should not
normally be less than about 80mm. maximum spacing of links longitudinally along the span
should not exceed 0.75d. at right angles to the span the spacing of vertical legs should not exceed
d, and all tension bars should be within 150 mm of vertical legs.
The size and spacing of stirrups should such that:
Where Asv = cross-sectional area of legs of stirrup

Sv = spacing of the stirrups
b=breadth of the beam
fyv = characteristic strength of the link reinforcement.
Values of Asv/Sv for various stirrups sizes and spacings are tabulated in the table below:

Table4-3Asv/Sv for varying stirrup diameter and spacing
The calculations for Asv/Sv is carried out at the critical section, usually distance d from the face
of the support.since the shear diminishes along the beam, smillar calculations can be repeated
along the beam so that a greater spacing or smaller stirrup may be used.
If v is less than vc nominal links must still be provided unless the beam is very minor one and
v˂vc .the nominal steel should be provided such that:
Even when shear steel is requires, there is a section at which the shear resistance of the concrete
plus the nominal stirrups equals the shear force from the envelop diagram. At this section, the
stirrups necessary to resist the shear can stop and be replaced by the nominal stirrups.
The shear resistance Vn of the concrete plus the nominal stirrups is given by:

For links provided ,once this value of Vn has been calculated, it may be marked on the shear
force envelop to show the limit for the shear reinforcement.
Worked examples
1. A simply supported rectangular beam of 7 m span carries characteristic dead (including self
weight of beam), gk, and imposed, qk, loads of 12 kNm−1 and 8 kNm−1 respectively (see the
Figure below). The beam dimensions are breadth, b, 275 mm and effective depth, d, 450 mm.
Assuming the following material strengths, calculate the area of reinforcement required.

For detailing purposes this area of steel has to be transposed into a certain number of bars of a
given diameter. This is usually achieved using steel area tables similar to that shown below:
Table4-4cross-sectional areas of groups of bars (mm2)
2. Thus it can be seen that four 20 mm diameter bars have a total cross-sectional area of 1260
mm2 and would therefore be suitable. Hence provide 4T20. (N.B. T refers to high yield steel bars
(fy=460 Nmm−2); R refers to mild steel bars (fy =250 Nmm−2)

Table5-5 Values of design of concrete shear stress, vc for fcu = 25N/mm2 concrete.

3.

4.

5.

6.

4.5. CONTINUOUS, L AND T BEAMS
In most real situations, the beams in buildings are seldom single span but continuous over the
supports, e.g. beams 1, 2, 3 and 4 in Figure below. The design process for such beams is similar
to that outlined above for single span beams. However, the main difference arises from the fact
that with continuous beams the designer will need to consider the various loading arrangements
in order to determine the design moments and shear forces in the beam.
The analysis to calculate the bending moments and shear forces can be carried out by moment
distribution or, provided the conditions in clause 3.4.3 of BS 8110 are satisfied by using the
coefficients given in Table 3.5of BS 8110
These are:
Table below may be used to calculate the design ultimate bending moments and shear forces,
subject to the following provisions:
a) Characteristic imposed load Qk may not exceed characteristic dead load Gk;
b) Loads should be substantially uniformly distributed over three or more spans;

c) Variations in span length should not exceed 15 % of longest.
Table4-6Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces
Once this has been done, the beam can be sized and the area of bending reinforcement calculated
At the internal supports, the bending moment is reversed and it should be remembered that the
tensile reinforcement will occur in the top half of the beam and compression reinforcement in the
bottom half of the beam.
Figure4-5Floor slab; (a) plan; (b) cross-section

Generally, beams and slabs are cast monolithically, that is, they are structurally tied. At mid
span, it is more economical in such cases to design the beam as an L or T section by including
the adjacent areas of the slab (Fig. above (b)).
Actual width of slab that acts together with the beam is normally termed the effective flange.
According to clause 3.4.1.5 of BS 8110, the effective flange width should be taken as the lesser
of (a) the actual flange width and (b) the web width plus l z/5 (for T-beams) or l z /10 (for L-
beams), where l z is the distance between points of zero moments which for a continuous beam
may be taken as 0.7 times the distance between the centers of supports. The depth of the neutral
axis in relation to the depth of flange will influence the design process and must therefore be
determined. The depth of the neutral axis, x, can be calculated using the next equation:
Where the neutral axis lies within the flange, which will normally be the case in practice, the
beam can be designed as being singly reinforced taking the breadth of the beam, b, and equal to
the effective flange width. At the supports of a continuous member, e.g. at columns B2, B3, C2
and C3, due to the moment reversal, b should be taken as the actual width of the beam.

EXAMPLES:
1. A typical floor plan of a small building structure is shown below in figure 4.6. Design
continuous beams 3A/D and B1/5 assuming the slab supports an imposed load of
4KN/m2 and finishes of 1.5 KN/m2, the overall sizes of the beams and slab are indicated
on the drawing. The columns are 400*400 mm. the characteristic strength of the concrete
is 35 N/mm2 and the steel reinforcement is 500 N/mm2. The cover to all reinforcement
may be assumed to be 30 mm.

Figure4-6 Small building to design

UNIT 5 REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS DESIGN.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
If a series of very wide, shallow rectangular beams were placed side by side and connected
transversely such that it was possible to share the load between adjacent beams, the combination
of beams would act as a slab (Fig. 5.1.)
Figure5-1Floor slab as a series of beams connected transversely
Reinforced concrete slabs are used to form a variety of elements in building structures such as
floors, roofs, staircases, foundations and some types of walls (Fig. 5.2). Since these elements can
be modeled as a set of transversely connected beams, it follows that the design of slabs is similar,

in principle, to that for beams. The major difference is that in slab design the serviceability limit
state of deflection is normally critical, rather than the ultimate limit states of bending and shear.
Figure5-2Vrious applications for slabs in reinforced concrete structures.
5.2 TYPES OF SLABS
Slabs may be solid, ribbed, precast or in-situ and if in-situ they may span two-ways. In practice,
the choice of slab for a particular structure will largely depend upon economy, buildability, the
loading conditions and the length of the span. Thus for short spans, generally less than 5 m, the
most economical solution is to provide a solid slab of constant thickness over the complete span
(Fig.5.3)

Figure5-3solid slab
With medium size spans from 5 to 9 m it is more economical to provide flat slabs since they are
generally easier to construct (Fig. 5.4). The ease of construction chiefly arises from the fact that
the floor has a flat soffit. This avoids having to erect complicated shuttering, thereby making
possible speedier and cheaper construction. The use of flat slab construction offers a number of
other advantages, absent from other flooring systems, including reduced storey heights; no
restrictions on the positioning of partitions, windows can extend up to the underside of the slab
and ease of installation of horizontal services. The main drawbacks with flat slabs are that they
may deflect excessively and are vulnerable to punching failure. Excessive deflection can be
avoided by deepening slabs or by thickening the slab near the columns, using drop panels.
Figure5-4flat slab
Punching failure arises from the fact that high live loads results in high shear stresses at the
supports which may allow the columns to punch through the slab unless appropriate steps are
taken. Using deep slabs with large diameter columns, providing drop panels and/or flaring
column heads (Fig. 5.5), can avoid this problem.
Figure5-5Methods of reducing shear stresses in flat slab construction: (a) deep slab and
large column; (b) slab with flared column head; (c) slab with drop panel and column head.
However, all these methods have drawbacks, and research effort has therefore been directed at
finding alternative solutions. The use of shear hoops, ACI shear stirrups, shear ladders and stud
rails (Fig. 5.6) are just a few of the solutions that have been proposed over recent years. All are
designed to overcome the problem of fixing individual shear links, which is both labour intensive
and a practical difficulty.
Shear hoops are prefabricated cages of shear reinforcement which are attached to the main steel.
They are available in a range of diameters and are suitable for use with internal and edge
columns.
Although superficially attractive, use of this system has declined significantly over recent years.
The use of ACI shear stirrups is potentially the simplest and cheapest method of preventing
punching shear in flat slabs. The shear stirrups are arrangements of conventional straight bars
and links that form a ‘T’ or ‘L’ shape for an internal, edge or corner column respectively. The
stirrups work in exactly the same way as conventional shear reinforcement but can simply be
attached to the main steel via the straight bars.
Shear ladders are rows of traditional links that are welded to lacer bars. The links resist the shear
stresses and the lacer bars anchor the links to the main steel. Whilst they are simple to design and
use they can cause problems of congestion of reinforcement.

Stud rails are prefabricated high tensile ribbed headed studs, which are held at standard centres
by a welded spacer bar. These rails are arranged in a radial pattern and held in position during
the concrete pour by tying to either the top or bottom reinforcement. The studs work through
direct mechanical anchorage provided by their heads. They are easy to install but quite
expensive.
Figure5-6Prefabricated punching shear reinforcement for flat slabs: (a) shear hoops; (b)
ACI shear stirrups; (c) shear ladders; (d) stud rails. Typical arrangement for an internal
column
With medium to long spans and light to moderate live loads from 3 to 5 kN/m2, it is more
economical to provide ribbed slabs constructed using glass reinforced polyester, polypropylene
or encapsulated expanded polystyrene moulds (Fig. 5.7).

Figure5-7Ribbed slab
Such slabs have reduced self-weight compared to solid slabs since part of the concrete in the
tension zone is omitted. However, ribbed slabs have higher formwork costs than the other slabs
systems mentioned above and, generally; they are found to be economic in the range 8 to 12 m.
With the emphasis on speed of erection and economy of construction, the use of precast concrete
floor slabs is now also popular with both clients and designers. Fig. 5.8 shows two types of
precast concrete units that can be used to form floors. The hollow core planks are very common
as they are economic over short, medium and long spans. If desired the soffit can be left exposed
whereas the top is normally finished with a leveling screed or appropriate flooring system.
Cranage of large precast units, particularly in congested city centre developments, is the biggest
obstacle to this type of floor construction.
Figure5-8Precast concrete floor units: (a) hollow core plank; (b) double T unit
The span ranges quoted above generally assume the slab is supported along two opposite edges,
i.e. it is one-way spanning (Fig. 5.9).

