Running head: LEARNING THEORIES

Learning Theories

Sketchily Sebente

14063549

School of Education

17th April 2017.

LEARNING THEORIES

Learning Theories.

1.0 Introduction.

In all aspects of the school and its surrounding education community, the rights of the
whole child, and all children, to survival, protection, development and participation are
at the centre. This means that the focus is on learning which strengthens the capacities
of children to act progressively on their own behalf through the acquisition of relevant
knowledge, useful skills and appropriate attitudes; and which creates for children, and
helps them create for themselves and others, places of safety, security and healthy
interaction. (Bernard, 1999).

What does learning mean? Many individuals often when they hear of this term, they intuitively
acquaint it to formal pedagogical instances involving a teacher giving instructions to students
in a particular area of interest. Learning has been a central topic in psychological research
virtually since the inception of psychology as an independent science. During the largest part
of the previous century, it was even the most intensely studied topic in psychology. Also, today,
questions about learning are addressed in virtually all areas of psychology. It is therefore
surprising to see that researchers are rarely explicit about what they mean by the term learning.
Even influential textbooks on learning do not always contain a definition of its subject matter
(e.g., Bouton,2007; Schwartz, Wasserman, & Robbins, 2002).

Perhaps this state of affairs results from the fact that there is no general agreement about the
definition of learning. To some extent, the lack of consensus about the definition of learning
should not come as a surprise. It is notoriously difficult to define concepts in a satisfactory
manner, especially concepts that are as broad and abstract as the concept of learning. It is likely
that all learning researchers carry with them some idea of what learning is. Without at least an
implicit sense of what learning is, there would be no reason to devote one’s time and energy to
studying it. Addressing definitional issues in an explicit manner can thus help avoid
misunderstandings and facilitate communication among learning researchers.

This paper endeavours to contribute to the debate about the definition of learning and its
subsequent theories by putting forward relevant and detailed practical views of Ivan Pavlov,
John Watson and Burrhus Frederic Skinner (classical and operant conditioning), Bandura Bobo
doll experiment, just to mention a few among other behavioural, social and humanistic learning
theories which eventually over time lead to meaning learning.

1
LEARNING THEORIES

2.0 Definition of Learning.

As was noted by Lachman (1997), most textbook definitions of learning refer to learning as a
change in behaviour that is due to experience. This is essentially a very basic functional
definition of learning in that learning is seen as a function that maps experience onto behaviour.
In other words, learning is defined as an effect of experience on behaviour. Many researchers
have claimed that such a simple functional definition of learning is unsatisfactory (e.g.,
Domjan, 2010; Lachman, 1997; Ormrod, 1999, 2008). Because (1) not all effects of experience
on behaviour can be regarded as learning and (2) not all changes in behaviour are due to
experience. It follows that changes in behaviour are neither necessary (because other
determinants of behaviour can block the impact of learning on behaviour—e.g., a lack of
motivation) nor sufficient (because other determinants of behaviour might be responsible for a
change in behaviour—e.g., the genetic makeup of an organism) to infer the presence of
learning.

Certain individual experiences (e.g., the occurrence of an unexpected stimulus such as a loud
bang) result in an immediate and transient change in behaviour. Thus, it seems counterintuitive
to refer to these changes in behaviour as instances of learning. Other temporary changes in
behaviour, such as changes that are due to fatigue or a lack of motivation as well as financial
deprivation should also fall outside the definition of learning. Moreover, behaviour can change
as the result of genetic factors. Hence, learning cannot be defined merely in terms of changes
in behaviour. In light of the above seemingly guiding principle, learning has been defined as a
relatively permanent change that happens to behaviour and/or knowledge due to experience.
This definition not only circumvents the problems of other definitions, but also has important
advantages for cognitive learning research.

On this score, different learning theorists have taken different views of the subjects of learning.
Behavioural learning theorists have explained learning from the point of view of observable
behaviour. Cognitive learning theorists, in contrast, have explained learning from the
perspective of internal mental processes as learners try to make sense of the information that
they are being taught (Munsaka, 2011).

2
LEARNING THEORIES

3.0 Behavioural Learning Theories.

The notion that stimulations triggered by the environment and observable organism behaviour
share a fine causality is what greatly influenced many behavioural theorists. Behaviourists were
of the view that individuals were liable to repeat behaviour that had a pleasant or satisfying
output contrasted to such behaviours with harsh or unpleasant outcome. Amongst many other
behaviourists, the most notable ones were; Ivan Pavlov, John Watson and B.F. Skinner. Pavlov
and Watson are renowned for their behavioural theory involving the development of a model
for describing a basic non-conscious instinctual type of learning called classical conditioning.
Skinner, on the other hand is revered for having developed another brand of behaviourism
called operant conditioning (Munsaka, 2011).

3.1 Ivan Pavlov’s View of Learning

The major underlying classical conditioning is the principle of contiguity which explains
learning by association, that is; when two events repeatedly occur together, they tend to become
connected (Woolfolk, 2010; Rachlin, 1991). The classical conditioning experiment conducted
by Pavlov went as follows: A dog was hooked to a mechanism that measures the amount that
the dog salivates. It was given a bowl of food. The dog was hungry, the dog saw the food and
salivated. This is a natural sequence of events, an unconscious, uncontrolled, and unlearned
relationship. Stimulus means something that is given to initiate a response. So ‘Unconditioned
Stimulus’ and ‘Unconditioned Response’ simply means that the stimulus and the response are
naturally connected. They just came that way, hard wired into the brain of the organism.
“Conditioning” just means the opposite thereof.

Next, the hungry dog was presented with food and simultaneously the bell was rung and the
dog salivated. This action (food and bell ringing) was done at several meals. Every time the
dog sees the food, the dog also hears the bell. Pavlov was trying to associate, connect, bond or
link something new with the old relationship. He wanted this new thing (the bell) to prompt
the same response so this time Pavlov rang only the bell at mealtime, but he did not show any
food. The bell provoked the same response as the sight of the food gets. Over repeated trials,
the dog has learned to associate the bell with the food. The bell has the power to produce the

3
LEARNING THEORIES

same response as the food. In other words, the dog has been conditioned to salivate when
hearing the bell.

This is the essence of Classical Conditioning. One can start with two things that are already
connected with each other (food and salivation). Then pair a third thing (bell) with the
conditioned stimulus (food) over several trials. Eventually, this third thing may become so
strongly associated, that it has acquired the power to produce the old behaviour. The organism
is conditioned to respond to the third thing or stimulus. Pavlov extended his experiment by
using bells of different tones. Surprisingly, the dog still salivated when it heard the different
tones. The dog responded even though the tones of the bells were different or nearly the same.
In other words, the dog is capable of generalisation, and able to generalise across different
tones. For example, when someone is driving and hears the sound of a siren behind and they
instantly move to the side to give way. They do not discriminate whether it is the sound of the
fire-truck, the ambulance or the police (which may be different) but they react in the same way.
In other words, one has generalised that any sound of the siren, they will respond similarly.

