UNIT 13 WHEY – WHEY POWDER,

LACTOSE, AND WHEY PROTEIN

CONCENTRATES
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Composition of Different Types of Whey
13.3 Utilisation of Whey
13.4 Manufacture of Condensed Whey and Whey Powder
• Concentration of whey
• Plain condensed whey
• Sweetened Condensed Whey
• Uses of Condensed Whey
• Lactose Crystallization
• Spray Drying

13.5 Chemical Composition of Whey Powder

13.6 Storage of Whey Powder
13.7 Whey Beverages and Drinks
13.8 Whey Protein Concentrates
• Manufacture of Whey Protein Concentrates

13.9 Lactose
• Manufacture of Crude Lactose
• Refining of Lactose
• Grades of lactose

13.10 Let Us Sum Up

13.11 Key Words
13.12 Some Useful Books
13.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

13.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit we should be able to:
• Describe various sources of whey production and importance of its utilization.
• Narrate various steps in the production of condensed and dried whey.
• Describe processes for the manufacture of whey drinks and beverages.
• Narrate various processes used for the separation of whey proteins from whey.
• Describe production of crude and refined lactose.

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By – Products
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Whey is a dilute, highly perishable and largest by-product of dairy world from the
manufacture of cheese, casein, chhana, paneer, chakka and co-precipitates. The
continuing annual growth in the consumption and production of the cheese and
coagulated milk products represents the generation of extremely large additional
quantities of whey because of the huge base. The projections for current world
production of whey are about 125 million tonnes. About 68% of it is produced in
European countries and about 24% in North America. Cheese whey accounts for
nearly 95% of total whey. In India, the major source of whey is from the production
of chhana and paneer. In the absence of systematic surveys/statistics, the predicted
value for whey production is estimated at 5 million tonnes per annum. In view of the
low solids content of whey, there has been a gross lack of interest in its utilisation
compared to other fluid by-products of dairy industry. Due to the presence of high
organic matter (6-7% total solids) in the form of protein, lactose, fat minerals and
water-soluble vitamins, its disposal causes environmental pollution.

13.2 COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

WHEY
Different Whey’s produced during the manufacture of cheese, casein, chhana, paneer,
chakka and co-precipitates vary in chemical composition and acidity (Table 13.1).
It, in general, contains about half of the total solids of milk, and is a source of precious
nutrients like lactose, whey proteins, minerals and vitamins. Whey proteins, though
present in small quantity, have high protein efficiency ratio (3.6), biological value
(104) and net protein utilisation (95) and are next only to egg protein in terms of
nutritive value.
Table 13.1. Composition of different whey systems

Constituents Cheddar cheese Acid casein Rennet Chhana Co-

casein and precipitates
paneer
Total solids (%) 7.0 7.0 6.8 6.5 6.2
Fat (%) 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1
Protein (%) 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.4 0.3
Lactose (%) 4.9 5.1 5.1 5.0 5.1
Ash (%) 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.6
T.A. (%) 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.3

13.3 UTILISATION OF WHEY

Utilization of whey has been of great concern in the dairy industries engaged in
manufacturing of cheese and coagulated milk products. The techno-economic
problems associated with the utilisation of whey have been receiving considerable
attention and remarkable advancements have been made. Today, modern industrial
processing techniques such as ultrafiltration (UF), reverse osmosis (RO), new drying
methods, hydrolysis, electrodialysis, ion-exchange, fermentation and protein
fractionation, among others, have converted whey into a major source of ingredients
with differing functional and nutritional properties, that could be used in food and
dairy industry. The predominant driving force behind the development of whey
utilisation has been stringent regulations imposed by the environmental pollution
agencies all over the world. Other aspect relates to economic return from whey,
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which contains almost half the solids of original milk. Presence of lactose, protein, Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
minerals and water- soluble vitamins make the whey a highly nutritious product. Concentrates

Being a rich source of lactose, whey is a good fermentation media for a number of
fermented products. In many applications, lactose in whole or deproteinised whey
is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose, thereby increasing its sweetness. Such lactose-
hydrolysed syrups, generally after condensing, are mostly utilised in sweet
confectionery products and in ice cream.
The production of whey beverages, whey protein concentrates, lactose, and many
others product from whey have prominence in advanced dairy countries, but Indian
dairy industry is still a novice in this field. It is only during the about last 12 years that
with the economic liberalisation and delicensing of the dairy industry, rapid changes
are being witnessed in Indian dairy industry. A number of by-products based dairies
with large automatic and continuous manufacturing plants have been set up.
Whey cheeses like Gjetost, Mysost and Gudbrandsdulsost are produced in Norway,
while Manouri, Anthotryos, Cryzittroa and Giza in Greece. The names of whey
cheeses in Greece indicate their quality. Ricotta cheese is another cheese, which is
popular in Italy and in many other countries.
A major problem with many whey based products is their salty flavour owing to
their high mineral content. A small percentage of utilised whey (less than 5%) is
demineralised to produce dry demineralised whey for specialised uses. These include
whey protein based infant formulas and other medical and nutritional products that
require lactose, special nutritional quality of whey proteins and low mineral content.
Demineralized sweet whey (25-65% demineralization) can be used in foods such as
coffee whitener, soft serve ice cream, milk shakes, whey drinks and caramel, citrus
drinks, salad dressing, animal feeds, bakery goods, confectionery coatings and dry
mixes.
Despite significant gains in the amount of whey being processed, a large amount of
whey produced still is disposed off as raw whey. Much of this represents production
from small plants, where the cost of purchasing, processing as well as the subsequent
transportation and handling clearly exceeds the value of any whey product that might
be produced. In small plants, the choice remains some form of disposal, be it municipal
treatment, spreading raw whey on local farm lands for its nutrient value or feeding to
local livestock. Further, acid whey, because of high mineral content and low pH
pose considerable difficulties in utilisation and, therefore, mostly remain unutilised.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Describe the nutritive attributes of whey?
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2) Why should whey be utilized for human consumption?
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By – Products 3) What is the need for demineralization of whey?
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13.4 MANUFACTURE OF CONDENSED WHEY