Figure5-9 One-way spanning solid slab: (a) plan; (b) elevation
Where longer in-situ concrete floor spans are required it is usually more economical to support
the slab on all four sides. The cost of supporting beams or walls needs to be considered though.
Such slabs are referred to as two-way spanning and are normally designed as two-dimensional
plates provided the ratio of the length of the longer side to the length of the shorter side is equal
to 2 or less (Fig. 6.10).
Figure5-10Plan of two way spanning slab. lx length of shorter side, ly length of longer side.
Provide ly/lx less or equal to 2 slab span two direction as indicated
This book only considers the design of one-way and two-way spanning solid slabs supporting
uniformly distributed loads. The reader is referred to more specialized books on this subject for
guidance on the design of the other slab types described above.
5.3 DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SPANNING SOLID SLAB
The general procedure to be adopted for slab design is as follows:
1. Determine a suitable depth of slab.

2. Calculate main and secondary reinforcement areas.
3. Check critical shear stresses.
4. Check detailing requirements.
5.3.1 Depth of slab (clause 3.5.7, BS 8110)
Solid slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of l metre width.
The effective span of the slab is taken as the smaller of
(a) The distance between centres of bearings, A, or
(b) The clear distance between supports, D, plus the effective depth, d, of the slab (Fig. 5.11).
Figure5-11Effective span of simply supported slab
The deflection requirements for slabs, which are the same as those for beams, will often control
the depth of slab needed. The minimum effective depth of slab, dmin, can be calculated using
The basic (span/effective depth) ratios are given in Table 5.1. The modification factor is a
function of the amount of reinforcement in the slab which is itself a function of the effective
depth of the slab.
Therefore, in order to make a first estimate of the effective depth, dmin, of the slab, a value of
(say) 1.4 is assumed for the modification factor. The main steel areas can then be calculated
(section 6.2.2), and used to determine the actual value of the modification factor. If the assumed
value is slightly greater than the actual value, the depth of the slab will satisfy the deflection

requirements in BS 8110. Otherwise, the calculation must be repeated using a revised value of
the modification factor.
Span- to- effective depth ratio

Support conditions Rectangular beam Flanged beam, bw/b< 0.3
Cantilever 7 5.6
Simply supported 20 16.0
Continuous 26 20.8
Table5-1Basic Span- to- effective depth ratio as provided by BS 8110
5.3.2 Steel areas (clause 3.5.4, BS 8110)
The overall depth of slab, h, is determined by adding allowances for cover and half the
(assumed) main steel bar diameter to the effective depth. The self-weight of the slab together
with the dead and live loads are used to calculate the design moment, M.
The ultimate moment of resistance of the slab,
Mu, is calculated using equation 3.11, developed in section 3.9.1.1, namely
Mu = 0.156fcubd2
If Mu ≥ M, which is the usual condition for slabs, compression reinforcement will not be
required and the area of tensile reinforcement,
Secondary or distribution steel is required in the transverse direction and this is usually based on
the minimum percentages of reinforcement (As min) given in Table 3.25 of BS 8110:
As min = 0.24% Ac when fy = 250 N/mm2

As min = 0.13% Ac when fy = 500 N/mm2 where Ac is the total area of concrete.
6.2.3 Shear (clause 3.5.5 of BS 8110)
Shear resistance is generally not a problem in solid slabs subject to uniformly distributed loads
and, in any case, shear reinforcement should not be provided in slabs less than 200 mm deep.
As discussed for beams in section 3.9.1.3, the design shear stress, υ, is calculated from
The ultimate shear resistance, υc, is determine using Table 4.5. If υ < υc, no shear reinforcement
is required. Where υ > υc, the form and area of shear reinforcement in solid slabs should be
provided in accordance with the requirements contained in Table 3.21.
Table5-2Form and area of shear reinforcement in solid slabs.
5.3.4 Reinforcement details (clause 3.12, BS 8110)
For reasons of durability the code specifies limits in respect of:
1. Minimum percentage of reinforcement
2. Spacing of reinforcement

3. Maximum crack widths.
These are outlined below together with the simplified rules for curtailment of reinforcement.
5.3.4.1 Reinforcement areas (clause 3.12.5, BS 8110).
The area of tension reinforcement, As, should not be less than the following limits:
As ≥ 0.24%Ac when fy = 250 N/mm2
As ≥ 0.13%Ac when fy = 500 N/mm2
Where Ac is the total area of concrete.
5.3.4.2. Spacing of reinforcement (clause 3.12.11.2.7, BS 8110).
The clear distance between tension bars, sb, should lie within the following limits: hagg + 5 mm
or bar diameter ≤ sb ≤ 3d or 750 mm whichever is the lesser where hagg is the maximum
aggregate size.
(See also below section on crack widths.)
5.3.4.3. Crack width (clause 3.12.11.2.7, BS 8110).
Unless the actual crack widths have been checked by direct calculation, the following rules will
ensure that crack widths will not generally exceed
0.3 mm. This limiting crack width is based on considerations of appearance and durability.
(i) No further check is required on bar spacing if either:
(a) fy = 250 N/mm2 and slab depth ≤ 250 mm, or
(b) fy = 500 N/mm2 and slab depth ≤ 200 mm, or
(c) The reinforcement percentage (100As/bd )
< 0.3%.

(ii) Where none of conditions (a), (b) or (c) apply and the percentage of reinforcement in the slab
exceed 1 per cent, then the maximum clear distance between bars (smax) given in Table 3.28 of
BS 8110 should be used, namely:
 Smax ≤ 280 mm when fy = 250 N/mm2

 Smax ≤ 155 mm when fy = 500 N/mm2
5.3.4.4. Curtailment of reinforcement (clause 3.12.10.3, BS 8110).
Simplified rules for the curtailment of reinforcement are given in clause 3.12.10.3 of BS 8110.
These are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 5.12 for simply supported and continuous solid slabs.
Figure5-12Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in slabs: (a) simply supported ends; (b)
continuous slab (based on fig 3.25, BS8110)

Check spacing between bars
Maximum spacing between bars should not exceed the lesser of 3d (= 465 mm) or 750 mm.
Actual spacing = 150 mm main steel and 200 mm secondary steel. OK
Maximum crack width

Since the slab depth does not exceed 200 mm, the above spacing between bars will automatically
ensure that the maximum permissible crack width of 0.3 mm will not be exceeded.
Example 2 Analysis of a one-way spanning concrete floor (BS 8110)
A concrete floor reinforced with 10 mm diameter mild steel bars (fy = 250 N/mm2) at 125 mm
centres (As = 628 mm2 per metre width of slab) between brick walls as shown in Fig. 3.61.
Calculate the maximum uniformly distributed imposed load the floor can carry.

5.4 CONTINUOUS ONE-WAY SPANNING SOLID SLAB DESIGN
The design of continuous one-way spanning slabs is similar to that outlined above for single-
span slabs. The main differences are that (a) several loading arrangements may need to be
considered and (b) such slabs are not statically determinate.
Methods such as moment distribution can be used to determine the design moments and shear
forces in the slab as discussed in section 5.3.1.
However, where the following conditions are met, the moments and shear forces can be
calculated using the coefficients in Table 3.12 of BS 8110, part of which is reproduced here as
Table 3.23.

1. There are three or more spans of approximately equal length.
2. The area of each bay exceeds 30 m2 (Fig. 5.13).
3. The ratio of the characteristic imposed load to the characteristic dead load does not exceed
1.25.
4. The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5 kN/m2 excluding partitions.
Figure5-13Definition of panels and bays
Table5-3Ultimate bending moments and shear forces in one-way spanning slabs with
simple end supports (table 3.12, BS8110)
Example 3 Continuous one-way spanning slab design (BS 8110)
Design the continuous one-way spanning slab in Example 1 of unit 4 assuming the cover to the
reinforcement is 25 mm (Fig.4.6).