Pavlov also found that when the tone of the bell that was closer to the sound of the original bell
was rung, the dog salivated. When the tone of the bell was very different from the sound of the
original bell, the dog salivated less frequently. In other words, the dog was capable of
discrimination, and able to differentiate among the different tones. The dog responded to one
stimulus and not to another stimulus. However, when Pavlov continued ringing the bell and
after many trials it was not followed by food, the dog gradually did not salivate. In other words,
extinction took place and the dog did not salivate after some time when it realised that food
was not forthcoming. Another interesting phenomenon that Pavlov identified was a
phenomenon that has come to be known as “spontaneous recovery”. This is the re-occurrence
of a classically conditioned response after extinction has occurred (Pavlov, 1927).

Pavlov used this relatively simple experiment as a model for describing much of the
automatic/nonconscious learning that occurs in everyday life. In any case where an organism
has learned to respond automatically to some sort of stimulus with fear, joy, excitement, or
anticipation then it has become classically conditioned. In fact, a basic characteristic of
classical conditioning, in comparison to another popular model, operant conditioning, is that
the learning is automatic and non-conscious.

4
LEARNING THEORIES

3.2 John Watson’s View of Learning

Like Pavlov, Watson also worked with unconscious responses through repeated pairing of
neutral stimuli (stimuli that do not naturally trigger response) with unconditioned stimuli
(stimuli that naturally trigger response), only the difference is; Watson experimented on a
human subject instead of a dog as in Pavlov’s. In his efforts to demonstrate how inborn
emotional reflexes become conditioned, Watson performed his experiment on an 11-month-
old infant Albert. Watson sought to condition a child to fear neutral stimuli through contagious
pairing. Little Albert was a perfect test subject because he was not afraid of rabbits, rats or
woollen objects. Loud banging noises, however, seemed to trigger fear in little Albert.

In the beginning of the experiment, the infant was shown a white rabbit. He reached out and
tried to touch the animal. Later, whenever Albert reached out and tried to touch the rabbit,
Watson took a hammer and struck a steel bar behind the infant, making a loud noise. Albert
got a fright and screamed. Again, he tried to touch the rabbit and the bar was struck, making a
loud noise. This led to Albert exhibiting fear through hysterical screams and cries. After several
trials, the presentation of the rabbit alone was able to trigger a conditioned response of fear.

Thus, the rabbit changed from being a neutral stimulus to being a conditioned stimulus. Albert
had learned to fear the white rabbit because of its association with the loud noise. It was also
shown that Albert’s fear generalised to a variety of other objects such as a rat, fur coat, and
even a Santa Claus mask. In other words, any object that was furry brought fear to the infant
(Watson, 1920) The experiment by Watson showed that our emotional reactions can be
rearranged through classical conditioning. Watson demonstrated that an emotion such as fear
could be ‘transferred’ to an organism that originally did not have such a fear. The finding is
significant because it implies that if fears are learned, it should be possible to unlearn or
extinguish them.

3.3 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner, made his reputation by testing Watson’s and Pavlov’s theories in the laboratory.
He rejected the notion that organisms are passive and have no control whether to act or not to
act. He developed the theory of operant conditioning, which states that we choose to behave in
a certain way because particular behaviour brings about certain consequences (Skinner, 1950).
Thus, the contingency principle is at the core of Skinner’s theory. For example, if an individual
is complimented by peers of their opposite sex whenever they dress elegantly smart, they are
likely to replicate behaviour because they will be acting in expectation of a certain reward. One

5
LEARNING THEORIES

may or may not study, depending upon the consequences that have followed in the past. If
studying has brought rewards, such as A+, B+ (high grades), one is likely to engage in this
behaviour. Behaviour is contingent on its consequences. Praise, high test scores, and good
grades are consequences that increase behaviour and are called reinforcers, whereas reprimands
are consequences that decrease behaviour and are called punishers. The schedule of reinforcers
influences both the rate of initial learning and the persistence of the behaviour. It is also worth
to note that the responses in operant conditioning are voluntary, in contrast with the instinctive
or reflexive responses in classical conditioning.

To demonstrate operant conditioning in the laboratory, a hungry rat was placed in a box, which
is called the “Skinner’s Box”. Inside the box was a bar connected to a pellet (food) dispenser.
Left alone in the box the rat moves about exploring. At some point in the exploration, it presses
the bar and a small food pellet is released (Skinner, 1954). The rat eats and soon presses the
bar again. The food reinforces bar-pressing, and the rate of pressing increases dramatically. A
behaviour reinforced by a pleasant consequence increases the probability of that behaviour
occurring in the future. What happens if the rat is not given any more food pellets? Skinner,
disconnected the food dispenser. When the rat pressed the bar, no food was released. The rate
of bar- pressing was less frequent and finally it diminished. That is, the operant response
undergoes extinction with nonreinforcement just as in classical conditioning. A behaviour no
longer followed by a pleasant consequence results in a decreased probability of that behaviour
occurring in the future.

Next, Skinner connected back the pellet dispenser. Pressing the bar again provided the rat with
food pellets. The behaviour of bar-pushing ‘popped’ right back. In fact, the rat took a lesser
time to press the bar compared to the first time it was put in the box. So, the rat has learned that
if it pressed the bar, food will be released. Skinner varied the experiment by linking the release
of food pellets with light. For example, the food would only be presented when the bar is
pressed while the light is on but not when the light is off. Guess what happened! The rat only
pressed the bar when the light was on. The light has served as a discriminative stimulus that
controls response. The rat is able to discriminate between pressing the bar with the light and
pressing the bar without light (Huitt and Hummel, 1998).

Based on this experiment, Skinner introduced the word “operant”. It simply means that the
behaviour “operates” on the environment – the rat’s pressing the bar produces or gains access
to the food pellets. In classical conditioning, the animal is passive; it merely waits for stimuli.

6
LEARNING THEORIES

In operant conditioning, the animal is active; its own behaviour brings on important
consequences or results (Skinner, 1968). Thus, operant conditioning increases the likelihood
of a response by following its occurrence with reinforcer.

3.4 Types of Reinforcements

Reinforcement can be defined as any event that increases the probability of a response. Skinner
distinguished between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, as well as
punishment.

3.3.1 Positive Reinforcement

A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that when present increases the probability of a particular
behaviour occurring in the future. If factory workers who are efficient are given bonuses. There
is high probability that factory workers will strive to be more efficient (behaviour) so that they
will be given bonuses (reinforcer). The term reward is sometimes used as a synonym for
positive reinforcement (Huitt and Hummel, 1997). However, the term positive has nothing to
do with the description of consequences (whether good or bad) but merely designates the fact
that the consequences are presented following some desirable behaviour as opposed to being
removed (Munsaka, 2011).