AND WHEY POWDER
By far the single largest use of whey solids on global basis is in the form of whole dry
whey and it continues to grow. This is whole whey that has been condensed and
spray dried as such or after blending with certain other liquid ingredients. These
powdered whey products are marketed as commodity ingredients for a variety of
foods for human and animals. Since whey is a highly perishable raw material and its
use in liquid form is limited to only small quantities, the concentration and drying of
whey assumes a special significance. Whey can be preserved as plain or sweetened
condensed whey. With the development of membrane technology (reverse osmosis),
it became economically feasible to manufacture RO whey concentrates with 28%
T.S. retaining all functional properties of whey proteins. The trend in Western Europe
is to preserve whey solids in the form of whey powders (demineralised, delactosed
whey powders).
i. Concentration of whey
Whey concentration is carried out with the following objectives:
a) Volume reduction for transport to other processing facilities.
b) Pre-concentrate for drying into whey powder.
c) Manufacture of condensed wheys: plain or sweetened.
i) Clarification: The whey always has Curd fines, which confer serious risk of
blocking heat exchangers’ channels or fouling Ultrafiltration or RO membranes.
These curd fines also adversely affect the solubility properties and flavour of
end product. These curd fines are usually removed by a combination of settling,
screening and clarification. For large-scale operation, it is usual to employ a
self-discharging clarifier with an enlarged solid-holding capacity. Also used
commonly are the hydrocyclones where whey is made to flow tangentially into
the upper cylindrical part. The centrifugal force causes the particles to move
toward the cyclone wall and they get deposited on the bottom.
ii) Separation and Pasteurization: In order to obtain flavour stability in
concentrated whey, the whey is separated to remove fat. Then the whey is
pasteurized for optimum microbiological quality, to inactivate rennet and storage
stability and stored at 5°C till concentration and drying.
iii) Concentration: The whey may be concentrated economically with the
integration of Reverse osmosis (RO) for pre-concentration, and multi effect
evaporator. The long tube falling film evaporators used for this purpose are
characterised by short residence time (5-30 sec.), high heat transfer coefficients
and efficient energy use. The most modern concentration installation consists
of a 5-7 stage evaporation system. By adding more stages to the evaporator,
22 the specific steam consumption is reduced. A seven-stage plant consumes 50
 % less steam than a three-stage plant. Acid whey foams less during evaporation Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
in evaporators than does sweet whey. When sweet whey is difficult to manage Concentrates
in the evaporator a small quantity of acid or a little fat may be added to break
the foam.
There is spontaneous lactose crystallisation in vapour separator while concentrating
whey to levels above 55% T.S. This may be avoided by immediate removal of
concentrated whey from the evaporator apart from controlling final total solids
contents of whey and increasing the evaporation temperature of last stage, where
lactose is in most concentrated form. For this, the whey evaporators are sequenced
in such a way that the higher solids are reached at higher temperature than that
prevails in the last stage. For instance a 7-Stage falling film evaporator can be
sequenced 1-2-3-4-7-6-5, where the temperature (°C) in the respective stages are
68, 65, 61, 57, 50, 45, and 39.
ii. Plain Condensed Whey
The desirable degree of concentration of plain whey is 35- 50% total solids. Whey
condensed to higher solids content (more than 55% T.S.) forms a gel after cooling
and is not recommended to be used in any food or feed products due to its coarser
texture and low solubility.
Plain condensed whey is also made as an intermediate product for whey powder
making. The whey is concentrated to about 40-60% solids and pre-crystallized
before drying.
iii. Sweetened Condensed Whey
For its preparation sweet cheese whey is mixed with sugar equal to the weight of
solids in whey (about 6.7 Kg sugar for 100 Kg whey). The mixture is concentrated
using multistage evaporators to at least 76% T.S. The specific gravity of sweetened
condensed whey at 50°C is 1.360 (38.4°Be’). The concentrate is always cooled to
30°C using flash coolers and served with lactose crystals. The seeds mixture is
stirred for 1 to 3 hr to crystallize the lactose. It may then be packed in barrels or
cans. The product does not require any refrigeration for storage.
Sweetened condensed whey darkens and thickens in storage, but these changes do
not develop to an objectionable level during first year. The product must be utilised
within one year of production to get full advantage of its functional and nutritional
properties.
Due to high salt content, condensed whey products are somewhat salty and have a
characteristic whey flavour. The saltiness may be reduced by desalting the original
whey by nanofiltration. A typical composition of different types of condensed whey
is given in table 13.2.
iv. Uses of Condensed Whey
Whey solids in form of condensed whey are used in dairy, bakery goods, baby
food, meat products, beverages, soups, sauces, dressings and creams. Concentrated
whey has worldwide industrial application in bread and other bakery products. The
addition of whey solids in Macaroni and spaghetti improves their viscosity and dough
properties. Condensed whey is also used with fruits and jams in various toppings
and spreads in confectionery. In addition, whey solids are used in animals feed
mixes, as it is a cheap source of high-quality proteins and carbohydrates.