5.5 TWO-WAY SPANNING RESTRAINED SOLID SLAB DESIGN
The design of two-way spanning restrained slabs (Fig. 5.15) supporting uniformly distributed
loads is generally similar to that outlined above for one-way spanning slabs. The extra
complication arises from the fact that it is rather difficult to determine the design bending
moments and shear forces in these plate-like structures. Fortunately BS 8110 contains tables of
coefficients (βsx, βsy, βvx, βvy) that may assist in this task (Tables 3.24 and 3.25). Thus, the
maximum design moments per unit width of rectangular slabs of shorter side Bx and longer side
By are given by
Where

msx: maximum design ultimate moments either over supports or at mid-span on strips of unit
width and span lx.
msy: maximum design ultimate moments either over supports or at mid-span on strips of unit
width and span ly.
n: total design ultimate load per unit area = 1.4 GK = 1.6 QK.
Similarly, the design shear forces at supports in the long span direction, vsy and short span
direction, vsy may be obtained from the flowing expressions.
These moments and shears are considered to act over the middle three quarters of the panel
width.
The remaining edge strips, of width equal to one eight of the panel width, may be provided with
minimum tension reinforcement. In some cases, where there is a significant difference in the
support moments calculated for adjacent panels, it may be necessary to modify the mid-span
moments in accordance with the procedure given in BS 8110.
Figure 5-14Bending of two way spanning slabs

Figure5-15Locations of moments
Table5-4Bending moments coefficients, βsx and βsy for restrained slabs (based on table
3.14, BS8110)
Table5-5Shear force coefficients, βvx and βvy for restrained slabs (based on table 3.15, BS
8110)

Example: Design of a two-way spanning restrained slab (BS 8110)
Fig. 5.16 shows a part plan of an office floor supported by monolithic concrete beams (not
detailed), with individual slab panels continuous over two or more supports. The floor is to be
designed to support an imposed load of 4 kNm−2 and finishes plus ceiling loads of 1.25 kNm−2.
The characteristic strength of the concrete is 30 Nmm−2 and the steel reinforcement is 500
Nmm−2. The cover to steel reinforcement is 25 mm.
(a) Calculate the mid-span moments for panels AB2/3 and BC1/2 assuming the thickness of the
floor is 180 mm.
(b) Design the steel reinforcement for panel BC2/3 (shown hatched) and check the adequacy of
the slab in terms of shear resistance and deflection. Illustrate the reinforcement details on plan
and elevation views of the panel.
Figure5-16Plan view of panel to design

Steel reinforcement
Continuous supports
At continuous supports the slab resists hogging moments in both the short-span and long-span
directions. Therefore two layers of reinforcement will be needed in the top face of the slab.
Comparison of design moments shows that the moment in the short span (17.8 kNm) is greater
than the moment in the long span (11.4 kNm) and it is appropriate therefore that the steel in the
short span direction (i.e. main steel) be placed at a greater effective depth than the steel in the
long-span direction (i.e. secondary steel) as shown.

Mid-span
At mid-span the slab resists sagging moments in both the short-span and long-span directions,
necessitating two layers of reinforcement in the bottom face of the slab too. Comparison of mid-
span moments shows that the moment in the short span (13.1 kNm) is greater than the moment in
the long span (8.5 kNm) and it is again appropriate therefore that the steel in the short span
direction (main steel) be placed at a greater effective depth than the steel in the long span
direction (secondary steel) as shown.

5.6 STAIR SLABS
5.6.1 Introduction
Stair is a set of steps which leads from one level of building to another. Stair provide means of
movement from one floor to another in a structure. Staircases consist of a number of steps with
landings at suitable intervals to provide comfort and safety for the users.
Stairs are other types of slabs whose use is to connect the different floors of the structure. They
are designed in the same way as beams by considering a unit width of the slabs.
The stairs have main three parties that are:
(a) Tread, (b) Riser and (c) Waist
Figure 5-17Stairs main technical terms
The usual form of stairs can be classified into two types:
 Those spanning horizontally in the transverse direction, and

 Those spanning longitudinally.
5.6.2 Stair slab spanning horizontally
Stair of this type may be supported on both sides or they may be cantileved from a supporting
wall.

Figure 5.18 shows a stair supported on one side by a wall and on the other by a stringer beam.
Each step is usually designed as having a breadth b and an effective depth of d=D/2 as shown in
the figure; a more rigorous analysis of the section is rarely justified. Distribution steel in the
longitudinal direction is placed above the main reinforcement.
Details of a cantilevered stair are shown in figure 5.19. The effective depth of the member is
taken as the mean effective depth of the section and the main reinforcement must be placed in
the top of the stairs and anchore into the support.
Figure 5-18Stairs spanning horizontally

Figure 5-19Cantilevered stairs
5.6.3 Stair slab spanning longitudinally

The stair slab may span into landings which san at right angles to the stairs as in figure 5.20 or it
may span between supporting beams as in figure 5.21. of the example.
The dead load is calculated along the slope length of the stirs but the live load is based on the
plan area. Loads common to two spans which intersect at right angles and surround an open well
may be assumed to be divided equally between the spans. The effective (l) is measured
horizontally between the centres of the supports and the thickness of the waist (h) is taken as slab
thickness.
Span-effective depth ratios may be increased by fifteen per cent provided that the stair flight
occupies at least 60 per cent of the span.
Stairs slabs or beams which are continuous and constructed monolithically with their supporting
slabs or beams can be designed for bending moment of say Fl/10. When F is the total ultimate
load. But in many instances the stairs are precast or constructed after the main structure, pockets

with dowels being left in the supporting beams to receive the stairs, and with no appreciable end
restraint the design moment should be Fl/8.
Figure 5-20Stair spanning into landings
5.6.3 Example of design of a stair slab
The stairs are of the type shown in figure 5.21 spanning longitudinally and set into pockets in the
two supporting beams. The effective span of the stairs is 1.5 m with 260 mm treads and 150 mm
risers. The live load is 3.0 KN/m2, and the characteristic materials strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm2
and fy = 250 N/mm2. Try 125 mm thick waist, effective depth, d = 90 mm.

For simply supported span, basic ratio = 20 (table 6.7 BS8110) and modification factor is 1.61
(table 6.7 BS8110) for service stress of 156 N/mm2.
Since the stair flight occupies more than 60 per cent of the span, further increase of 15 per cent
is permitted, thus:

Provide R10 bars at 250 mm centres, area = 314 mm2/m.
Continuity bars at the top and bottom of the span should be provided abd about 50 % of the main
steel would be reasonable, while satisfy maximum spacing limits of 3d = 270 mm.
Figure 5-21Stairs supported by beams

UNIT 6 REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN DESIGN.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The function of columns in a structure is to act as vertical supports to suspended members such
as beams and roofs and to transmit the loads from these members down to the foundations (Fig.
6.1). Columns are primarily compression members although they may also have to resist bending
moments transmitted by beams.
Columns may be classified as short or slender, braced or unbraced, depending on various

dimensional and structural factors which will be discussed below. However, due to limitations of
space, the study will be restricted to the design of the most common type of column found in
building structures, namely short-braced columns.
6.2 COLUMN SECTIONS
Some common column cross-sections are show in Fig. 6.2. Any section can be used, however,
provided that the greatest overall cross-sectional dimension does not exceed four times its
smaller dimension (i.e. h ≤ 4b, Fig. 62.(c)). With sections where h > 4b the member should be
regarded as a wall for design purposes (clause 1.2.4.1, BS 8110).

Figure 6-1Functions of a column
Figure 6-2Column cross-section

6.3 SHORT AND SLENDER COLUMNS
Columns may fail due to one of three mechanisms:
1. Compression failure of the concrete/steel reinforcement (Fig. 6.3);
2. Buckling (Fig. 6.4);
3. Combination of buckling and compression failure.
For any given cross-section, failure mode (1) is most likely to occur with columns which are
short and stocky, while failure mode (2) is probable with columns which are long and slender. It
is important, therefore, to be able to distinguish between columns which are short and those
which are slender since the failure mode and hence the design procedures for the two column
types are likely to be different.
Clause of BS 8110 classifies a column as being short if
Where
lex = effective height of the column in respect of the major axis (i.e. x-x axis).
ley = effective height of the column in respect of the major axis (i.e. y-y axis).
b: width of the column cross-section
h: depth of the column cross-section
It should be noted that the above definition applies only to columns which are braced, rather than
unbraced. This distinction is discussed more fully in section 3.13.3. Effective heights of columns
are covered in section 3.13.4.

Figure 6-3Short column
Figure 6-4 Slender column
6.4 BRACED AND UNBRACED COLUMNS (CLAUSE 3.8.1.5, BS 8110)
A column may be considered braced if the lateral loads, due to wind for example, are resisted by
shear walls or some other form of bracing rather than by the column. For example, all the
columns in the reinforced concrete frame shown in Fig. 6.5 are braced in the y direction. A
column may be considered to be unbraced if the lateral loads are resisted by the sway action of
the column. For example, all the columns shown in Fig. 6.5 are unbraced in the x direction.
Depending upon the layout of the structure, it is possible for the columns to be braced or
unbraced in both directions as shown in Figs 6.6 and 6.7 respectively.

Figure 6-5Columns braced in y direction and unbraced in the x direction.
Figure 6-6Columns braced in both directions
Figure 6-7Column unbraced in both directions
6.5 EFFECTIVE HEIGHT
The effective height (le) of a column in a given plane is obtained by multiplying the clear height
between lateral restraints (lo) by a coefficient (beta) which is a function of the fixity at the
column ends and is obtained from Table 6.1.

End condition 1 signifies that the column end is fully restrained. End condition 2 signifies that
the column end is partially restrained and end condition
3 signify that the column end is nominally restrained. In practice it is possible to infer the degree
of restraint at the column ends simply by reference to the diagrams shown in Fig. 7.8.
Figure 6-8Column and restraint conditions
Table 6-1Values of beta for braced columns (Table 3.19, BS 8110)

Example: Classification of a concrete column
Determine if the column shown in figure below is short.
6.6 SHORT BRACED COLUMN DESIGN
For design purposes, BS 8110 divides short-braced columns into three categories. These are:
1. Columns resisting axial loads only;
2. Columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams;
3. Columns resisting axial loads and uniaxial or biaxial bending.

Referring to the floor plan shown in Fig. 6.9, it can be seen that column B2 supports beams
which are equal in length and symmetrically arranged.
Provided the floor is uniformly loaded, column B2 will resist an axial load only and is an
example of category 1.
Column C2 supports a symmetrical arrangement of beams but which are unequal in length.
Column C2 will, therefore, resist an axial load and moment.
However, provided that (a) the loadings on the beams are uniformly distributed, and (b) the beam
spans do not differ by more than 15 per cent of the longer, the moment will be small. As such,
column C2 belongs to category 2 and it can safely be designed by considering the axial load only
but using slightly reduced values of the design stresses in the concrete and steel reinforcement
(section 7.5.2).
Columns belong to category 3 if conditions (a) and (b) are not satisfied. The moment here
becomes significant and the column may be required to resist an axial load and uni-axial
bending, e.g. columns A2, B1, B3, C1, C3 and D2, or an axial loads and biaxial bending, e.g. A1,
A3, D1 and D3.
The design procedures associated with each of these categories are discussed in the subsection
below.