3.3.2 Negative Reinforcement

Unlike positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement occurs when the consequences are
removed following behaviour. A negative reinforcer is a stimulus when removed increases the
probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future. A mother lifts (behaviour) her
crying baby because she cannot bear to hear her child cry (reinforcer). In a classroom context,
a class of fifth graders may start sweeping their classroom on time in order to evade the
teacher’s disturbing irritating remarks. In this case, the behaviour of students sweeping their
classroom on time will increase because it makes them avoid something negative (Munsaka,
2011).

3.4 Merits and Criticism

Behavioural learning theories have contributed to instruction and education in several

significant ways. The three applications summarized here include: Behaviour Modification,

7
LEARNING THEORIES

Classroom Management and the Management of Instruction. Behavioural modification also

known as behaviour therapy or contingency management, is typically used to treat behaviour
problems in social, personal, or school situations. Some clinical applications include treatments
for phobias, obsessions or eating disorders. Educational applications involve the treatment of
school related problems such as the lack of attention, hyperactivity, temper tantrums, or other
behaviours that interfere with the regular workings of a classroom. Special education teachers
are typically well trained in behavioural modification.

While behavioural therapists and special education teachers apply behavioural learning
principles to address individuals, teachers in regular classrooms may use the same principles
to help manage the behaviour of twenty to thirty children. For instance, teachers may set up
group contingencies (a standard reinforcement given to a group) for following certain rules of
conduct. A kindergarten teacher, for example, may take his/her students out to the playground
10-15 minutes early if they all pick up their things. One common means of applying group
contingencies that some teachers find useful is the token economy (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). In
this system, tokens serve as conditioned reinforcers that can later be exchanged for objects or
privileges. Tokens are earned for good conduct--whatever behaviours have been selected by
the teacher for strengthening. Since tokens operate like money, students may also be fined for
breaking the rules or engaging in undesirable behaviour.

Behavioural principles have proved useful, not only for managing student behaviour, but also
for managing the way instruction is delivered. The most prominent examples of how
behavioural learning theories have been applied to the management of instruction include the
development of behavioural objectives, contingency contracts, and personalized systems of
instruction (PSI). Behaviourists, as well as others, argue that the only evidence of learning
comes from the study of overt behaviours. How can one be sure that a student acquired
knowledge or a skill unless we can see them actually do something with that knowledge or
skill? Thus, to assess the degree to which a student achieved an objective, it is important to
specify desired instructional outcomes in terms of clear, observable behaviours (Keller (1968).

Myers (1988) details some of the most telling critiques of behaviourism that initially emanate
from its pure positivist reductionism. Behaviourism reduces all behaviour to the level of a
correlation between an external stimulus and an internal response. This supposition Myers
argues, is faulted for ignoring the importance of cognitive psychological processes, which
focuses on internal process such as perception and learning from reflection, which have a major

8
LEARNING THEORIES

part to play in facilitating an understanding learning. Kolb (1988) also criticises behaviourism
for conceptualising the environment-person relationship as being one way when in fact this is
not the case. Kolb criticises behaviourism for creating empirically verifiable models of learning
that are only applicable in the artificial laboratory environment. Another important critique of
behaviourism developed out of the work of Piaget (1926) and Vygotsky (1962) and became
known as constructivism.

9
LEARNING THEORIES

4.0 Social Cognitive Learning Theories

More recently a number of psychologists have tried to integrate behavioural and cognitive
psychology principles more successfully. Among others Albert Bandura is considered the
leading proponent of this theory. This theory views learning as a continuous, dynamic and
reciprocal interaction between individuals, which in turn affects their attributes, values and
behaviour. Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It
considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational
learning, imitation, and modelling.

4.1 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

In this experiment, pre-school children watched a movie of a model kicking and punching an
inflated ‘bobo doll’. One group of children watched a model being rewarded for exhibiting
aggressive behaviour toward the doll. Another group watched the model being punished for
exhibiting aggressive behaviour toward the doll. Yet another group of children watched a
movie in which the model was neither reinforced nor punished.

Following the movie, the three categories of children were moved to a room where there was
a bobo doll parallel to the one in the movie. It was noted that the children who had watched the
model being rewarded for aggressiveness towards the bobo doll tended to be the most
aggressive as they played with the doll. In contrast, the children who watched the model being
punished turned out express the least form of aggression toward the doll (Munsaka, 2011).

In light of the experiment, it had come to be known that aggression is a learned behaviour, not
an inbuilt instinct. Bandura also explicates that learning can take place in absence of any
reinforcement, only via observation and modelling. Consequences of the model's behaviour
affect the observer’s behaviour vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is
where the model is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an increase in that
same response (Bandura, Ross & Ross 1961). For instance, children who saw the model being
praised for hitting an inflated clown doll in the film began to also hit the doll without even
being reinforced. Thus, modelling provides an alternative to shaping, for teaching new
behaviours. Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modelling can provide a
powerful, faster and more efficient means for teaching new behaviour. An implication for
parents, teachers and psychotherapists (treatment of phobias).

10
LEARNING THEORIES

4.2 Observational Learning

The mode of learning in the social cognitive theory is through observation and modelling the
observed behaviour. This kind of learning which involves observation has also been termed
vicarious learning. Observational learning, also called vicarious learning, occurs when an
observer's behaviour changes after viewing the behaviour of a model. An observer's behaviour
can be affected by the positive or negative consequences called vicarious reinforcement or
vicarious punishment.

The rationale of observational learning is based on Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory.
Which explains learning as a continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and
environmental influences. For effective modelling, several conditions need to be fulfilled;
students need to pay attention to relevant elements in the learning environment; to store and
transform information in memory; to be able to translate mental conceptions into actions and
be motivated to do so. Schunk and Zimmerman (1997) elaborated Bandura’s theory into a
social cognitive model of self-regulation in reading and writing. Observation is a first step in
the learning process. Then the learner emulates the model’s general style. Encouraged by
feedback, the learner can internalize the skill and finally use the strategy independently and in
various contexts. Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention,
retention, reproduction and motivation.

Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's happening around them.
This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or
identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's
expectations or level of emotional arousal.

Retention: Observers must not only recognize the observed behaviour but also remember it at
some later time. This process depends on the observer's ability to code or structure the
information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's
actions.

Reproduction: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of reproducing the act.

In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the
model's actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully
watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.

11
LEARNING THEORIES

Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or
reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly
to the observer, becomes most important in this process.

Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's behaviour whilst
production and motivation control the performance. Human development reflects the complex
interaction of the person, the person's behaviour, and the environment. The relationship
between these elements is called reciprocal determinism. A person's cognitive abilities,
physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence both his or her
behaviour and environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A person's behaviour
can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much
of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and
books. Environment also affects behaviour: what a person observes can powerfully influence
what he does. But a person's behaviour also contributes to his environment (Bandura, 1976).

12
LEARNING THEORIES

5.0 Cognitive Learning Theories

Dissatisfaction with behaviourism’s strict focus on observable behaviour led educational

psychologists such as Jean Piaget and William Perry to demand an approach to learning theory
that paid more attention to what went on “inside the learner’s head.” They developed a
cognitive approach that focused on mental processes rather than observable behaviour.
Common to most cognitivist approaches is the idea that knowledge comprises symbolic mental
representations, such as propositions and images, together with a mechanism that operates on
those representations. Knowledge is seen as something that is actively constructed by learners
based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of
cognitive development; understanding the learner's existing intellectual framework is central
to understanding the learning process. There are two main approaches to cognitive theories of
learning: cognitive-developmental model and information processing model.

5.1 The Cognitive-developmental Model

Piaget’s model of child development and learning suggests that children, depending of their
level of development, create mental maps or cognitive structures that enable them to understand
their environment. If new information is presented that fits into existing structures, the child
incorporates (assimilates) the information. If it does not fit into a structure, the child
accommodates it, that is, reconstructs mental structures into which it fits. In doing so, the child
continually constructs his or her understanding of the world around him or her. Children are
active and motivated learners who are constantly trying to find ways and means of adapting to
the environment. Before acquiring sufficient mental tools to aid them effectively deal with the
environment, infants depend massively on the use of their senses (i.e. senses of sight, hearing,
touch, smell and taste). Thus, adaptive activities of children at this stage depend on their
sensory experiences. A they develop, children shift from their dependency on sensory organs
to a much more sophisticated stage where they are now capable of establishing linkages
between their actions and consequences thereof as they deal with their environment. Later, at
about the outset of adolescence, children begin to deal with their environment by extensive use
of their cognition (mental processes) each time confronted with a situation they do not
comprehend. They (children), like adults tap into their cognition and draw out some knowledge
to help them understand the unfamiliar phenomena before them (Sigelman and Rider, 2006).

13
LEARNING THEORIES

5.2 Information Processing Model

Information processing (IP) is a cognitive processing theory (see, Ashcraft, 1994) which seeks
to explain how the mind functions. Learning components such as rehearsal and elaboration are
associated with information processing, however, most emphasis is placed on understanding
how information is processed rather than how learning happens. Information processing model
is acquainted explicitly and analogously to a computer's processor. The basic information
processing model has three components: sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) or
working memory, and long-term memory (LTM). The corresponding components of the
computer are input devices or registers, the central processing unit (CPU), and hard drive
storage, respectively. This metaphor is superficially valid, but as it is taken to its limits, the
mechanical comparison breaks down. However, knowing that this model is a cognitive
processing model and knowing that the model is based on an explicit metaphor with a
computer, clarifies it.

In a computer, information is entered by means of input devices like a keyboard or scanner. In

the human mind, the input device is called the Sensory Register, composed of sensory organs
like the eyes and the ears through which we receive information about our surroundings. As
information is received by a computer, it is processed in the Central Processing Unit, which is
equivalent to the Working Memory or Short-Term Memory. In the human mind, this is where
information is temporarily held so that it may be used, discarded, or transferred into long-term
memory. In a computer, information is stored in a hard disk, which is equivalent to the long-
term memory. This is where we keep information that is not currently being used. Information
stored in the Long-Term Memory may be kept for an indefinite period of time. When a
computer processes information, it displays the results by means of an output device like a
computer screen or a printout. In humans, the result of information processing is exhibited
through behaviour or actions - a facial expression, a reply to a question, or body movement.
information processing model, therefore should reflect three aspects: Encoding (paying
attention and perceiving), storage (organizing information) and retrieval (gaining access to
stored information (Munsaka, 2011). The information processing model is often used by
educators and trainers to guide their teaching methodologies.

14
LEARNING THEORIES

5.3 How Memory Works

It may be convenient to parallel how memory works to the way in which an executive manages
a business. Information comes into the business across the executive's desk - mail, phone calls,
personal interactions, problems, etc. (This is like short-term memory.) Some of this information
goes into the waste basket (like being forgotten), and some of it is filed (like being stored in
long-term memory). In some cases, when new information arrives, the executive gets old
information from a file and integrates the new information with the old before refiling it. (This
is like retrieving information from long-term memory to integrate it with new information then
storing the new information in long-term memory.) On other occasions the executive may dig
out the information in several old files and update the files in some fashion or integrate them
in some way to attack a complex problem. The business of human learning operates in much
the same manner.

When one deals with information, they do so in steps. One way to think of this is to picture the
process of acquiring, retaining, and using information as an activity called information
processing. Information comes from the outside world into the sensory registers in the human
brain. This input consists of things perceived by one’s senses. Individuals are not consciously
aware of most of the things they perceive; they become aware of them only if they consciously
direct their attention to them. When one focuses their attention on those perceptions, they are
placed in the working memory. Another name for working memory is short-term memory.
Working memory has a very limited capacity and thought to extend from 1 to 30 seconds after
exposure to a stimulus item (Wittig, 2001). Therefore, one must take one of the following
actions with regard to each piece of information that comes into this short-term storage area:
(1) continuously rehearse it, so that it stays there; (2) move it out of this area by shifting it to
long-term memory (else the material is lost or discarded; moved it out of this area by
forgetting). Long-term memory, as its name implies, stores information for a long time. The
advantage of long-term memory is that one needs not to constantly rehearse information to
keep it in storage there. In addition, there is no restrictive limit on the amount of information
one can store in long-term memory. If information is moved to long-term memory, it stays
there for a long time - perhaps permanently. To make use of this information in long term
memory, one must move it back to their working memory, using a process called retrieval. It
is also important to note that the components of memory undergo considerable development as
the child grows into adulthood (Schneider, 1989).

15
LEARNING THEORIES

5.3.1 Sensory Register

The best understood of the sensory registers (SRs) are for hearing (echoic) and seeing (iconic).
Very little is known about tactile (touch), olfactory (smell), and gustatory (taste) SRs.
Information first enters the human information processing system through the senses. Sensory
registers are the physiological parts of the nervous system where electro-chemical activity takes
place in response to the activity of sense organs, such as the eye and ear. For example, when
the traffic light turns red, nerve impulses in one’s eye-nervous system respond to this stimulus.
Once one decides to stop your car, the information has moved beyond the sensory register. In
the sensory register, the eye-nervous system simply registers (temporarily records) the
occurrence of this stimulus. Information will stay in the sensory register only as long as the
nerves are actively stimulated. In most cases, this is only a few seconds (Ashcraft, 1994).