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By – Products Table 13.2. Approximate composition of condensed whey’s

Product % Composition
Sugar Protein Ash Fat Water
Lactose Sucrose
Plain Condensed whey 51.3 - 10.1 6.0 0.6 32.0
Sweetened Condensed whey 28.7 38.0 5.6 3.4 0.3 24.0
Condensed Acid Whey 34.9 - 7.6 8.2 0.6 33.5

Plain condensed whey and sweetened condensed whey may be used to make various
whey candies such as ‘wheyfers’, whipped whey fudge, whey caramel and ‘whey’
taffy. The whipping properties of sweetened condensed whey is of value in many
food preparations, say for example ice cream, shakes sherbets and bakery and
confectionery products. Uses of whipped sweetened condensed whey include the
making of fruit whips, certain candies and frozen dessert preparations. A sweet
spread of good keeping quality may be made by mixing equal weights of sweetened
condensed whey and peanut. Condensed sweetened whey is also used in caramel
production, which is 38% whey solids, 38% sucrose and 24% water.
In Norway, “Mysost” and “Primost” cheeses are produced from concentrated whey
with 84% total solids. Dulce de leche, yoghurt and whipped cream substitute like
milk products contain condensed whey.
v. Lactose crystallization
To avoid the very undesirable caking properties of ordinary whey powder, it is of
great industrial importance to get the major part of the lactose content in a crystalline
form. The advantage of this lies both in energy savings and in improved powder
properties. In the spray drier, it is possible to dry whey concentrate containing up to
around 60 % TS, when the lactose content has been subjected to a crystallization
degree of 85-90 %. On the other hand, for non-crystallized concentrate, it is not
possible to attain more than 42-45 %, TS for drying. Obviously this low degree of
concentration has negative effect on the process economics. Controlled crystallization
can be initiated by immediate flash cooling of condensed whey after evaporation to
about 30°C. As far as possible slow agitation should start immediately; fine grained
α-lactose monohydrate at a level of about one Kg. per ton of concentrate should be
added. The holding time under these conditions should be 3-4 hours. Cooling of the
concentrate should then start, the rate being about 3°C/h until 10°C is reached.
vi. Spray drying
Recent trend in drying of milk and a milk product is extensive use of spray drier that
may be single stage, two-stage and more recently three-stage drying. Processes
pertaining to the spray drying of whey for the manufacture of various types of whey
powder are depicted in Fig. 13.1.

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 Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
Whey Powder Concentrates
Ordinary Precrystallized Non-caking
(One stage) (Two stage) (Ball process)
? ? ? ?
Pretreatment
? ? ? ?
Evaporation
42-45 % TS about 40 % TS 50 % TS
? ? ? ?
? High-concentration ?
? 50-60 % TS ?
? ? ? ?
? Pre-crystallization
? 4-16 hours 10-24 hours
? ? ? ?
Spray drying
T1= 180 °C T1=200 °C T1=185 °C T1=150 °C
? ? ? ?
? ? ? After
crystallisation
? ? ? ?
? ? Fluid bed drying
? ? ? ?
Pneumatic transport/cooling Fluid bed cooling

Fig. 13.1. Different processes for the manufacture of whey powder

i) Single-stage process: In single stage drying product is dried to its final

moisture content in the spray-drying chamber alone; some time pneumatic
conveying system is adopted with one-stage drying system. Ambient air provides
both the conveying and cooling of powder. If climatic conditions prevent powder
temperature/residual moisture contents to be achieved with ambient air, the
conveying air must be dehumidified and cooled usually to 8°C.
ii) Two-stage process: The principle of two stage drying is a combination of
spray drying as the first stage drying and fluid bed drying at the second stage.
By two stage drying, it has been possible to obtain good quality powders and
also with advantage regarding product quality and drying economy in the
manufacture of non-agglomerated products. In this process normally, powders
leave the chamber and enter the attached vibrating fluid bed drier with a moisture
content of 5-6%. The excess moisture is removed in the fluid bed, where the
moist powder is first met by a cold air stream thus avoiding lumping of the
thermoplastic powder, and then by a hot air stream for final drying. By introducing
cold air in the last stage of the fluid bed the powder is cooled to the desired
temperature. Fines are recovered in the spray drier and fluid bed cyclones,
collected and returned to the atomizing zone for agglomeration. This
agglomeration gives a free flowing powder. In this process typical drying
conditions are: feed preheating to 80°C, feed concentration of 50-60%,
crystallization, and then drying at inlet temperature of approximately 185°C.
iii) Belt process: Lactic acid in dry form is very themoplastic even at low
temperature and diffcult to dry by conventional spray drier. This means that
this type of powder is extremely sticky during the spray drying process, the
belt process is especially advantageous in drying lactic acid whey. In the process,
25
typical drying conditions involve preheating to 80°C, feed concentration to
By – Products 50%, spray drying at inlet temperature of 150°C and outlet temperature of
55°C to a moisture content of 12-15%. In order to avoid condensation in the
cyclones, hot air is introduced into the exhaust system of the spray dryer to
increase the relative humidity.
The high moisture content of powder leaving the spray drying chamber ensures
that crystallization will continue in the powder to an even greater extent than in
the two-stage process using fluid bed drier. This crystallization is improved if
the wet powder is kept at high moisture content for 10-15 minutes. This is
conveniently done on a belt conveyor mounted between the chamber outlet
and a fluid bed, where the final drying takes place. The resulting powder
consists of large agglomerates, which has a low bulk density, but is extremely
instant and have excellent non-caking properties.