Figure 6-9Floor plan
6.6.1 Axially loaded columns (clause 3.8.4.3, BS 8110)
Consider a column having a net cross-sectional area of concrete Ac and a total area of
longitudinal reinforcement Asc (Fig. 7.10). As discussed in section 3.7, the design stresses for
concrete and steel in compression are 0.67fcu/1.5 and fy/1.15 respectively, i.e.
Concrete design stress = 0 67 fcu / 1 5 = 0.45fcu
Reinforcement design stress = Fy / 1.15 = 0.87fy
Both the concrete and reinforcement assist in carrying the load. Thus, the ultimate load N which
can be supported by the column is the sum of the loads carried by the concrete (Fc) and the
reinforcement (Fs), i.e.
N = Fc + Fs
Fc = stress × area = 0.45fcuAc
Figure 6-10Cross-section of a column
Fs = stress × area = 0.87fyAsc

Hence, N = 0.45fcuAc + 0.87fyAsc
Equation above assumes that the load is applied perfectly axially to the column. However, in
practice, perfect conditions never exist. To allow for a small eccentricity BS 8110 reduces the
design stresses in equation above by about 10 per cent, giving the following expression:

N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.75fyAsc (1) this is equation in BS 8110 which can be used to design short-
braced axially loaded columns.
6.6.2 Columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams (clause

3.8.4.4, BS 8110)
Where the column is subject to an axial load and ‘small’ moment (section 3.13.5), the latter is
taken into account simply by decreasing the design stresses in equation (1) by around 10 per
cent, giving the following expression for the load carrying capacity of the column:
N = 0.35fcuAc + 0.67fyAsc this is equation in BS 8110 and can be used to design columns
supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams provided (a) the loadings on the
beams are uniformly distributed, and (b) the beam spans do not differ by more than 15 per cent
of the longer.
Example: Sizing a concrete column (BS 8110)
A short-braced column in which fcu = 30 Nmm−2 and fy = 500 Nmm−2 is required to support an
ultimate axial load of 2000 kN. Determine a suitable section for the column assuming that the
area of longitudinal steel, Asc, is of the order of 3 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of
column, Acol.

6.6.3 Columns resisting axial load and bending
The area of longitudinal steel for columns resisting axial loads and uniaxial or biaxial bending is
normally calculated using the design charts in Part 3 of BS 8110. These charts are available for
columns having a rectangular cross-section and a symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement.
BSI issued these charts when the preferred grade of reinforcement was 460 not 500.
Nevertheless, these charts could still be used to estimate the area of steel reinforcement required
in columns but the steel areas obtained will be approximately 10 per cent greater than required.
Fig. 6.11 presents a modified version of chart 27 which takes account of the new grade of steel
reinforcement.
It should be noted that each chart is particular for a selected

1. Characteristic strength of concrete, fcu;
2. Characteristic strength of reinforcement, fy;
3. d/h ratio.
Design charts are available for concrete grades 25,
30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 and reinforcement grade 460.
For a specified concrete and steel strength there is a series of charts for different d/h ratios in the
range 0.75 to 0.95 in 0.05 increments.
The construction of these charts can best be illustrated by considering how the axial load and
moment capacity of an existing column section is assessed. The solution to this problem is
somewhat simpler than normal column design as many of the design parameters, e.g. grades of
materials and area and location of the reinforcement are predefined. Nonetheless, both rely on an
iterative method for solution. Determining the load capacity of an existing section involves
investigating the relationship between the depth of neutral axis of the section and its axial load
and co-existent moment capacity. For a range of neutral axis depths the tensile and compressive
forces acting on the section are calculated. The size of these forces can be evaluated using the
assumptions previously outlined in connection with the analysis of beam sections, namely:
1. Sections that are plane before loading remain plane after loading.
2. The tensile and compressive stresses in the steel reinforcement are derived from analysis of
sections
3. The compressive stresses in concrete are based on either the rectangular-parabolic stress block
for concrete or the equivalent rectangular stress block .
4. The tensile strength of concrete is zero.
Once the magnitude and position of the tensile and compressive forces have been determined,
the axial load and moment capacity of the section can be evaluated. Example 3.19 illustrates how
the results can be used to assess the suitability of the section to resist a particular axial load and
moment.

Figure 6-11Column design chart (based on chart 27, BS 8110: Part 3)
Example: Analysis of a column section (BS 8110)
Determine whether the column section shown in figure below is capable of supporting an axial
load of 200 kN and a moment about the x–x axis of 200 kNm by calculating the load and
moment capacity of the section when the depth of neutral axis of the section, x = ∞, 200 mm and
350 mm. Assume fcu = 35 Nmm−2 and fy = 500 Nmm−2.

LOAD AND MOMENT CAPACITY OF COLUMN WHEN X = ∞
Assuming the simplified stress block for concrete, the stress and strain distributions in the
section will be as show in figure below.

The results show that the column section is incapable of supporting the design loads. Readers
may like to confirm that if two 20 mm diameter bars (i.e. one in each face) were added to the
section, the column would then have sufficient capacity.
6.6.3.1 Uniaxial bending.
With columns which are subject to an axial load (N) and uni-axial moment

(M), the procedure simply involves plotting the N/bh and M/bh2 ratios on the appropriate chart
and reading off the corresponding area of reinforcement as a percentage of the gross-sectional
area of concrete (100Asc/bh). Where the actual d/h ratio for the section being designed lies
between two charts, both charts may be read and the longitudinal steel area found by linear
interpolation.
6.6.3.2 Biaxial bending (clause 3.8.4.5, BS 8110).
Where the column is subject to biaxial bending, the problem is reduced to one of uniaxial
bending simply by increasing the moment about one of the axes using the procedure outlined
below. Referring to Fig. 6.12, if Mx/My ≥ h′/b′ the enhanced design moment, about the x–x axis,
Mx′, is
Table 6-2 Values of coefficient beta (Table 3.22, BS 8110)

Figure 6-12Column with moments
The area of longitudinal steel can then be determined using the ultimate axial load (N) and
enhanced moment (M’x′ or M’y′,) in the same way as that described for uniaxial bending.
6.7 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS
In order to ensure structural stability, durability and practicability of construction BS 8110 lays
down various rules governing the minimum size, amount and spacing of (i) longitudinal
reinforcement and (ii) links. These are discussed in the subsections below.
6.7.1 Longitudinal reinforcement
6.7.1.1 Size and minimum number of bars (clause 3.12.5.4, BS 8110).
Columns with rectangular cross-sections should be reinforced with a minimum of four

longitudinal bars; columns with circular cross-sections should be reinforced with a minimum of
six longitudinal bars. Each of the bars should not be less than 12 mm in diameter.
6.7.1.2 Reinforcement areas (clause 3.12.5, BS 8110).
The code recommends that for columns with a gross cross-sectional area Acol, the area of
longitudinal reinforcement (Asc) should lie within the following limits:
0.4%Acol ≤ Asc ≤ 6%Acol in a vertically cast column and
0.4%Acol ≤ Asc ≤ 8%Acol in a horizontally cast column.

At laps the maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement may be increased to 10 per cent of the
gross cross-sectional area of the column for both types of columns.
6.7.1.3 Spacing of reinforcement.
The minimum distance between adjacent bars should not be less than the diameter of the bars or
hagg + 5 mm, where hagg is the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
The code does not specify any limitation with regard to the maximum spacing of bars, but for
practical reasons it should not normally exceed 250 mm.
6.7.2 Links (clause 3.12.7, BS 8110)
The axial loading on the column may cause buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement and
subsequent cracking and spalling of the adjacent concrete cover (Fig. 6.13). In order to prevent
such a situation from occurring, the longitudinal steel is normally laterally restrained at regular
intervals by links passing round the bars (Fig. 6.14).
Figure 6-13Axial load on longitudinal reinforcement

Figure 6-14Links to resist buckling forces
6.7.2.1 Size and spacing of links.
Links should be at least one-quarter of the size of the largest longitudinal bar or 6 mm,
whichever is the greater. However, in practice 6 mm bars may not be freely available and a
minimum bar size of 8 mm is preferable.
Links should be provided at a maximum spacing 12 times the size of the smallest longitudinal
bar or the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the column. The latter condition is not
mentioned in BS 8110 but was referred to in CP 114 and is still widely observed in order to
reduce the risk of diagonal shear failure of columns.
6.7.2.2 Arrangement of links.
The code further requires that links should be so arranged that every corner and alternate bar in
an outer layer of reinforcement is supported by a link passing around the bar and having an
included angle of not more than 135°. All other bars should be withinn150 mm of a restrained
bar (Fig. 6.15).

Figure 6-15Arrangement of links in columns
Example: Axially loaded column (BS 8110)
Design the longitudinal steel and links for a 350 mm square, short-braced column which supports
the following axial loads: Gk = 1000 kN Qk = 1000 kN
Assume fcu = 40 Nmm−2 and fy & fyv = 500 Nmm−2.
LONGITUDINAL STEEL
Since column is axially loaded, use equation 3.40, i.e.