Once information has reached the sensory register, the learner must take steps to move the
information from the sensory register to the working memory. When information begins its
entry into the human information processing system, the attention provided by the sensory
register is a largely passive process. An overwhelming amount of information continually
bombards our sensory receptors, and our brains process as many stimuli as possible while
searching for anything that might require more detailed attention. Since no human brain can
deal with this overwhelming amount of input, it is necessary to narrow the range of available
information to that which is potentially the most useful; and the brain does this by focusing
more specific attention on information and moving it into working memory. People tend to
focus their attention on information that somehow arouses their curiosity (as when there is a
physical novelty in what one’s perceptions or when information presents one with an optimal
discrepancy,), or when they consciously focus our attention for some other reasons.

The sensory register does not operate in isolation from the other aspects of memory. The
executive control and expectancy mechanisms coordinate the interaction of the sensory register
and the working memory. Certain external stimuli (such as flashing lights or increased volume
of sound) are likely to catch almost anyone's attention; but in a large number of cases, what
catches a person's attention depends heavily on what is currently happening in the working
memory and what has already been stored in long-term memory. When information in the
sensory register is directly related to that which is currently active in the working memory, it
moves efficiently and non-disruptively into the short-term workspace. In addition, the human
learner attends to and incorporates more efficiently information that is meaningful - that is,

16
LEARNING THEORIES

sensory input which is closely related to other information that is already stored in long-term
memory. One of the most important activities in human information processing is the constant
selection of a current focus of one’s attention. This occurs when a person is able to devote a
minimal amount of attention from their working memory to select what is important from the
sensory register, while merely monitoring the context for other key information (see Posner &
Friedrich, 1986; Simon, 1986.)

The auditory sensory register is the sensory register that briefly stores sounds. Information in
the auditory sensory register lasts up to perhaps two seconds before the sounds are lost from
memory (Darwin, Turvey, & Crowder, 1972; Moray, Bates, & Barnett, 1965). The auditory
sensory register sometimes helps one figure out what someone said to them, even if they
weren’t paying attention. For example, a very common experience can be like this: Someone
speaks to you while you were occupied with something else, and you did not attend to what
they said right away. You had no idea at this moment what was said. Yet when you turned your
attention to what was said a second or two later, you were able to piece together at least some
of the words. This occurs because of the auditory sensory register, which gives one access to
what they hear for up to several seconds, even if they were not attending to it.

Information in the sensory register is stored in a form that has not yet been classified or
interpreted. For example, someone is processing the word lobster. How is the first letter, L,
stored in her visual sensory register? The visual sensory register stores the “L” not as the letter
L but as shape (just two lines that are connected). The lines have not yet been classified as an
“L,” or as the first letter in lobster. Similarly, the auditory register records sounds that have not
yet been interpreted. If someone hears the word lobster, the auditory sensory register contains
an impression of the sounds heard, but these sounds would not yet be recognized as the word
lobster.

While it may at first seem that the major role of the sensory register is to transfer as much input
as possible to the working memory, this is not a correct perception. Between the sensory
register and the working memory screening of input must take place to prevent the working
memory from being overwhelmed. A person thinks effectively not when they move as much
information as possible into working memory, but rather when relevant information is moved
into and out of their working memories as efficiently and productively as possible. Serious
learning problems (such as the attention deficit disorder) occur when learners are unable to

17
LEARNING THEORIES

screen out irrelevant information and admit to working memory only input that is potentially
productive.

The basic capabilities of the sensory register develop when learners are very young (during
Piaget's sensorimotor stage). These capabilities continue to develop, and in some educational
programs (such as those for students with learning disabilities), developing the skills of the
sensory register may be the primary goal of instruction. However, in most cases, the goal of
teachers of school-age and adult learners is to bring these sensory skills under deliberate control
and to employ them as effective contributors to the working memory.

There are two problems that can occur as information moves from the sensory register to
working memory:

1. Not enough input may move forward (that is, information may be forgotten before it
has ever had a chance to be remembered). This problem is solved by training the senses
to register information accurately and by having meaningful related information
actively available in working memory and easily accessible in long-term memory.

2. Too much input may move forward (that is, the working memory may be overwhelmed
by excessive input that it cannot handle). This problem is solved by screening
information effectively.

5.3.2 Working Memory

Contemporary cognitive research, summarized in Salisbury (1990), has stressed the critical
importance of the working memory. Working memory is critically important in language
development (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993) and in reading (Breznitz & Share, 1992); and
failures in working memory are often responsible for learning disabilities (Hulme &
Mackenzie, 1992). Human beings do all their active thinking and problem solving in working
memory. The quality of the input into working memory and of the operations that go on there,
determine the quality of learning and problem solving. There are three critical phases in the
effective use of working memory: (1) getting information correctly into this short-term area,
(2) handling the information appropriately while it is there, (3) moving information correctly
from working memory to long-term storage, and using the information in working memory to
generate some kind of output. These phases occur in respective components of the working
memory. Baddeley suggests that there are three components that make up the short-term

18
LEARNING THEORIES

memory. These are central executive, the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad
working memory.

The central executive is the system that manages all the work that occurs within working
memory. It is the least understood of the working memory systems because it is the hardest to
investigate. The central executive controls operations within the phonological loop system and
the visuospatial sketchpad. It also plays a role in comprehension, reasoning, and problem
solving. People with high central executive memory capacity can remember a greater amount
of meaningful material (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980). This ability is crucial to understand
complex ideas. For instance, read the following passage and see if you can spot a contradiction.

Erin loved to read in her house on winter evenings, although this particular evening was rather
warm. She cuddled up in front of the fire and took out her philosophy textbook. As she read,
she thought she heard an odd noise outside. It sounded alarmingly like a footstep outside her
window. She set aside John Locke and his ideas about the mind as a blank slate and got up out
of her chair. She heard the sound again, but this time she was less sure what it was. Some might
have called her foolhardy, but she grabbed a baseball bat and headed out the door. An icy
wind greeted her as she stepped outside.