13.5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WHEY

POWDER
Composition of whey powder varies depending on the type of whey from which it
has come, pretreatment given to the whey, and the various processing steps followed
in the production. Other properties are shown in Table below:
Table 13.3. Properties of Whey Powder
Properties Ordinary Precrystallized Non caking Non caking
Whey whey powder whey powder whey
Powder powder
Total moisture (%) 3-4 3-5 5-6 4-5.5
Free moisture (%) 3-4 1-2 1.5-2.5 1-2
Bulk density (g/cm3) 0.6-0.7 0.6-0.7 0.55-0.65 0.4-0.5
Degree of cakeness (%) 100 40-100 0-5 0-5
Degree of 0.1 50-75 75-85 85-90
Crystallization (%)

13.6 STORAGE OF WHEY POWDER

Non-enzymatic browning via Maillard reaction is one of the important modes of
deterioration in whey powder, which limits shelf life. Whey powders contain relatively
high concentration of lactose and protein, in the presence of moisture, these
components readily participate in the maillard reaction. This interaction may result in
a decrease in protein quality, which is accompanied or followed by undesirable
colour changes.
Rennet and acid whey powder can be kept for a maximum of 50-80 days at 20°C
if intended for use in the food industry. If whey powder is to be kept in an acceptable
condition over a 3 month period or longer, the storage should be at 15 to 20°C with
10-15 % relative humidity and under air-tight conditions.
Check Your Progress 2
1) How whey solids are commercially preserved?
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2) List the basic steps in the production of whey powder? Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
................................................................................................................... Concentrates

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3) Describe the steps taken to prevent lactose crystallization in the evaporator?
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4) What is the importance of lactose crystallization in the manufacture of whey
powder?
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5) List the uses of condensed whey’s?
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13.7 WHEY BEVERAGES AND DRINKS

The use of whey for the manufacture of whey-based beverage has been the most
traditional approach to whey utilization for human nutrition. Whey based fruit
beverages are manufactured by mixing of appropriate fruit pulp/ juice or juice
concentrate and processed whey. The more sophisticated technological approaches
include the painstaking selection of proper flavour or flavour blends, complex whey
treatment operations and often the inclusion of additional nutrients to increase the
consumer appeal. The pH adjustment in the heat processed long shelf life beverage
is important in order to minimize heat induced whey protein precipitation.
A variety of whey beverages consisting of plain, carbonated, alcoholic, soy and fruit
have been successfully developed and marketed all over the world, because they
hold great potential for utilising whey solids. In India also, a number of refreshing
whey drinks including the low cost ‘Whevit’ and ‘Acidowhey’ are in the market.
These drinks are preferably prepared from paneer/chhana whey, which is acidic
and has low protein content.
Whevit, an orange, pineapple, lime or mango flavoured alcoholic drink from whey,
was developed at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal. For its manufacture,
fresh whey is efficiently separated in cream separator, deproteinised by steaming for 27
By – Products half an hour and cooled to room temperature. To the deproteinised and clarified
whey, 22-23% of 50% sugar solution is added followed by 2-2.1% of 10% citric
acid, colour and flavour. It is then fermented by incubation at 22oC for 14-16 hr
with a 1% culture of Saccharomyces cerevisae. The product is bottled, pasteurised
(75oC/30 min), cooled and stored at low temperature (5-10oC). Final product contain
0.5 to 1% alcohol.
For the manufacture of Acidowhey that is a non-alcoholic whey drink, deproteinised
whey is fermented with a culture of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus
bulgaricus (1:1). Sugar and flavour are then added and the product is reheated at
75oC for 5 min, cooled to 5oC, packed in pouches and stored in refrigerated
conditions.
The common operation for the manufacture of whey-based beverage is to blend the
whey and fruit juice components, followed by proper heat processing and packaging.
The sedimentation problem can be encountered by centrifugal clarification to remove
all sedimentable casein fine particles. The pH adjustment of the final product should
be controlled accurately, especially if subsequent severe heat processing is to be
used. To minimize heat induced whey protein precipitation, adjustment below pH
3.8-3.6 is necessary as the whey protein fraction becomes resistant to coagulation
below this critical range.
Technological problems may be encountered also when the desired formulation
contains additional components that interfere with processing or final product quality.
Flavour losses with some fruit juices may be encountered in UHT processing of the
final product, especially in the direct type machines employing a flash cooling vacuum
chamber.
Packaging of whey based soup and fruit beverages varies considerably. The tetra-
pack paper based containers of 200 ml capacities predominate in India, while 250
or 500 ml plastic cups with aluminium foil are also being used, probably for the
manufacturer’s convenience in western countries. Metal cans, glass or rigid plastic
containers have very seldom been used for these products.