N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.75fyAsc
Total ultimate load (N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk = 1.4 × 1000 + 1.6 × 1000 = 3000 kN
Substituting this into the above equation for N gives
3000 × 103 = 0.4 × 40 × (3502 − Asc) + 0.75 × 500Asc
Asc = 2897 mm2 Hence from Table showing Areas of reinforcements
Provide 4H32 (Asc = 3220 mm2)
LINKS

The diameter of the links is one-quarter times the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, that is,
1/4 × 32 = 8 mm, but not less than 8mm diameter. The spacing of the links is the lesser of (a) 12
times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar, that is, 12 × 32 = 384 mm, or (b) the smallest
cross-sectional dimension of the column (= 350 mm).
Hence, provide H8 links at 350 mm centres.
Example: Column supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams (BS

8110)
An internal column in a braced two-storey building supporting an approximately symmetrical

arrangement of beams
(350 mm wide × 600 mm deep) results in characteristic dead and imposed loads each of 1100 kN
being applied to the column. The column is 350 mm square and has a clear height of 4.5 m as
shown in figure below. Design the longitudinal reinforcement and links assuming
fcu = 40 N/mm2 and fy & fyv = 500 N/mm2

CHECK IF COLUMN IS SHORT
Effective height
Depth of beams (600 mm) > depth of column (350 mm), therefore end condition at top of
column = 1. Assuming that the pad footing is not designed to resist any moment, end condition at
bottom of column = 3. Therefore, from

Links
The diameter of the links is one quarter times the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar that is
¼ * 32 = 8 mm, but not less than 8 mm diameter. The spacing of the links is the lesser of (a) 12
times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar, that is 12*25 = 300 mm, or (b) the smallest
cross-sectional dimension of the column (=350 mm). Provide H8 links at 300 mm centres.
Example: Columns resisting an axial load and bending (BS 8110)
Design the longitudinal and shear reinforcement for a 275 mm square, short-braced column
which supports either
(a) An ultimate axial load of 1280 kN and a moment of 62.5 kNm about the x–x axis or
(b) an ultimate axial load of 1280 kN and bending moments of 35 kNm about the x–x axis and
25 kNm about the y–y axis.
Assume fcu = 30 N/mm2, fy = 500 N/mm2 and cover to all reinforcement is 35 mm.
LOAD CASE (A)
LONGITUDINAL STEEL

LINKS
The diameter of the links is one-quarter times the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, that is
¼*20 = 5 mm, but not less than 8 mm diameter. The spacing of the links is lesser of (a) 12 times
the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar, that is, 12 × 20 = 240 mm, or (b) the smallest cross-
sectional dimension of the column (= 275 mm).
Provide H8 links at 240 mm centres
LOAD CASE (B)
LONGITUDINAL STEEL

LINKS
The diameter of the links is one-quarter times the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, that is,
1/4 × 25 ≈ 6 mm, but not less than 8 mm diameter. The spacing of the links is the lesser of (a) 12
times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar, that is, 12 × 25 = 300 mm, or (b) the smallest
cross-sectional dimension of the column (= 275 mm).
Provide H8 links at 275 mm centres.

UNIT SEVEN: REINFORCED CONCRETE FOUNDATION DESIGN.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Foundations are required primarily to carry the dead and imposed loads due to the structure’s
floors, beams, walls, columns, etc. and transmit and distribute the loads safely to the ground
(Fig. 7.1).
Figure7-1 Loading on foundation
The purpose of distributing the load is to avoid the safe bearing capacity of the soil being
exceeded otherwise excessive settlement of the structure may occur.
Foundation failure can produce catastrophic effects on the overall stability of a structure so that it
may slide or even overturn (Fig. 7.2). Such failures are likely to have tremendous financial and
safety implications. It is essential; therefore, that much attention is paid to the design of this
element of a structure.

Figure7-2 Foundation failure: (a) sliding failure; (b) overturning failure
7.2 FOUNDATION TYPES

There are many types of foundations which are commonly used, namely strip, pad and raft. The
foundations may bear directly on the ground or be supported on piles. The choice of foundation
type will largely depend upon (1) ground conditions (i.e. strength and type of soil) and (2) type
of structure
(i.e. layout and level of loading).
Pad footings are usually square or rectangular slabs and used to support a single column (Fig.
7.3). The pad may be constructed using mass concrete or reinforced concrete depending on the
relative size of the loading. Detailed design of pad footings is discussed in section 1.2.1
Figure .7-3 Pad footing: (a) plan; (b) elevation
Continuous strip footings are used to support load bearing walls or under a line of closely spaced
columns (Fig. 7.4). Strip footings are designed as pad footings in the transverse direction and in
the longitudinal direction as an inverted continuous beam subject to the ground bearing pressure.

Figure7-4stip footings: (a) footing supporting column; (footing supporting wall)
Where the ground conditions are relatively poor, a raft foundation may be necessary in order to
distribute the loads from the walls and columns over a large area. In its simplest form this may
consist of a flat slab, possibly strengthened by upstand or downstand beams for the more heavily
loaded structures (Fig. 7.5).
Figure7-5Raft foundation. Typical sections through raft foundation: (a) flat slab; (flat slab
and downstand); (c) flat slab and upstand
Where the ground conditions are so poor that it is not practical to use strip or pad footings but
better quality soil is present at lower depths, the use of pile foundations should be considered
(Fig. 7.6).

Figure7-6Pile foundation
The piles may be made of precast reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete or in-situ reinforced
concrete. Loads are transmitted from the piles to the surrounding strata by end bearing and/or
friction.
End bearing piles derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of the
soil at the toe of the pile, while friction piles rely on the adhesion or friction between the sides of
the pile and the soil.
7.3 FOUNDATION DESIGN

Foundation failure may arise as a result of (a) allowable bearing capacity of the soil being
exceeded, or (b) bending and/or shear failure of the base.
The first condition allows the plan-area of the base to be calculated, being equal to the design
load divided by the bearing capacity of the soil, i.e.
Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design loadings to be
considered when calculating the size of the base should be taken as those for the serviceability
limit state (i.e. 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk). The calculations to determine the thickness of the base and the
bending and shear reinforcement should, however, be based on ultimate loads (i.e. l.4Gk +
1.6Qk).
The design of a pad footing only will be considered here. The reader is referred to more
specialized books on this subject for the design of the other foundation types discussed above.
However, it should be borne in mind that in most cases the design process would be similar to
that for beams and slabs.
7.3.1 Pad footing

The general procedure to be adopted for the design of pad footings is as follows:
1. Calculate the plan area of the footing using serviceability loads.
2. Determine the reinforcement areas required for bending using ultimate loads (Fig. 7).
3. Check for punching, face and transverse shear failures (Fig. 8).
Figure7-7critical section for bending
Figure7-8critical section for shear
Example 1 Design of a pad footing (BS 8110)
A 400 mm square column carries a dead load (Gk) of 1050 kN and imposed load (Qk) of 300
kN. The safe bearing capacity of the soil is 170 kNm−2. Design a square pad footing to resist the
loads assuming the following material strengths:
fcu = 35 N/mm2 , fy = 500 N/mm2

PLAN AREA OF BASE
Loading
Dead load
Assume a footing weight of 130 kN
Total dead load (Gk) = 1050 + 130 = 1180 kN
Serviceability load
Design axial load (N) = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk = 1.0 × 1180 + 1.0 × 300 = 1480 kN
Self-weight of footing
Assume the overall depth of footing (h) = 600 mm
Self weight of footing = area × h × density of concrete = 9 × 0.6 × 24 = 129.6 KN < assumed
(130 KN)
BENDING REINFORCEMENT
Design moment, M
Total ultimate load (W) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk = 1.4 × 1050 + 1.6 × 300 = 1950 kN

Ultimate moment
Effective depth
Base to be cast against blinding, hence cover (c) to reinforcement = 50 mm (see Table 3.8).
Assume 20 mm diameter bars will be needed as bending reinforcement in both directions.

7.3.2 Combined footings
When two columns are close together it is sometimes necessary or convenient to combine their
footings to form a continuous base. The dimensions of the footing should be chosen so that the
resultant load passes through the centroid of the base area. This may be assumed to give a
uniform bearing pressure under the footing and help to prevent differential settlement, for most
structures the ratios of dead and imposed loads carried by each column are similar so that if the
resultant passes through the centroid for the serviceability limit state then this will also be true or
very nearly at the ultimate limit state and hence in these cases a uniform pressure distribution
may be considered for both limit states,
Figure7-9Combined bases
The shape of the footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal as shown in figure above. The
trapezoidal base has the disadvantages of detailing and cutting varying lengths of reinforcing
bars; it is used where there is a large variation in the loads carried by the two columns and there
are limitations on the length of footing. Sometimes in order to strengthen the base and economize
on concrete a beam is incorporated between the two columns so that the base is designed as an
inverted T-section.

The proportions of the footing depend on many factors. If it is too long, there will be large
longitudinal moments on lengths projecting beyond the columns, whereas a short base will have
larger span moments between the columns and the greater width will cause large transverse
moments, the thickness of the footing must be such that the shear stresses are not excessive.
Example 2. Design of a combined footing.

The footing supports two columns 300 mm square and 400 mm square with characteristic dead
and imposed loads as shown in figure below. The safe bearing pressure is 300 KN/m2 and the
characteristic material strengths are fcu = 35 N/mm2 and fy = 460 N/mm2.
Figure7-10Combined footing example

(5) Longitudinal moments and shear forces: the shear force and bending moment diagrams at the
ultimate limit state and for a net upward pressure of 393 KN/m2 are shown above.

(6) shear: Punching shear can not be checked, since the critical perimeter 1.5d from the column
face lies outside the base rea. The critical for shear is taken 1d from the column face. Therefore
with d=730 mm.
(7) Longitudinal bending
Mid-span between columns

Provide T16 bars at 180 mm centres, area = 1117 mm2 per metre.
The transverse reinforcement should be placed at closer centres under the columns to allow for
greater moments in those regions.
UNIT 8: REINFORCED CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS DESIGN
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Sometimes it is necessary to maintain a difference in ground levels between adjacent areas of
land.
Typical examples of this include road and railway embankments, reservoirs and ramps. A
common solution to this problem is to build a natural slope between the two levels. However,
this is not always possible because slopes are very demanding of space. An alternative solution
which allows an immediate change in ground levels to be affected is to build a vertical wall
which is capable of resisting the pressure of the retained material. These structures are
commonly referred to as retaining walls (Fig.8.1).