To notice the contradiction (there would not be an icy wind on a warm evening), one has to be
able to retain some information from the first part of the paragraph until you reach the end. The
ability to retain large amounts of meaningful information of this sort in memory is a hallmark
of people with large executive processing capacity. People with smaller executive processing
capacity are less likely to be able to notice the contradiction (Baddeley, 1999). The
phonological loop system is a system for retaining auditory information. For example, when a
person says a phone number to themselves over and over, they are using the phonological loop
system, because the numbers they are saying are in an auditory format. Evidence suggests that
when people are asked to remember lists of words, they often subvocalize (i.e., they say the
word silently to oneself), so that they are using their phonological loop system. Thus, the
phonological loop has a specific role of attending to and rehearsing words and sounds. Since
information here lasts no more than a couple of seconds, to avoid the problem of losing it, the
word sounds must be rehearsed. Finally, the visuospatial sketchpad is the working memory
system for storing visual information and for carrying out operations that involve visual
imagery. For instance, when someone examines a diagram in a textbook, such as a diagram
showing how hydraulic brakes work or how a curveball spins, they employ their visuospatial

19
LEARNING THEORIES

sketchpad. Thus, being the part of working memory that is specialized in storing visual and
spatial information. This is the kind of working memory that one applies, for instance, when
solving problems involving geometrical figures (Munsaka, 2011).

It is necessary to get information correctly into the working memory. As the previous section
stated, people move information from the sensory register to the working memory by focusing
attention on it. Teachers can facilitate this transfer by doing something to direct attention: for
example, by highlighting key words, by pointing to crucial items, or by saying, "Look at this!"
or "This is important!" In addition to focusing attention on information in a sensory register,
one can bring information into short-term memory through the process of retrieval from long-
term memory.

The two critical limitations on handling information in working memory are the small number
of pieces of information it can handle and the short duration of time during which information
can remain there. There are several ways to deal with these limitations in the capacity of
working memory:

1. Feed into the working memory only small amounts of new information at a time.
Learners can do this by focusing their attention effectively.

2. Clear unneeded, old information out of the working memory to make room for the new
information. Human brains perform this service automatically - almost as soon as one
stops focusing attention on the information.
3. "Chunk" several pieces of information together, so that several individual pieces
comprise a single chunk. The strategy of "chunking" requires further explanation. It
involves combining separate pieces of information into a single, more complex piece
of information, so that we can store more items. For example, it would be very difficult
to try to retain in working memory the numbers 0988124576. The difficulty arises
because there are ten digits in this number. (The numbers are also meaningless). By
chunking, one could convert this to three chunks/items 0988/124/575. The technique of
chunking thus capacitates people to store huge amounts of information without
overwhelming the mind (Munsaka, 2011).
4. Efficiently and rapidly shuttle information into and out of working memory. This
requires retrieval, which is discussed in conjunction with long-term memory later
herein.

20
LEARNING THEORIES

5. Use additional devices to supplement human memory. For example, if we record a

phone number on a piece of paper, we don't have to store it in memory. If a teacher
projects a map or a diagram on a screen, then it takes little effort for the learners to
bring it into working memory - they can just look at any part of the image in front of
them.

5.3.3 Perception and Rehearsal

So far, two of the memory stores in the information processing system have been examined:
the sensory register and working memory. Perception is a process by which information moves
from the sensory register to working memory. Perception is a complex process, involving many
sub-processes. Two of these sub-processes are classification and attention. Classification refers
to how information is categorized in the sensory register. As discussed on the sensory register,
information in the sensory register has not yet been classified or interpreted. Thus, an “H” is
not an “H” but three lines that have not yet been classified as an H. In the sensory register, the
word “HAT” is not the word hat or the letters H-A-T but rather a series of lines and curves that
have not yet been interpreted. As information moves to working memory, it is classified, so
that the H is now recognized as an H, and H-A-T is now the word hat.

Attention refers to focusing working memory on particular information. When people attend
to some information, they do so at the expense of other information. Attention is limited.
Although there is debate on this issue, recent evidence suggests that information that is not
attended to does not enter working memory (Lachter, Forster, & Ruthruff, 2004).

Classification involves two interacting forms of processing, called bottom-up processing and
top-down processing (Brewer & Lambert, 2001). When one classifies a stimulus that they
observe, they use both the information in the stimulus (bottom-up processing) and their own
prior knowledge (top-down processing) to classify what they are observing. Bottom-up
processing is driven by the features of what a person is observing. As an example, consider the
word HAT. A person cannot misperceive the word as CAT or BAT. The pattern of three
intersecting lines in the H cannot be mistaken for a C or a B. one responds to the pattern that
they see. The information from the stimulus (at the “bottom” of the system) is passed up
through the system until you inevitably classify the three lines as an H and as the first letter in
the word HAT.

21
LEARNING THEORIES

In top-down processing, prior knowledge plays a central role in influencing what is perceived.
To use an example similar to the previous one, read this word: /-\AT. No doubt that can read
the first letter as an H and read the word as HAT. Now consider reading this word: C /-\T. One
can probably read this as CAT. But notice that the H in HAT and the A in CAT are exactly the
same configuration of lines: /-\. Whether someone interprets these lines as an A or as an H
depends on the context. In the first case, one use their prior knowledge about words (one’s
knowledge is the “top” of the perceptual system) to form expectations that the word is HAT,
and so they interpret the /-\ as an H. In the second case, one forms expectations that the word
is CAT, which induces them to interpret the /-\ as an A. This is top-down processing because
one’s expectations move from their prior knowledge (the “top” of the system) about words to
influence how they interpret the lines on the page (these stimuli are at the “bottom” of the
system).

In this instance, the stimulus is ambiguous, but top-down processing also influences perception
even when the stimulus is not ambiguous. For one thing, top-down processing expedites the
perception process. For instance, if someone knows they are going to be looking at pictures of
farm scenes, they will probably identify a cow as a cow faster than if they mistakenly expect
that they will be looking at urban scenes but are instead shown a picture of a cow (Delorme &
Rousselet, 2004).

Whereas perception is a process by which information moves into working memory, rehearsal
is the active repetition of information so that it stays in working memory. Rehearsal is simply
saying information over and over to keep it from dropping out of working memory, as when
someone repeats a phone number to themselves to keep from forgetting it until they have dialed
the number. Rehearsal by itself does not move information into long-term memory; it simply
keeps information cycling within working memory so that it does not drop out of working
memory.

5.3.3 Long-term Memory

Long-term memory (LTM) is the memory store where information is stored for very long
periods of time. But active processing does not occur in LTM. Information must be moved
from LTM to working memory to be used in active cognitive processes. Unlike working
memory, which has a limited capacity, the size of LTM has no known limits. People can store
as much information in LTM as you can process through working memory. What makes

22
LEARNING THEORIES

learning difficult is the limited size of working memory through which information must pass
on the way to long-term storage in LTM.

Psychologists have distinguished several kinds of knowledge in long-term memory:

declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, and episodic
knowledge (J. R. Anderson, 1995). Declarative knowledge is knowledge that one can express
in sentence form, such as the knowledge that rain makes things wet. One can use declarative
knowledge to guide their actions and decisions. For example, because someone knows that rain
makes them wet, they may decide to take an umbrella with them when it is supposed to rain.