13.8 WHEY PROTEIN CONCENTRATES

There has been a continuous increase in the production of whey protein concentrates
(WPC) since the introduction of the latest ultrafiltration process about three decades
ago. It is now a major means of WPC production throughout most of the dairy
countries of the world. Increased production of WPC warrants its greater application
in food products. Though soluble WPC have been found to be technically suited to
a wide range of products, its use is not cost effective in all cases. Presently, WPC
constitutes a very small proportion (10%) of protein utilisation in food industry. The
largest potential use of WPC is as a replacement for non-fat dry milk (NFDM) in
the food industry. WPC with 35% protein is perceived to be a universal substitute
for NFDM, because of the similarity in gross composition and its dairy character.
Superiority of WPC over NFDM is also due to cost advantage.
Due to various reasons, buffalo and cow milks are being humanised and used partly
or exclusively for feeding human infants throughout the world. For humanisation,
apart from making other modifications, whey proteins proportion needs to be
increased in these milks. For this, a great potential lies in the application of WPC.
WPC can also be seen competing as protein and functional ingredient with casein,
egg albumin and soya proteins for use in food products. The PER value of whey
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proteins (3.2) is very high compared to standard casein (2.5).
i. Manufacture of Whey Protein Concentrates Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
Procedures for the manufacture of whey protein products are based on known Concentrates
behaviour of whey components under defined conditions. Properties that have been
exploited commercially include: molecular size differences (Ultrafiltration, gel filtration),
insolubility of protein at high temperature, charge characteristics (demineralization,
protein removal by ion exchange), aggregation by polyphosphates, and crystalization
of lactose.
i) Ultrfiltration Process: By 1981, Ultrafiltration (UF) had become the most
widely used process for recovery of soluble whey protein concentrate (WPC).
The development of robust, synthetic and cleanable membranes and the
refinement of continuous operation using multi-stage, recycle loops, and
diafiltration have been significant factors contributing to the success of this process.
With this process, a highly functional WPC is produced for a wide variety of
applications.
ii) Gel Filtration Process: This process has been used commercially for recovery
of WPC. The hydrated gel acts as a molecular sieve in that small molecular
weight components are able to enter the solvent phase within the gel beads.
Protein molecules remain in the solvent phase surrounding the beads. High and
low molecular weight fractions then can be recovered. Products of 30 to 80%
protein can be manufactured. The process is expensive to install and operate,
and the yield, at 65% of the proteins in whey, is low. It also is subject to fouling
and microbial contamination. It is no longer used in commercial operation.
iii) Heat precipitation process: Whey proteins may be precipitated with heating
of whey at acid or near-neutral pH. Acid whey must be heated to at least 90oC
and maintained at such temperatures for at least 10 min to achieve maximum
yields. For sweet whey’s, good yields can be obtained by heating at pH between
6.0 and 6.5, although products so derived have higher mineral concentrations
than those of acid whey unless pH is adjusted to 4.6 prior to protein removal.
The precipitate so formed is firmer and more readily separated than that formed
in non-acidified whey. precipitated protein is removed by settling (static or
accelerated), washed, re-separated, and dried. In modern plants, high-speed
centrifuges such as clarifiers and decanters are used for separation. The product
is dried using ring, fluid bed, roller or spray driers. Typical yield of whey proteins
by this process is 4.2 to 5.2 kg/m3.
Table 13.4. Protein yieldsa and concentrations of principal classes of dried
whey protein products
Basis of recovery
b
Heat Molecular size Adsorptionc Phosphate Removal of d
Precipation ----------------- -------------- Complex -------------------------
UF GF Cell. Sil. Lac Min. Lac+ Min
% 70-80 90 50-90 50-90 70-85 90 90 90 90
entration 65 30-80 30-80 30-80 30-85 40 20 45

uct WPC WPC WPC WPC WPC WPC DLW DMW DLDMW
e

a
Expressed as precentage of (total-nonprotein N) X 6.38 in original whey.
b
Ultrafiltration, UF; gel filtration, GF
c
Regenerated cellulose, cell; silica, sil. Pilot-scale data only.
d
Lactose, Lac; Minerals, Min.
e
Whey protein concentrate, WPC; delactosed whey, DLW; demineralized whey,
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DMW; delactosed, demineralized whey, DLDMW.
30
By – Products