Figure8-1Section through rod embankment incorporating a retaining wall
Retaining walls are important elements in many building and civil engineering projects and the
purpose of the following sections is to briefly describe the various types of retaining walls
available and outline the design procedure associated with one common type, namely cantilever
retaining walls.
Main categories of concrete retaining walls (a) gravity walls and (b) flexible walls.
8.2 GRAVITY WALLS

Where walls up to 2 m in height are required, it is generally economical to choose a gravity
retaining wall. Such walls are usually constructed of mass concrete with mesh reinforcement in
the faces to reduce thermal and shrinkage cracking. Other construction materials for gravity
walls include masonry and stone (Fig. 8.2).
Gravity walls are designed so that the resultant force on the wall due to the dead weight and the
earth pressures is kept within the middle third of the base.
A rough guide is that the width of base should be about a third of the height of the retained
material. It is usual to include a granular layer behind the wall and weep holes near the base to
minimize hydrostatic pressure behind the wall.
Gravity walls rely on their dead weight for strength and stability. The main advantages with this
type of wall are simplicity of construction and ease of maintenance.
8.3 FLEXIBLE WALLS
These retaining walls may be of two basic types, namely (i) cantilever and (ii) counterfort.

Figure8-2Gravity retaining wall: (a) mass concrete; (b) masonry wall
8.3.1 Cantilever walls.
Cantilevered reinforced concrete retaining walls are suitable for heights up to about 7 m. They
generally consist of a uniform vertical stem monolithic with a base slab (Fig. 8..3). A key is
sometimes incorporated at the base of the wall in order to prevent sliding failure of the wall.
The stability of these structures often relies on the weight of the structure and the weight of
backfill on the base. This is perhaps the most common type of wall and, therefore, the design of
such walls is considered in detail in section 8.4.
8.3.2 Counterfort walls.
In cases where a higher stem is needed, it may be necessary to design the wall as a counterfort
(Fig. 4). Counterfort walls can be designed as continuous slabs spanning horizontally between
vertical supports known as counterforts.
The counterforts are designed as cantilevers and will normally have a triangular or trapezoidal
shape. As with cantilever walls, stability is provided by the weight of the structure and earth on
the base.

Figure8-3Cantiler wall
Figure8-4Counterfort retaining wall
8.4 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER WALLS
Generally, the design process involves ensuring that the wall will not fail either due to
foundation n failure or structural failure of the stem or base.
Specifically, the design procedure involves the following steps:

1. Calculate the soil pressures on the wall.
2. Check the stability of the wall.
3. Design the bending reinforcement.

As in the case of slabs, the design of retaining walls is usually based on a 1 m width of section.
8.4.1 Soil pressures

The method most commonly used for determining the soil pressures is based on Rankin’s
formula, which may be considered to be conservative but is straightforward to apply. The
pressure on the wall resulting from the retained fill has a destabilizing effect on the wall and is
normally termed active pressure (Fig. 8.5). The earth in front of the wall resists the destabilizing
forces and is termed passive pressure.
Figure8-5Active and Passive pressure acting on a wall

Table8-1values of unit weight of soil types with their corresponding internal angle of
friction

8.4.2 Stability
Fountain failure of the wall may arise due to (a) sliding or (b) rotation. Sliding failure will occur
if the active pressure force (FA) exceeds the passive pressure force (FP) plus the friction force
(FF) arising at the base/ground interface (Fig. 6(a)) where
The factor of safety against this type of failure occurring is normally taken to be at least 1.5:

Figure8-6Modes of failure: (a) sliding; (b) overturning; (c) slip circle
Rotational failure of the wall may arise due to:

1. The overturning effect of the active pressure force (Fig. 8.6(b));
2. Bearing pressure of the soil being exceeded which will display similar characteristics to (1); or
3. Failure of the soil mass surrounding the wall (Fig. 8.6(c)).
Failure of the soil mass (type (3)) will not be considered here but the reader is referred to any
standard book on soil mechanics for an explanation of the procedure to be followed to avoid such
failures.
Failure type (1) can be checked by taking moments about the toe of the foundation (A) as shown
in Fig. 8.7 and ensuring that the ratio of sum of restoring moments (sum of Mres) and sum of
overturning moments (sum of Mover) exceeds 2.0, i.e.

Failure type (2) can be avoided by ensuring that the ground pressure does not exceed the
allowable bearing pressure for the soil. The ground pressure under the toe (ptoe) and the heel
(pheel) of the base can be calculated using
Provided that the load eccentricity lies within the middle third of the base, that is
Where
M = moment about centre line of base
N = total vertical load (Wt)
D = width of base
Figure8-7Restoring moment and overturning moment
8.4.3 Reinforcement areas
Structural failure of the wall may arise if the base and stem are unable to resist the vertical and
horizontal forces due to the retained soil. The area of steel reinforcement needed in the wall can
be calculated by considering the ultimate limit states of bending and shear. As was pointed out at
the beginning of this chapter, cantilever retaining walls can be regarded for design purposes as
three cantilever beams (Fig. 8.6) and thus the equations developed in section of the above can be
used here.

The areas of main reinforcement (As) can be calculated using
Example Design of a cantilever retaining wall (BS 8110)
The cantilever retaining wall shown below is backfilled with granular material having a unit
weight of 19 kN/m3and an internal angle of friction of 30°. Assuming that the allowable bearing
pressure of the soil is 120 kN/m2, the coefficient of friction is 0.4 and the unit weight of
reinforced concrete is 24 Kn/m3
1. Determine the factors of safety against sliding and overturning.

2. Calculate ground bearing pressures.
3. Design the wall and base reinforcement assuming fcu = 35 kN/m2, fy = 500 kN/m2 and the
cover to reinforcement in the wall and base are, respectively, 35 mm and 50 mm.

UNIT 9: REINFORCED CONCRETE WATER RETAINING
STRUCTURES DESIGN.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of all of these types of structure is based on fundamental principles and analysis
techniques which have been discussed in previous chapters. Because of their specialized nature.
However design is often governed by factors which may be regarded as secondary in normal
reinforced concrete work. Such structures are relatively common in one form or another and
hence justify coverage in some detail.
This category includes those which are required to contain or exclude any liquid. Since water is
that most commonly involved. However the rather loose title is frequently used to describe such
structures, common structures of this type include water towers and reservoirs, storage tanks
including sewage disposal and treatment systems, and floors and walls of basements and other
underground construction where it is necessary to prevent ingress of groundwater.
As it is important to restrain cracking so that leakages do not take place the design is generally
governed by the requirements of the serviceability limit state, but stability considerations are
particularly important and design must take careful account of the construction methods to be
used. British standard code of practice BS 5337 offers guidance on the design and construction
of the category of structure and incorporate a limit state approach as an alternative to the elastic
design methods which have been traditionally used. This code recommends values for design
stress limits for this type of structure.
It is anticipated however that this code will modified and replaced by BS8007 during 1987 to
take account of general changes which have been introduced in BS8110. It is expected that the
principal changes to the established procedures which are described in this chapter will be

It is possible that the elastic design method will no longer be included.
9.2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS
To ensure a watertight structure the concrete must be adequately reinforced in sections where
tension may occur. For this reason it is important to be able to envisage the deflected shape of
the structures and its individual elements. Tensile stresses due to any direct tensile forces as well
as those due to bending must be included in the design calculations.
Continuity reinforcement to prevent cracking must be provided at corners and at member

junctions. This reinforcement must extend well beyond where it is required to resist the tensile
stresses, particularly when these stresses occur on the face in contact with the liquid.
The design should consider the cases where the structure is full of liquid and also when it is
empty. The structure when empty must have the strength to withstand the active pressure of any
retained earth. Since the passive resistance of the earth is never certain to be acting, it should
generally be ignored when designing for the structure full.
Cracking may occur not only from flexure and shrinkage but also from subsidence and in some
areas earthquakes. Careful attention must thus be given to geological aspects of a proposed site
and in particular to the possibilities of differential settlement. It may sometimes be necessary to
provide movement joints to cater for this, in addition to expansion and contraction joints required
to allow for thermal and shrinkage movements. Flexural cracking can be controlled by careful
design and detailing.
With a thick section, the heat generated by hydration cannot readidly be dissipated and the
resulting temperature rise in the body of the concrete may be considerable. In addition to the
normal precautions, it may be necessary to use low-heat cements and to restrict the size of pours,
for example. Experimental work has shown that in walls and slabs greater than 500 mm in
thickness, the outer 250mm 0n each face may be regarded as the surface zone and the remainder
as core. Minimum reinforcement quantities to control thermal and shrinkage cracking should
thus be based on the member thickness of 500mm. the bottom surface zone for ground slabs
should be 100 mm. temperature rises due to hydration must be averaged to allow for the cor
temperatures.

