1.

a. Changes in irradiation
This is the change in the measure of energy density of sunlight received at a location on earth
and it is measured in W/m2. As solar isolation keep on changing throughout the day, the I-V
and P-V characteristics curve can be drawn for a varying solar radiation for both open circuit
voltage as well as the short circuit current to explain the effect of change in irradiation on the
power output.

Fig 1. Shows the I-V characteristics at 6 different radiance level

Fig 1. Shows the P-V characteristics at 6 different radiance level

At low levels of solar radiation, the general shape of the I-V characteristic stays the same, but the area
under the curve decreases, and the maximum power point moves to the left. The PV cell current is
strongly dependent on the solar radiation. However, the voltage has a small change with increasing
irradiation. The short circuit current is proportionally increasing with increasing irradiation. The change
in open circuit voltage is very small with increasing irradiation.

b. Changes in temperature
Solar cell performance decreases with increasing temperature, fundamentally owing to
increased internal carrier recombination rates, caused by increased carrier concentrations. The
 operating temperature plays a key role in the photovoltaic conversion process. Both the
electrical efficiency and the power output of a photovoltaic (PV) module depend linearly on
the operating temperature.

Fig 3 shows the IV characteristics at 3 different temperature

- Temperature can affect how electricity flows through an electrical circuit by changing the speed
at which the electrons travel. It can be seen above that Voltage decrease with increasing
temperature. Also it can be seen that, the short-circuit current weakly dependent on temperature.

c. Shading part of the module

If shade covered one complete cell area of the panel, then the power output completely
vanished. On the other hand, if the shading covered the cells partially, then the drop in the
power output will be proportional to area of the shade. Further, the current output is equal to
the lowest among the cell individual current outputs. This can be attributed to the series
connection of individual cells to make up the entire panel.First figure represents I-V
characteristics of PV panel subjected to a variety of non-uniform shading conditions. It is
Cleary shown that area of the shade had significant effect on the I-V characteristics as well as
power output.

IV characteristic
 PV characteristic

2. Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

This is the temperature that the cells in the module will reach when they are operated at open
circuit in an ambient temperature of 200C under AM1.5 irradiance condition with G = 800W/m2
and a wind speed less than 1m/s. it can then be used to estimate the cell temperature for variation
in ambient temperature as well the irradiance.

3. Types of silicon solar modules

a. Mono-crystalline silicon cells
Mono-crystalline solar modules are created using solid silicon ingots. This is evident in the silicon wafers
that make up the energy-producing part of the module. The wafers are cut out of the cylindrical ingots to
make the wafers. They usually have a much more uniform, dark color to them compared to poly-
crystalline modules.

Advantages:
1) The most efficiency modules due to the wafers being made from the highest, purest silicon.
2) More space efficient. Since these modules have a higher efficiency,
4) They take up less room per watt than any other module type.
3) Great low-light performance
Disadvantages:
1) More expensive. Since these modules use the highest grade silicon, the price for manufacturing is
higher.
2) Most silicon is wasted. The silicon is manufactured in cylindrical ingots and the square wafer is cut out
of it. A lot of silicon is wasted but still has to be paid for.
3) Slightly more efficient in warmer weather.

b. Polycrystalline silicon cells

These modules are manufactured slightly differently than mono-crystalline modules. The silicon is first
melted into a rectangular form before the wafers are cut into squares. The wafers have right-angle corners,
unlike the mono-crystalline. This is a great indicator of what type of solar module you have. The color is
usually lighter and broken up more so than a mono-crystalline solar module.

Advantages

1) Manufacturing is much simpler and therefore less expensive.

Disadvantages

1) Less efficient than mono-crystalline. Since the silicon is melted and re-solidified, the silicon wafer isn't
as pure as a mono-crystalline module. Poly-crystalline modules are on average ~5% less efficient than
mono-crystalline.

2) Not as space efficient. A larger poly-crystalline module is needed to produce the equivalent amount of
energy compared to a mono-crystalline module.

c. Thin- Film solar cells (Amorphous silicon cells)

- These modules are manufactured by layering photovoltaic material onto a substrate. The number
of layers can vary

Advantages

1) Manufacturing is the easiest and cheapest.

2) Can be made for flexible applications, not just rigid solar module applications like roof-top and utility
scale solar.

3) Visually appealing. Just like mono-crystalline modules, they have a very uniform look since they are a
uniform material throughout.

4) If space is not an issue, these could provide a cheaper option for your solar project.

Disadvantages

1) Take up a lot of room. This may not be as ideal for applications where space limitation is a factor.

2) More racking is needed per module. This could drive up racking and other equipment costs.

3) Degrade quicker than mono and poly-crystalline modules.

4) These types of solar modules are less efficient compared to mono and poly-crystalline solar modules in
general.

b.
P max
i. Fill – factor of the module =
Vsc  Isc
80
= = 0.734
21.8  5

ii. Efficiency of the module at STC

 P max
Efficiency =
Area  G
The incident radiation flux could better be described as the amount of sunlight that hits the earth’s
surface in W/m2. The assumed incident radiation flux under standard test conditions (STC) that
manufacturers use is G= 1000 W/m2

Area =1188*530=0.62964 m2
80
Therefore the efficiency = = 12.7 %
0.62964  1000

c.

NOCT  20
Tc = TA  G
800
40  20
= 30   980 = 54.5 0C
800

d.
ACTUAL VOLTAGE = VMPP  Cv  (Tnew  25)

=17+(-0.0022*(54.5-30))
=17-0.0639=16.94V