Table 13.5. Percentage composition of whey protein concentrates

Composition/Source of Whey
Method of Isolation Protein Carbohydrate Fat Ash Moisture
CW AW PW CW AW PW CW AW PW CW AW PW CW AW PW
Gel filtration 83.1 86.2 65.6 1.4 1.3 4.1 2.4 1.6 6.2 0.04 0.04 2.48 8.2 7.1 11.4
Ion Exchange 77.4 85.4 46.6 0.4 0.4 1.9 0.3 0.1 4.1 13.2 13.0 28.8 7.5 5.3 14.3
Hexmetaphosphate 62.3 59.4 33.9 9.7 12.8 14.5 6.8 1.5 35.0 17.8 19.6 19.1 3.1 4.5 6.1
complex
Carboxy methyl 60.99 69.63 28.0 17.8 18.0 32.8 15.6 4.5 19.0 1.9 1.2 3.6 2.2 5.1 2.1
Cellulose complex
CW = Cheese whey; AW = Acid whey; PW = Paneer whey
Process refinements include demineralization prior to heating, pre-concentration by Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
reverse osmosis and Ultrafiltration, and continuous, high temperature reaction (120°C Concentrates
for 8 min at pH 6). Most processes result in an insoluble product, but through
heating whey to 95oC at pH 2.5 to 3.5, then adjusting to pH 4.5 prior to separation,
it has been claimed that a product soluble at pH 5 can be produced.
iv) Precipitation by complexing agents: This process is also called the cold
precipitation process. Numerous complexing agents can be used to recover
protein from whey; of these, polyphosphates appear to be the only group to be
used commercially for this purpose. Long-chain polyphosphates precipitate
protein from whey at low pH e.g., 3.5. Typically, potassium polymetaphosphate
and sodium hexametaphosphate are used. The precipitates so formed are
removed by centrifugation, washed, and then subjected to pH alteration and
calcium addition to remove the phosphate. Removal of calcium prior to
phosphate addition reduces the amount of phosphate required and results in
recovery of up to 90% of the original whey proteins. Further modification of
this process is also possible.
Check Your Progress 3
1) List the different steps in the manufacture of wheywit?
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2) What are potential uses of whey protein concentrates?
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3) List different methods for the separation of whey proteins from whey?
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4) Describe the heat precipitation process for separation of whey proteins from
whey?
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31
By – Products
13.9 LACTOSE
Lactose is carbohydrate of milk and is the only sugar of animal origin. Lactose in its
pure form is a white, water-soluble crystalline powder of moderately sweet taste
with no odour. Lactose is extensively used in food and pharmaceutical industries
due to its nutritional importance and multiple functional properties. Low sweetness,
consistency improvement in confectionery and bakery products, as carrier and
anticaking agent in powder foods, filler for tablets and capsules, controlled browning
in bakery products, flavour enhancer in sauces and dressings, nutritional importance
in infant formulas, an additive in culture media etc. are some of the desirable functional
properties and applications of crystalline lactose powder. Lactose is also important
fermentation substrate for the production of a variety of fermented products. As a
rough estimate, the quantity of lactose produced on a world-wide scale amounts to
some 50 lakh MT per annum.
Lactose is produced commercially from whole whey or from UF permeate. The
protein and mineral contents of the whey are the limiting factors for the crystallisation
of lactose, and this is the reason why UF permeate of whey is preferred as the
starting material in the production of lactose. However, A significant quantity of food
and pharmaceutical grade lactose is produced by conventional process. During the
process, a protein-mineral precipitate is segregated, which is dried and sold as a
by-product for animal feed.
i. Manufacture of crude lactose
Lactose can be manufactured either from sweet whey having a minimum pH of 5.6,
usual range being 5.9 to 6.3 or from acid whey with a maximum pH of 5.1 (usual
range, 4.4 to 4.6). In Indian context, chhana and paneer whey, whose pH ranges
from 5.1 to 5.6, can also be used as a good raw material for lactose manufacture.
Generally, sweet whey is preferred because of its high lactose and low ash content.
Acid whey can be neutralized, but this will change the whey characteristics and the
cost of manufacture will also increase.
i) Clarification and separation of whey: Clarification and separation is
necessary to remove the fat, suspended curd particles and other impurities
(dust, dirt, microbes) from whey.
ii) Deproteinisation and demineralization of whey: Whey contains about 20
% of the total proteins of milk. The presence of protein and salts in whey
increases the viscosity of concentrated whey and hinders the crystallization of
lactose. The reduction of protein and mineral contents in whey causes reduction
in viscosity and thereby permits concentration to higher total solids. Degree to
which the proteins and salts are removed from whey prior to concentration and
crystallisation, determines the yield and purity of lactose.
Cheese whey on heat treatment to 85-87°C at pH 4.8 yields maximum whey
solids on filtration, while in case of paneer whey, higher yield could only be
obtained by heating to 90 to 92°C for 10 minutes at pH 6.6. Up to 85 %
removal of proteins can be achieved by adding 1 % CaCl2 (20% soln.) to whey
at 90 to 95°C. Addition of CaO at 93°C and holding for 30 minutes is also
practiced where more than 90 % of proteins and minerals are removed.
iii) Concentration: The concentration of whey to 45 - 60 % total solids is very
critical, because a high total solids concentrate will be too viscous to pump,
while a lower total solid concentrate will result in lesser degree of super-
32 saturation of lactose and so insufficient lactose crystallisation. This is performed
 either by a pre-concentration through reverse osmosis, followed by evaporation Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
in multi effect evaporators or merely by evaporation. Reverse osmosis has the Concentrates
potential for removing a major portion of the water from whey or permeate
more economically than the evaporator process. The concentration process
must be conducted in such a way that no lactose crystallisation takes place in
evaporator and piping.
iv) Crystallisation: Crystallisation is initiated in the hot concentrated whey. This
is a complex process during which lactose molecules diffuse to the crystal surface
and simultaneously release and transfer the heat of crystallisation from the crystal
to the liquid. The purpose of crystallisation is to secure the formation of crystals
that can be separated from the mother liquor. For easy recovery of lactose
crystals, their size must be sufficiently large to ensure quick settling of crystals.
Easy recovery is obtained with an average size of 0.2 mm. The number of
crystals and their average size can be controlled by seeding the concentrate
with a known number of very fine lactose crystals. The seed crystals are added
in the form of fine particles of α-lactose monohydrate at the rate of 1 Kg per
ton of concentrate. In concentrated lactose solution, the crystallisation rate
depends on available crystal surface for growth, purity of the solution, degree
of supersaturation, temperature, viscosity and agitation.
Cooling of lactose syrup to a temperature below saturation temperature is
necessary for crystallisation of lactose. Higher temperature of crystallisation
increases the growth rate of the crystals. Therefore, slow cooling of the
concentrate is employed. Slow cooling to 10°C in minimum 20 h (up to 40 h)
and further holding for 15 h with intensive stirring has been suggested. During
crystallization, ß-lactose is converted into α-lactose, which is crystallised out.
Automatic systems in lactose crystallisation tanks are available to regulate
temperature within 0.5oC.
v) Harvesting of lactose crystals: The lactose crystals can be harvested
batchwise in basket centrifuges, which have the advantage of permitting
complicated wash cycles. Wash water is introduced into the centrifuge during
the separation of lactose crystals to assist in the removal of the remaining
impurities. The use of 10 % wash water can reduce the ash level of the lactose
by more than 66 %. However, on a commercial scale, continuous decanters
with a screw conveyor for crystal discharge are more commonly used. The
crystals from first decanter are fed into a second decanter in order to improve
washing and removal of mother liquour. The washed crystals recovered in
decanter have moisture content of approximately 10% and can be dried directly.
A specially designed centrifuge gives a high degree of separation of lactose
crystals from condensed cheese whey. Crystals of 40 μm can be recovered
with final moisture content of 1.5-2.5%. Another designed centrifuge proved
capable of continuously separating crystalline lactose with 2.5-2.9% moisture
from concentrated whey at the rate of 250-300 kg/hr.
vi) Yield and purity: Lactose yields varying from 65 to 76 % have been reported
by different workers. Lactose % in crude lactose obtained by different workers
varies between 91 and 97 %.
vii) Drying: The most common crystalline form of lactose i.e. α-lactose crystallises
below 93.5°C and the other form, the ß-lactose, crystallises above 93.5°C.
The drying process, therefore, should be limited to a product temperature of
93°C to prevent crystallisation into ß-lactose anhydride. Flash drying can result
in the formation of a thin layer of amorphous lactose on alpha hydrate crystals 33
By – Products leading to lump formation in the bagged lactose. A fluidized bed drier with a
maximum product temperature of 92oC/15-20 min gives good results.
Pneumatic transport of lactose from the drier must be carried out by means of
dry air at about 30oC. It gives gentle product cooling.
ii. Refining of lactose
For high degree of purity, as in pharmaceutical grades, refining of lactose is done by
subjecting crude lactose to treatment for removing colour, residual protein and salts
followed by recrystallisation. Crude lactose is dissolved in hot water to a 50-60%
concentration depending on its purity. About 1% of decolorizing paste consisting of
3 parts bone black, 1 part activated carbon and 1 part 36% hydrochloric acid is
added. Quick dissolution requires heating to 105ºC. Carbon absorb colour and
probably removes other impurities to some degree. Hydrochloric acid is added to
assist the action of carbon, to solublize salts and to aid in removal of protein. Lime is
used to adjust the reaction to that most favourable for the
Table 13.6. Lactose Commercial - Specifications (IS 1000:1989)
S. No. Specifications Requirement
1. Lactose (on dry basis), % by mass, min. 99
2. Moisture % by mass, Max.
a) for Lactose, monohydrate 5.5
b) for Lactose, Anhydrous 1.0
3. Sulphated Ash (on dry basis), % by mass, Max. 0.2
4. pH (of 10% solution) 4.0-6.5
5. Sp. Rotation 52.0-52.6
6. Nitrogen, % by mass, Max. 0.05
7. Arsenic (AS) Mg/Kg, Max. 1
8. Lead (Pb) mg/1g, Max. 2
9. E. coli, per 0.1 g Absent
10. Salmonella, per 0.1 g Absent.