The importance of good curing cannot be overemphasized, but it is important to remember that
good compaction on site is just as vital, if not more critical in producing an impermeable
concrete.
It is essential therefore that the concrete mix used is sufficiently workable to enable easy
handling during construction with no tendency to segregation. A slightly higher water content
combined with higher cement content will help to produce a mix that is plastic but not sloppy. A
longer mixing time and the use of natural aggregates in preference to crushed stone is helpful.
Formwork must also be carefully constructed to avoid grout leakage at joints and the consequent
areas of concrete vulnerable to water penetration. Particular care must also be given to the use of
formwork ties through ties should not be used as these offer a potential leakage path.
9.3 JOINTS IN WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES
All concrete structures must inevitably contain construction joints, although the need for joints to
accommodate movement in water retaining structures is governed by the likelihood of and need
to need to resist, unacceptable cracking principally due to shrinkage and thermal movement.
Frequently it may be possible to combine the two categories of joint.
The principal characteristics of joints are that they must be watertight, and in the case of
movement joint must also permit the repeated required movement to take place as freely as
possible. Water bars will generally be incorporated, either the surface type in slabs, or possibly
the centre buld type in walls. These must be effectively held in position during concreting, while
allowing good compaction of the concrete to be still possible. Such water bars must furthermore
be able to accommodate anticipated movement without tearing, and withstand considerable water
pressures

9.3.1 Construction Joints
Construction joints can't be avoided, and the aim must be to ensure reinforcement continuity with
good bonding between the new concrete and old. Such requirements of course, apply to any
reinforced concrete construction but especial care must be taken in this instance if leakage is to
be avoided. Laitance must always be removed to expose coarse aggregate and a sound irregular
concrete surface. The new concrete is then poured either directly against this surface, or
alternatively a thin layer of grout may be applied before casting. If well constructed such joints
should be completely watertight. Water stops are not usually necessary; however, it is sometimes
preferred to seal the joints on water retaining surface as an additional precaution.
Figure9-1construction joints
Wherever possible the construction should be arranged so that the joints are either all horizontal
or all vertical. In some instances long lengths of walls or slab are constructed in alternate lengths
as shown in figure 9.2, so that when the intermediate pours are made later the older concrete in
earlier pours will have already taken up some of the shrinkage movement, but on the other hand
some engineers prefer to construct successive lengths arguing that this will mean there is only
one restrained edge and the other edge of the slab is free to contract without cracking. The
method adopted, in fact often depends on the preference of contractor who has to be responsible
for producing a watertight structure at an economic cost.

Figure9-2construction procedure for walls
9.3.2 Movement Joints
Movement joints are provided to reduce the likelihood of unwanted thermal or shrinkage stree
concentrations. They ensure there is only a partially restrained condition during contraction of
the immature concrete.
Joints to accommodate contraction may be of two types, ‘partial’ or ‘complete’, depending upon
the extent of contraction anticipated and the degree of restraint that can be tolerated. ‘Partial’
contraction joints are the simplest to provide and consist of a deliberated discontinuity of the
concrete, but without an initial gap as shown in figure 9.3.

Figure9-3Partial Contraction joint
An example of a complete contraction joint which fulfils this requirement is shown in figure
9.4.a.in this case both steel and concrete are discontinuous, but if any shear must be transferred
then a shear key is required, as shown. In this type of joint a waterbar is considered to be
essential, although there is no initial gap between the concrete surfaces.
Where expansion pf the concrete is considered possible, joints must be provided which permit
this to take place freely without the development of compressive stresses in the concrete.
Expansion joints must, therefore, not only provide complete discontinuity of concrete and steel
reinforcement, but also must have an initial gao to accommodate such movement. Contraction
can also of course be catered for by this type of joint. Figure 9.4.b shows a common expansion
joint detail, where in addition to a sealer and special waterstop, the joint is filled with a non
absorption compressible filler. Shear can obviously not be transmitted by this joint, but if it is
essential that provision for shear transfer be made a special joint involving sliding concrete
surfaces must be designed.
The essential requirement is that the two concrete surfaces are absolutely plane and smooth and
that bond is broken between the surfaces such as by painting or the use of building paper, or that
a suitable rubber pad is used. Figure 9.5 shows a typical detail for such a joint. Must always be
effectively sealed

Figure9-4complete movement joints
Figure9-5typical sliding joint between slab and wall

9.3.3 Provision of movement Joints
The need for movement joints will depend to a considerable on the nature of the structure and the
usage to which it is put. For instance an elevated structure may be subjected to few restraints,
while an underground structure may be massive and restrained. On the other hand, temperature
and moisture variations may be greater in exposed structures than those which are buried. If
warm liquids are involved, then this must be reflected in the provision of adequate joints.
The type of member, and construction sequence, will also be an important consideration. Floor
slabs will generally be cast on a separating layer of polythene or some similar material lay on the
blinding concrete, and in this case joints should be complete contraction or expansion joints.
Walls may similarly be designed as fully restrained or alternatively contraction joints provided at
centres not exceeding about 7.5 m in reinforced concrete. Expansion joints must be provided if
necessary. In some instances roofs may be separated from the walls by sliding joints. If the roof
is to be designed as unrestrained then great care must be taken to minimize the restraints to
thermal movement during construction.
If design of a member is based on fully restrained condition, it is assumed that cracking will be
controlled by the reinforcement; therefore the critical steel ratio rcrit must be exceeded. The
reinforcement is then detailed to limit the maximum likely crack width to the values given in
table 9.1 using appropriate values of likely temperature change and concrete properties
recommended by the code of practice. In this instance greatest benefit is obtained from closely
spaced small diameter bars.
Alternatively, if proper movements joints are provided so that cracks are concentrated at the
joints, reinforcement may be designed on the basis of only partial restraint as indicated in table
9.2 but bar spacing should not exceed 300 mm.

Table9-1Limit state method-limitations for reinforced concrete
Table9-2Suggested joint and reinforced combination for thermal and shrinkage effects
9.4 DESIGN METHODS
The design of water retaining structures may be carried out using either (1) Limit state design, or
(2) an elastic design.
A limit state design would be based on both the ultimate and serviceability limit state, using the
methods described in previous units. As the restraint of cracking is of prime importance with
these structures, the simplified rules for minimum steel areas and maximum spacing would no
longer be adequate.
The elastic design is the traditional method which will probably continue to be used for many
structures. It is relatively simple and easy to apply. Possibly it will be used in conjunction with
limit state methods when there are special circumstances, such as when stability, so that the
critical loading patterns for the ultimate limit state should be considered. Even though a
struucture has been designed by yhe elastic method it may still be necessary to calculate the
possible movement crack widths.
9.4.1 Limit State Design
The application of limit state techniques to water retaining structures is relatively new and the
recommendations of BS 8110 are used subject: to modifications contained in BS 5337. For the
ultimate limit state the procedures followed are exactly the same for any other reinforced
structure. The partial factor of safety on imposed loading due contained liquid could be taken as
1.4 for strength calculations to reflect the degree of accuracy with which hydrostatic loading may
be predicted. Calculations for the analysis of the structure subject to the most severe load
combinations will proceed in usual way but the reinforcement characteristic strengths should not
be taken to exceed 425 N/mm2.
Serviceability design will involve the clarification of each member according to its exposure
category as described in table 9.1. for example roofs will generally be in class A, while columns
or walls may be in either class A or B according to circumstances. A wall or slab exposed to
class A or B conditions on one face only should be treated as subject to class A or B on both
faces if less than or equal to 225 mm thick, or class C on the remote face if thicker than 225 mm.

External members not in contact with the liquid will lie in class C and can be designed using the
criteria discussed in other units for normal reinforced concrete work.
The maximum allowable crack widths are listed in table 9.1. Although the expressions are of the
same general form it is recommended that the coefficients are modified to give a lower
probability of the limits being exceeded.
A negative value of the above expression indicates that the section is uncracked.
Thermal cracking is taken to have a maximum spacing
with values of fct/fb for immature concrete suggested as 1.0 plain round
bars, 0.8 deformed type 1 bars, 0.67 deformed type 2 bars. The width of fully developed crack
may be taken generally as
While in practice the drying shrinkage strain may be of the order of
Hence a simplified expression
is suggested as adequate.

Temperatures rises due to hydration of the concrete in walls may be expected to be of the order
of 200C in winter and 300C in summer but should be increased for high cement contents, rapid
hardening cement, thick members or timber shutters in summer. Values for ground floor slabs
may be about 50C less.
Additional seasonal temperature falls may be directly substituted into the above expression since
the effects of concrete maturity are offset by a smaller ratio of tensile to bond strength and other
effects.
As an alternative to such calculations of crack widths, table 9.1 offers maximum service stresses
for the reinforcement and if these values can shows to be satified it may be assumed that
maximum likely crack widths in the mature concrete will be below the limiting values. This
requires an elastic analysis of the member under working conditions.
The final details of reinforcement to be provided must be co-ordinated with the joint spacing
arrangement. This is a complicated procedure since a wide range of possibilities exist, but some
alternative combinations based on control of thermal and shrinkage effects are suggested in table
9.2 with their most appropriate applications. The critical steel ratio rcrit is given by fct / fy.
It will be seen that small-sized, closely spaced bars are best when joint spacing is large; however,
since crack spacing is related to bar diameter, larger bars should be used when closer joints are
combined with less steel. Although table 9.2 offers a general guide, flexural effects may
dominate and it is recommended that the engineer consult specialist literature when undertaking
a major on this basis.

Example 1 Limit state design of a water retaining section
The section shown below is to be designed by the ultimate method and is subjected to a moment
of 11KNm under working loads which may be considered as purely hydrostatic. The moment
acts so that there is tension in the face adjacent to the liquid. A grade 30 concrete and plan bars
are specified with class B exposure; 3 days tensile strength 1.3N/mm2. Minimum cover = 40
mm, therefore d=130 mm.