Procedural knowledge is knowledge that specifies actions that people take. The actions can be
physical actions (the actions needed to kick a soccer ball) or mental (the mental actions needed
to add two numbers). One may or may not be able to express procedural knowledge in words.
For example, if someone can ride a bicycle, they probably cannot explain all the things they do
to keep their balance smoothly as they ride, yet they carry out all these actions smoothly.
Procedural knowledge is often viewed as having this form: “If your GOAL is X, then DO y.”
For instance, if your goal is to save money, then don’t go out on weekends as often.

Metacognitive knowledge is a type of procedural knowledge that focuses on cognitive

processes. One’s metacognitive knowledge is their knowledge about how to learn new
information, how to solve problems, and so on. For instance, if someone’s goal is to get an A
on a paper, they may know that they should spend ample time writing several drafts of their
paper. If someone’s goal is to remember a long list of words, then they should try to chunk the
words in some way.

Episodic knowledge consists of memories of one’s own personal experiences. Memories of

what someone did with their friends in high school are an example, as are one’s memories of
the class activities in their educational psychology class this year.

How is information stored in LTM? One of several proposals is that information in LTM is
organized in associative networks of nodes and links between the nodes (J. R. Anderson, 1976;
A. M. Collins & Loftus, 1975). If information in LTM is in fact stored in associative networks,
this explains a number of interesting memory phenomena. For instance, after reading the
sentence about lobsters, someone is likely to be able to answer questions about crabs faster
than they would be able to if they had not read the lobster passage. Information processing
theorists explain this by hypothesizing that when someone reads the sentences about lobsters,
the nodes related to the concepts in these sentences are activated. That is, they attain a higher

23
LEARNING THEORIES

level of energy or intensity. This activation spreads to other nodes that are connected to the
activated nodes. Thus, through spreading activation, concepts such as crab, sea, and seafood
that are connected to lobster directly or indirectly rise to a higher level of activation. When
someone is asked a question about crabs, they can answer it more quickly because the concept
crab is already at a heightened level of activation.

5.3.4 Encoding

Encoding is the process of moving information from working memory to LTM. Encoding
Strategies are mental actions that learners can take to make information more memorable as it
is encoded. Encoding strategies can be broadly divided into three groups: selection strategies,
organization strategies, and integration strategies (Mayer, 1989).

Selection strategies: As discussed thereinbefore, not all information that goes through working
memory makes it into long-term memory. Learners select which information they want to
process further. The act of selecting important information facilitates memory for the
information (Zajchowski, & Evans, 1989). Two prominent ways of selecting information are
summarizing and taking notes. When a person summarizes a text, memory improves in part
because the learner is focusing on what is most important from all the available information.
Similarly, a good note taker selects important information while taking notes instead of writing
down everything. Students who take notes learn more than students who do not take notes,
even if they do not study their notes (Kobayashi, 2005). The very act of selecting what is
important, helps facilitate memory.

Organization strategies: There are a number of organization strategies that learners use to
move information from working memory to LTM (Gaskill & Murphy, 2004; Schlagmüller &
Schneider, 2002). Each of these strategies require learners to rearrange the information in new
ways. By rearranging information in new ways, learners make the new information more
memorable. Learners can use each of these organizing strategies to help them arrange
information in different ways so as to make it easier to remember. Organization strategies
include;

Classification: Classification involves reorganizing ideas according to categories that the

learner selects. For instance, when asked to learn a list of words (orange, goat, sun, moon,
mouse, apple, broccoli, mango, star, horse, lettuce and radish), the learner remembers more of
them a day later because she has organized them into categories:

24
LEARNING THEORIES

FRUITS: orange, apple and mango.

MAMMALS: goat, mouse and horse.

VEGETABLES: broccoli, lettuce and radish.

HEAVENLY BODIES: sun, star, moon.

Acrostics: An acrostic is a sentence in which the first letter of each sentence stands for
something that a person wants to learn. Examples:

1. Every Good Boy Does Fine. These are the names of the musical notes on the lines

in treble clef: EGBDF.

2. My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas. The first letter of each word

stands for the order of the nine planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,

Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.

Acronyms: An acronym is a word (or pseudo word), each letter of which stands for something
that a person wants to learn. Examples:

1. HOMES. The letters are the first letters of the names of the Great Lakes: Huron,

Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior)

2. Roy G. Biv. These letters are the first letters of the colors of the rainbow, in order:

red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

3. PEMDAS. These are the first letters of the words that show the order in which math

operations should be carried out: parentheses, exponents, multiplication, division,

addition, subtraction.

Rhymes: Rhymes are readily remembered organizing tools. Examples:

1. I before E except after C.

2. In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue…

Songs: Songs are another powerful way to organize information. The ABC song, for instance,
is a powerful way to help children learn the letters in the English alphabet.

25
LEARNING THEORIES

Outlining or summarizing: Outlining and summarizing involve selection, but they also involve
organization. If one summarizes a long passage, they are likely to be doing more than just
selecting what is important. Similarly, when one outlines, they do not only select what to put
in the outline; they also classify ideas within headings at different levels of their overall
organization.

Integration strategies: Integration strategies explicitly connect information in working

memory with information from long-term memory (Mayer, 1989). Integration strategies are
powerful ways of encoding information effectively into LTM. The following are a few specific
integration strategies;

Comparing and Contrasting: Comparing and contrasting is a way of connecting new material
with old material. The learner focuses on similarities and differences between new and old
information. For instance, when trying to learn about the French Revolution, compare events
point by point with the more familiar events of the American Revolution.

Analogies: Analogies are connections between concepts or structures that are superficially
dissimilar but similar at a deeper level. For instance, a student learning about heat flow might
notice some points of analogy between heat flow and water flow. A student learning about cells
might notice that mitochondria in a cell are analogous to power plants in a town. Because
analogies are rarely perfect, it is often important for learners to notice dissimilarities as well as
similarities (for instance, water is a substance with mass and volume, but heat is energy, not a
material substance). Of course, teachers often point out analogies to students, but students can
also productively generate analogies on their own.

Explanation: Explanation is a very powerful and effective way of connecting new information
to knowledge already stored in LTM. For instance, when trying to remember that animals’
temperatures decrease during hibernation, learners may explain to themselves that maintaining
a high body temperature takes a great deal of energy, and because animals cannot eat while
hibernating, their metabolism needs to shift to a low temperature that does not consume much
energy. In this example, the learners connect the new information about hibernation to other
known explanations about body temperature and metabolism.

Elaboration: Elaboration is a strategy that requires connecting new information to old

information. When learners think about what they already know in relation to what they are
learning, they are elaborating. For instance, when reading about Kaunda’s presidency, learners
might think about everything else they know about politics in the early 1960s.