precipitation of protein, and probably aids by combining with the protein to some
extent. The liquid is boiled and filtered with the assistance of filter aid to remove
carbon and precipitating impurities at high temperature to avoid premature
crystallisation. The carbon and the precipitated impurities are removed by filtration.
The resultant clear solution is further evaporated to 70% TS and introduced into
crystallising tanks. The crystallized lactose is harvested and dried. Edible lactose is
normally dried to 0.5% moisture content and pharmaceutical lactose to 0.1% moisture
content. The lactose is finally ground to 80-200-mesh size before bagging.
iii. Grades of Lactose
The international trade recognises following commercial forms of lactose.
S. Grade Lactose (%)
No.
1 Technical lactose 90-92
2 Crude Lactose 95-99
3 Food grade lactose 98-99
4 Pharmaceutical lactose 99.5-99.9

Check Your Progress 4

1) List various food and pharmaceutical applications of lactose?

34 ...................................................................................................................
 ................................................................................................................... Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
................................................................................................................... Concentrates

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2) What is the importance of deproteinsation and demineralization of whey during
lactose production?
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3) Describe how the lactose crystals are harvested?
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4) Describe how crude lactose is refined?
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5) Describe different grades of lactose?
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13.10 LET US SUM UP

Whey is a dilute, highly perishable and largest by-product of dairy world from the
manufacture of cheese, casein, chhana, paneer, chakka and co-precipitates. Different
Whey’s produced vary in chemical composition and acidity. It, in general, contains
about half of the total solids of milk, and is a source of precious nutrients like lactose,
whey proteins, minerals and vitamins.
Today, modern industrial processing techniques such as ultrafiltration (UF), reverse
osmosis, new drying methods, hydrolysis, electrodialysis, ion-exchange, fermentation
and protein fractionation, among others, have converted whey into a major source
of ingredients with differing functional and nutritional properties, that could be used
in food and pharmaceutical industry. The predominant driving force behind the
development of whey utilisation has been stringent regulations imposed by the
environmental pollution agencies all over the world. Other aspect relates to economic
return from whey. 35
By – Products Various important products that are produced commercially from whey include
condensed and dried whey products, whey drinks and beverages, whey protein
concentrates and lactose that have wide application in food industry. By far the
single largest use of whey solids on global basis is in the form of whole dry whey and
it continues to grow. A major problem with many whey based products is their salty
flavour owing to their high mineral content. A small percentage of utilised whey (less
than 5%) is demineralised to produce dry demineralised whey for specialised uses.
The use of whey for the manufacture of whey-based beverage has been the most
traditional approach to whey utilization for human nutrition. A variety of whey
beverages consisting of plain, carbonated, alcoholic, soy and fruit have been
successfully developed and marketed all over the world, because they hold great
potential for utilising whey solids. Whey based fruit beverages are manufactured by
mixing of appropriate fruit pulp/ juice or juice concentrate and processed whey.
Properties that have been exploited commercially for the production of whey protein
products include: molecular size differences (Ultrafiltration, gel filtration), insolubility
of protein at high temperature, charge characteristics (demineralization, protein removal
by ion exchange), aggregation by polyphosphates, and crystalization of lactose.
Ultrafiltration process is now a major means of WPC production throughout most
of the dairy countries of the world. Increased production of WPC warrants its greater
application in food products. WPC with 35% protein is perceived to be a universal
substitute for NFDM.
Lactose is produced commercially from whole whey or from UF permeate. For
high degree of purity, as in pharmaceutical grades, refining of lactose is done for
removing colour, residual protein and salts followed by recrystallisation. Low
sweetness, consistency improvement in confectionery and bakery products, as carrier
and anticaking agent in powder foods, filler for tablets and capsules, controlled
browning in bakery products, flavour enhancer in sauces and dressings, nutritional
importance in infant formulas, an additive in culture media etc. are some of the
desirable functional properties and applications of crystalline lactose powder.