From figure 9.66, x = 0.34d = 0.34*130 mm = 44 mm. therefore reinforcement tensile stress is

Figure9-6Nuetral axis depths for cracked rectangular section-elastic behavior
Designed main reinforcement is less than r crit and would require close joint spacing as option 4
or 5 (table 9.2). for class B construction it may be more appropriate to increase steel marginally
to 12 mm bars at 120 mm centres (area = 943 mm2 / m) and then adopt option 2 with partial
contraction joints at 7.5 mm centres. The reinforcement may be provided in one layer with, say,
12 mm at 125 mm centres distribution steel transversely.
9.4.2 Elastic Design
This method is based on working loads, and permissible stresses in the concrete and steel which
are considered to be acting within the elastic range. Hence the design assumes a triangular stress
block as analyzed in unit 3. Suitable permissible stresses are shown in table 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5. the
ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete is taken as 15.
Calculations are perfomed on the basis of two criteria: strength, and resistance to cracking.
Strength calculations assume a cracked section. Low permissible steel stresses are specified in
order to limit the width of cracks and thus reduce the chance of leakage and corrosion of
reinforcement.
The analysis for resistance to cracking assumes a limiting tensile stress in the concrete and is
based on an uncracked concrete section. The governing factor in such an analysis is inevitably
the permissible tensile stress in the concrete with the steel and concrete stresses being related by
the compatibility of strains across the section.
The calculations for: cracking resistance must be carried out for
1. The face in contact with the liquid for section thicker than 225 mm.
2. Both faces for sections of 225 mm or less in thickness.
Sections thicker than 225 mm are designed for strength only at faces remote from the liquid.
Design by the elastic method, therefore, consists of designing for strength, checking cracking
resistance, and increasing the member size or the area of reinforcement.

Table9-3Elastic method-strength calculations, permissible concrete stresses
(a) Strength calculations

(1) Determine the depth of neutral axis from
The stresses are the permissible values and ES/EC = 15.

(2) Check the moment of resistance of the concrete from
(3) Calculate the area of tension steel from

Table9-4Elastic method-strength calculations, permissible steel stresses
Table9-5Elastic method-cracking calculations, permissible stresses

(b) Cracking resistance
(1) Determine a depth of neutral axis for the uncracked section from
(2) Check that the tensile stress, fct in the concrete does not exceed the permissible value from
table 9.5. The stress is calculated from
The depth of the section or the steel area must be increased if the permissible stress is exceeded.
Where the section has to resist direct tension, as for example a circular tank, the resistance of the
uncracked section is given by
Where Ac is the area of concrete in tension. Therefore for a rectangular section and allowing for
the area of concrete displaced by the reinforcement.
When the direct tension is combined with dending, a rigorous analysis of the section may be
carried out for many cases this is not justified. Quite often with rectangular tanks, only small
tensile forces are associated with the bending. Conversely, when a circular tank has to resist
large hoop tensions usually the bending moments have only secondary effects.
If the shear stresses in the concrete should exceed the permissible values given in table 9.3 then
shear reinforcement must be provided. In an elastic analysis the shear strength of the concrete is
not include in the formula for calculating the stirrup reinforcement. The area, Asv and spacing
Sv of the stirrups is given by

Where V = the shear force due to the working loads
Fv=the steel stress from table 9.4
Z=the lever arm of the resistance moment.
Example 2 Elastic design of a water retaining section
The section shown below is to be designed by the ultimate method and is subjected to a moment
of 11KNm under working loads. The moment acts so that there is tension in the face adjacent to
the liquid. A grade 30 concrete and plan bars are specified with class B exposure.

From which fct = 1.90 N/mm2 which is less than the permissible tensile of 2.02 N/mm2 from
table 9.5, therefore the section is adequate and extra steel is not required.
9.5 WATER TANK DESIGN EXAMPLE
Reinforcements should normally be placed near the surface of the concrete but the minimum
cover should not be less than 400 mm.
For exposures A and B, as described in table 9.1, the minimum steel areas in each of two
directions at right angles are normally taken as rcrit or 2/3 rcrit according to joint arrangement.
(1) In member up to 200 mm thick theses areas of reinforcement should be in one layer.
(2) In members over 200 mm thick the reinforcement should be equally divided so that there
is a layer in each face.
(3) In members greater than 500 mm thick h should be taken as 500 mm.
(4) Requirement (3) may be reduced for ground slabs (see BS 5337)
It will be seen from the preceding sections, that under service conditions the reinforcement must
be acting at stresses below those normally existing in reinforcement concrete members. This
reduces the advantages of increased strengths usually associated with high yield steels.

It will be noted however that for nominal reinforcement the minimum quantity is considerably
reduced if deformed bars are used, because of their improved bond characteristics.
The choice between high yield and mild steel reinforcement is, not well defined and often a
matter of personal preference of the engineer.
Example 3 Design of a water retaining structure by elastic method
A cross section of the tank to be designed is shown below. The floor slab of the tank spans on to
supporting beams at B and C. A grade 30 concrete and plain mild steel bars are to be used. (1 m3
of water weighs 9.81 KN/m3); 3 days tensile strength fct = 1.3N/mm2
For the walls h = 200 mm and d= 150 mm
For the slab h = 300 mm and d = 250 mm
(a)Walls
Since the water is on the tension side both strength and cracking must be designed for: Water
pressure at base of wall = 9.81*2.0 = 19.62 KN/m2.
For the effective span of the cantilever and considering a 1m length of wall,
(1) Strength
From which fct =2.00 N/mm2 which is less than the permissible tensile of 2.02 N/mm2 from
table 9.5, therefore the section is adequate and extra steel is not required.
Minimum steel required in each face = r crit / 2
Provide R10 at 150 mm centres, area = 523 mm². This steel should be provided at right angles to
the main steel and also each way in the opposite face.
(b)Floors
The bending moment diagrams are shown in figure below. As can be seen the floor must be
designed for strength plus cracking over the beams, but at mid span between the beams the water
is on the compression side of the slab, therefore strength only need be considered, since h greater
than 225 mm.

Mid-span: design for strength only
Provide R16 bars at 130 mm centres bottom steel area = 1546 mm2
At the support beams: design for strength and cracking, M = 33.1 KNm.
Therefore R16 bars at 130 mm centres top steel will also resist this moment.
Check cracking:
From which fct =1.93 N/mm2 which is less than the permissible tensile of 2.02 N/mm2
minimum steel required in each face = 0.0026*1000*300 = 780 mm².
Provide R20 bars at 140 mm centres at right angles to the main steel and at least this area
each way in the compression faces of the slab. Direct tensile force on the slab due to pressure
on the walls is given by
Thus with R16 bars at 130 mm centres (1546 mm²) and R12 at 140 mm centres (798 mm²) in
compression face.

REFERENCE
A. STANDARDS
1. British standard: (1996), BS 6399 Part 1, London: BRITISH STANDARDS

INSTITUTION, London.
2. British standard: (1997), BS 8110 Part 1, London: BRITISH STANDARDS

3. BS 6399 Part 1 1996. (1996). British standard. Retrieved 2017, from British standard,
4. BS 8110 Part 1 1997. (1997). British standard

5. BS 8110 Part 1 1997. (1997). British standard. London: Engineers team.
6. BS 8110 Part 2. (1985). British standard. London: BRITISH STANDARDS

B. BOOKS
1. MACGINIEY, T.J.CHOO. B.S (1990), Reinforced concrete. New York: Spon press
2. Mosley, Bungey. (1990). Reinforced Concrete Design: Macmillan Education
3. S.Unnikrishna Pillai , Devdas Menon,(2003). Reinforced Concrete Design, 2nd edition.
New Dehli: Tata MacGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
4. W.H.Mosley, J.H.Bungey. (1987). Reinforced Concrete Design. London: Macmillan
Education
5. W.H. Mosley, J.H. Bungey and R. Hulse. Reinforced Concrete Design to EUROCODE
2-: Macmillan
6. A.M. Neville, J.J. Brooks. Concrete Technology: Longman
7. W.M.C. McKenzie BSc, PhD, C Phys, MInstP, C Eng, 2004, Design of structural
elements,
8. ISBN 0−333−00000−0.
9. T.J MACGINLEY and B.S CHOO, 1990, Reinforced concrete design theory and
examples, second edition.
10. S.S RAY, 1995, reinforced concrete analysis and design.
11. The institution of structural engineers, august 1989, Reinforced concrete detailing
manual.
12. MASHHOUR GHONEIM, 2008, Design of reinforced concrete structures, First edition
volume 3;
13. Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013, Buildings Department 12/F-18/F
Pioneer Centre 750 Nathan Road Mongkok, Kowloon Hong Kong.
C. INTERNET
1. (http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e04.pdf)
2. (https://www.quora.c
3. https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg
4. https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/basic-codes-for-rcc-structural-design/7304/

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INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL CENTER

Building Sustainable Self Reliance

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

OPTION OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

MODULE TITLE: DESIGN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

MODULE CODE: CET 301

ACADEMIC YEAR 2016-2017

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Ac: Area of the transversal cross section of the column

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1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

1.2 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

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1.4 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

1.4.1 Ultimate limit state (ULS)

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1.4.2 Serviceability limit state (SLS)

1.5 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS

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Figure1-1 stress strain curve for concrete in compression

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Figure 1-4 Modulus of elasticity of concrete

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Table 1-1 Characteristic strength of concrete

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Table 1-2Short-term modulus of elasticity of normal-weight gravel concrete

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Figure 1-6 strain hardening

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Table 1-3 Strength of reinforcement

1.5.3. Composite action

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Figure 1-7simply supported beam subjected to bending

1.5.4 Reinforced concrete

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Properties of reinforced concrete

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Figure 1-8 Shrinkage strains

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Figure 1-9 shrinkage forces adjacent to a crack

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1.6.1 Types of loads on structures.

Figure 1-11 Types of Loads on structures

Types of loads are:

1.6. 2. Dead Loads (DL)

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Table 1-4 Unit weights of some of the common materials

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1.6.4. Wind loads

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