26
LEARNING THEORIES

5.3.5 Retrieval

learners move information from working memory to LTM by encoding the information.
Retrieval is the process of moving information from LTM back to working memory. Retrieval
is facilitated when students encode information using the encoding strategies presented in the
previous section. One reason for this is that effective encoding creates many connections
between old information and new information, and it is easier to retrieve information when
there are multiple connections to it (Nelson & Hill, 1974; Radvansky, 2005).

5.3.6 Forgetting

Many ways have been discussed in which the mind remembers, stores and retrieves
information. However, people do not only remember information. They also forget. Forgetting
is universal. In a series of famous experiments, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1987) tested how
well he could recall numerous lists of nonsense syllables. He found that after just 31 days, he
could recall fewer than 30% of the nonsense syllables in lists he had memorized. Forgetting
was rapid in the first 24 hours and then decreased only very slowly after that. This is a general
finding: People forget some of what they learn, and they tend to forget most rapidly soon after
the learning period is over (Baddeley, 1999).

There are two main theories of why forgetting occurs: the fading theory and the interference
theory (see Baddeley, 1999). According to the fading theory, memory traces fade away over
time. According to the interference theory, forgetting occurs because people lose the ability to
retrieve memories as new memories are added to LTM, making it harder to locate information.
As a result, they lose retrieval pathways that can succeed at getting at the information. It is
difficult to definitively distinguish between these two theories because as time passes, people
accumulate more interfering memories. Most theorists would agree, however, that at least some
forgetting results from interference (see Baddeley, 1999).

27
LEARNING THEORIES

6.0 Humanistic Theory of Learning

Among others, Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are considered the founding fathers of
humanistic psychology. Humanistic psychology was not designed as a theory of learning per
se; it was designed as a general theory to explain how the full human potential can be tapped
from all human beings, regardless of who or what they are. In other words, humanistic
psychology is a theory that explains how each person can become self-actualized. There are a
number of key principles that set humanistic psychology apart from the other brands of
psychology.

6.1 Principles of Humanistic Psychology

To begin with, humanistic psychology takes a positive or optimistic of all individuals. It

supposes that each and every human being has in possession some inner propensity to grow
and develop. Or as Maslow asserts; human beings possess the ability to extend toward self-
actualisation (Maslow, 1971). By virtue of this, humanistic psychology stresses on having an
unconditional positive regard toward all people.

Secondly, humanistic psychology views each human being as a unique whole. While human
beings are made up of three components namely; body, mind and emotions, in practice, these
three parts are inseparable. For instance, one cannot talk about the bodily aspects without
alluding to issues of the mind and emotions. The converse is also true; touching on issues of
emotions will necessarily incorporate aspects of the body and the mind. Thus, humanistic
psychologists believe in a holistic perspective of people (O’Connor & Lages, 2007).

Thirdly, humanistic psychologists believe that each perspective or point of view should be
respected. Part of the uniqueness of individual people lies in the different ways in which they
vie and interpret reality. As a consequence, humanistic psychologists respect an individual’s
point of view.

Finally, humanistic psychology respect choices that are made by each individual person. Since
people possess the inner drive to become whatever it is they desire to become (to be self-
actualised), the choices that they make a they move toward that self-fulfilment must be
respected. Thus, humanists view each person as an expert in choosing what they want to do
(O’Connor & Lager, 2004).

28
LEARNING THEORIES

6.2 Attaining Meaning Learning

Jonassen, Howland, Moore, and Marra (2004) argue that meaningful learning occurs when
learners are active, constructive, intentional, cooperative, and working on authentic tasks.
Human learning is a naturally active mental and social process. When engaged in learning in
natural contexts, humans interact with their environment and manipulate the objects in that
environment, observing the effects of their interventions and constructing their own
interpretations of the phenomena and the results of the manipulation and sharing those
interpretations with others. Through formal and informal apprenticeships in communities of
play and work, learners develop skills and knowledge that they then share with other members
of those communities with whom they learned and practiced those skills. In all of these
situations, learners are actively manipulating the objects and tools of the trade and observing
the effects of what they have done. Thus, meaning learning is the process of making
meaningful associations between existing knowledge (experience) and new material, and the
result of associative links create stronger retention. Meaningful learning refers to the concept
that the learned knowledge (let’s say a fact) is fully understood by the individual and that the
individual knows how that specific fact relates to other stored facts (stored in your brain that
is).

On a quest of attaining meaning learning, Roger (1969) has identified a number of attributes
that a humanistic educator can apply. Firstly, it is of vital note that a humanistic educator
possesses an unconditional positive regard towards learners, assuming that all learners have the
same natural propensity for acquiring knowledge regardless. In other words, a teacher must
view every learner as having an equal chance to succeed. Secondly, a humanistic educator must
have a listening ear toward the concerns and challenges faced by learners. Thus, a humanistic
educator should be empathic. At no point should a teacher televise the concerns faced by
learners. Thirdly, a humanistic teacher should treat learners as a whole persons. Thus, the
learner’s social, physical and emotional needs must all be attended to by the teacher. Finally,
humanistic teachers must play the role of a facilitator. In all learning situations, educators need
to ensure that students remain at the centre of the teaching-learning process.

29
LEARNING THEORIES

REFERENCES

Anderson, J. R. (1976). Language, memory, and thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ashcraft, M.H. (1994). Human memory and cognition, 2nd Ed, Harper Collins, New York.
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of

aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory, General Learning Press, New York.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action, Prentice-Hall Englewood

Cliffs, New York.

Biehler, D. and Snowman, G. (1986). Psychology of learning applied

to teaching, Newark, Wardsworth.

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental) conditioning.

Educational Psychology Interactive, Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1998). An Overview of the Behavioural perspective. Educational
Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.

Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall.

Myers, D.G. (1988). Psychology, London: Worth.

Munsaka, E. (2011). Mastering the psychology of Teaching and Learning, Ndola Zambia
mission press.

O’Connor, J. & Lager, A. (2004). Coaching with NLP: How to be a Master Coach,

Shaftesbury: Element Books Ltd.

Schlesinger, E. (1996). Why learning is not a cycle, Industrial and Commercial Training,

28, 2, 30-5, 5, 11-17.

Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Social origins of self-regulatory competence.

Educational Psychologist,32, 195–208.
Skinner, B.F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational
Review, 24(2), 86-97.

30
LEARNING THEORIES

Skinner, B.F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review, 57(4), 193
216.

Skinner, B.F. (1968). The Technology of Teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts

Watson, J. B. and Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental

Psychology. 3(1). 1-14.

Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the Behaviourist Views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-
177.

Wittig, A. F. (2001). Schaum’s Outline Series: Introduction to Psychology, 2nd edition, the
Mcgraw-Hills companies, Inc. New York.

31