13.11 KEY WORDS

Whevit : It is an orange, pineapple, lime or mango
flavoured alcoholic drink from whey
developed in India.
Acidowhey : It is a non-alcoholic fermented whey drink
developed in India.

13.12 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Gupta, P.R. 1997. Dairy India. P.R. Gupta Publisher, N. Delhi.
Zadow, J.G. 1990. Whey and Lactose Processing. Elsevier Science Publishers
Ltd., New York, USA.
Robinson, R.K. 1994. Modern Dairy Technology, Vol. 1. Advances in Milk
Processing. Chapman & Hall, London, U.K.
Caric, M. (1994). Concentrated and Dried Dairy Products. First edition. VHC.
Publishers, Inc. Germany.
Webb., B.H. and Whittier, E.O. (1970). By-products from Milk. B.H. Webb. AVI
36
Publishing Company, Westport, USA.
Sienkiewicz, T. and Riedel, C.L. (1990). Whey and whey utilization. Second revision Whey - Whey Powder,
Lactose and Whey Protein
and extended edition. Verlag-Th. Mann, Gelsenkirschen-Buer. Germany. Concentrates

13.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. i. Contains about half of the total solids of milk.
ii. Precious nutrients like lactose, whey proteins, minerals and vitamins.
iii. High nutritive quality of whey proteins - next only to egg proteins.
2. i. Precious nutrients of whey
ii. Economic return from whey
iii. Stringent regulations by the environmental pollution agencies
3. i. Salty flavour owing to high mineral content of whey.
ii. Dry demineralised whey produced for specialised uses: infant formulas
and other medical and nutritional products that require lactose, whey
proteins and low mineral content.
Check Your Progress 2
1. i. Whey solids mostly preserved in the form of whey powders
ii. Also preserved as plain or sweetened condensed whey.
2. Filtration/clarification ? separation ? pasteurization ? concentration ? lactose
crystallization ? spray drying
3. i. By controlling the total solid level.
ii. By decreasing the residence time in the evaporator
iii. By increasing the evaporation temperature of last stage, where lactose is
in most concentrated form.
4. i. Whey concentration to higher TS level
ii. Energy savings and improved powder properties.
5. i. Used in dairy, bakery products, baby food, meat products, beverages,
soups, sauces, dressings and creams, animals feed mixes
ii. Used to make various whey candies
Check Your Progress 3
1. Fresh whey ? separated ? deproteinised ? cooled ? sugar solution, citric acid,
colour and flavour added ? fermented ? bottled ? pasteurised ? cooled.
2. i. Replacement for non-fat dry milk in the food industry.
ii. In humanized milk
iii. WPC also competing as protein and functional ingredient with casein, egg
albumin and soya proteins for use in food products.
3. Ultrafiltration, gel filtration, heat precipitation process, precipitation by
37
complexing agents, ion exchange process and crystalization of lactose.
By – Products 4. i. Acid whey heated (90oC for at least 10 min).
ii. For sweet whey’s, heating at pH 6.0-6.5 ? pH adjustment to 4.6 prior to
protein removal.
iii. Precipitated proteins removed ? washed ? re-separated ? dried.
Check Your Progress 4
1. i. Nutritional importance in infant formulas
ii. Use in confectionery and bakery products.
iii. Filler in tablets and capsules.
iv. Flavour enhancer in sauces and dressings
v. Important fermentation substrate
2. i. Degree to which the proteins and salts are removed from whey prior to
concentration and crystallisation, determines the yield and purity of lactose.
ii. Whey having higher protein and mineral contents cannot be concentrated
to higher total solids.
iii. Protein and salts in whey increases the viscosity and hinders lactose
crystallization.
3. i. Lactose crystals harvested either in a basket centrifuge batch-wise or in a
continuous decanter
ii. Basket centrifuges have the advantage of permitting complicated wash
cycles.
iii. However, on a commercial scale, continuous decanters are more common.
4. Dissolution of crude lactose in hot water to a 50-60 % concentration ? quick
dissolution at 105°C ? addition of activated carbon, hydrochloric acid and
filter aid ? self-cleaning filter at a high temperature ? crystallisation ? drying.
5.
S. Grade Lactose (%)
No.
i Technical grade having lactose 90-92%
ii Crude grade having lactose content 95-99%
iii Food grade containing lactose 98-99%
iv Pharmaceutical grade having lactose 99.5-99.9%

38