Você está na página 1de 26

INTRODUCTION

1.1 overview of drilling


Drilling started as the simple process of digging a hole. Oil and gas hydrocarbons formed from
organism in the geological past. Natural geological process created favourable conditions for
migration and accumulation in underground reservoir traps. Areas where these traps occur are
located by various methods of explorations. The right to drill wells and produce oil and gas is
obtained from the landowner. Then a drilling program containing information about the prospect and
instructions on drilling the well is prepared.
A drilling contractor has drilling rigs with operation personnel. The rig has a rotating system to turn
the drilling bit to drill the hole, a tower and hoisting system to run tools in the hole and pull them out
of the hole, and other equipment needed to drill the well. Then the rig is moved to drill site and
assembled.
A large diameter hole is drilled by rotating a joint of drill pipe with a bit fitted on the bottom end.
Fluid is circulated down the inside of the pipe and up the outside to remove the pieces of earth drilled
by the bit. Additional joints of drill pipe are connected to drill the holedeeper. Large pipe or casing is
placed in the hole with cement around the pipe. A slightly smaller hole is drilled deeper through the
casing. Slightly smaller casing is placed in this hole and cemented.
The sequence is repeated using successively smaller sizes until the last, smallest casing is run
through the oil trap thousands of feet of feet below the surface.
Many drilling problems occur such as loose pieces of formation falling in the hole and sticking the
drill tools. A particularly dangerous problem occurs when the hole is drilled into high pressure
formations. Fluids from the reservoir can flow up the wellbore and blow hundreds of feet into the air
causing a blowout. Tests provide information about the oil and gas in the formations and are taken
during and after drilling. Many holes are drilled that do not encounter oil and gas. These dry holes
are plugged with cement and abandoned. Wells with good oil and gas potential are completed.
The well is completed by perforating holes through the casing into the formation. Natural forces
cause the oil and gas to flow from the reservoir through the perforations into the casing where they
flow upward to surface. Other oil traps in the well can be perforated to make multiple completions.
Fig 1.1 onshore and offshore drilling rig
1.2 History and development of directional drilling
By earlier methods, all wells were drilled vertically downward. Directional drilling evolved from the
need to drill the hole in other directions. Special drilling tools and procedures are used to change the
direction of the well bore from vertical to directional or horizontal in order to penetrate targets that
cannot be reached by regular vertical drilling methods. Directional and vertical drilling serve mainly
for the drilling of exploration and development wells with increased, sometimes very high,
production rates. There are various well patters within the directional and horizontal classifications,
depending upon the type of well.
The well path includes the kickoff depth the angle build and angle drop rates, the drift and direction
of the well bore, the targets, and limits. Directional drilling is flexible and applicable to many
situations; these wells drilled worldwide in most major oil and gas fields, both on land and offshore.
Usage is increasing with a potential for widespread future usage.
The history of drilling fades into the distance past. China had wells before 1200 A.D., later followed
by drilling in France, Italy, and West Virginia. The first drilling objective was to produce water.
Later needs for resource led to drilling steam for geothermal energy, saltwater for salt, and gas for
heating and oil. Drilling equipment began with hand drilling tools, followed by spring pole, cable
tool and rotary rig equipment in the late 1800’s. Early “ churn” drilling used a cable or flexible
drilling line so that hole were mainly vertical.
Rotary drilling with a rotating drill string developed into a highly efficient process for drilling and
completing oil and gas wells at depths greater than 30,000 feet. Rotary rigs drill on land or offshore
and some are modifies for special drilling services. Rotary drilling methods were later modified for
directional drilling.
Directional tools and technique evolved slowly from vertical drilling. An early reason for directional
drilling was due to a FISH, unrecoverable drilling tools lost in hole. Directional methods allowed
drilling around and bypassing the fish, a less expensive option than drilling another hole. Crooked
holes were another problem that led to directional drilling. One other potential and less publicized
incentive many have been to drill into more productive areas under adjacent acreage where
ownership may have been in question.
The whipstock was the first reliable directional drilling tool. Development of new tools and
techniques aided first in drilling straight and vertical holes and later aided directional drilling.
Development in measuring instruments were the final step leading to modern directional drilling.
Directional drilling is conventionally defined as a procedure for drilling a non-vertical hole through
the earth. It first gained prominence when it was used to control a blowout well in southeast Texas in
the mid 1930’s. At a safe distance from the blowout, a directional hole was drilled at an angle to a
point near the bottom of the blowout hole. This innovative procedure done on a sensational and
highly productive well received widespread publicity. It focused attention on the somewhat new
drilling procedure.
Directional drilling had a strong start offshore and in other areas where it was difficult or expensive
to build a surface location. Early offshore wells were drilled on wide spacing from piers and later
from individual platforms; Directional techniques allowed drilling multiple wells from one location,
thus eliminating construction of an expensive structure for each well. These and similar procedure
firmly established directional drilling, and it developed into a reliable, efficient drilling procedure
with wide spread usage.
As the drilling industry developed, wells have been drilled vertically to more than 30,000 ft deep.
However, very deep drilling has become less common because of the expense and indications that oil
and gas do not often occur at these depths. This in part, has led to extended reach, directional drilling
to greater distances.
Horizontal drilling subsequently evolved mainly to improve well productivity. It involves drilling the
well in a curve from vertical to horizontal and then horizontally. These “drain hole” exposed more of
the reservoir to the wellbore and produce large volumes of oil and gas.
The horizontal drilling procedure had been tested in various countries countries by the 1950’s.
However inadequate equipment, lack of demand, and the relatively high cost compared to
conventional recovery techniques hampers development. Interest revived in the 1980’s, focusing on
drilling a single holes a longer horizontal distance into the formation. Tools and techniques
developed at an accelerated rate, further increasing efficiency. Horizontal drilling has many
applications. It is the latest drilling technique.
DIRECTIONAL WELL PLANNING

Careful planning before the well is spudded can lead to substantial savings in the cost of drilling a
directional well. Many factors influence the trajectory of the borehole. Some of these may be difficult
to estimate (for example, the amount of bit walk that may occur in certain formations). The
experience gained from drilling previous directional wells in the same area is therefore very useful
and should be incorporated at the planning stage of the next well.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Reference Points and Coordinates


It is not uncommon for directional wells drilled from one platform to cover a reservoir several square
miles in area. In planning well paths over such large distances some attention should be paid to the
coordinate system adopted.
The most common method of fixing the position of a point on the Earth's surface is to give its
latitude and longitude (Fig. 4.1). A line of latitude runs parallel to the equator, and is denoted by a
number of degrees (0-90°) North or South of the equator. A line of longitude is perpendicular to the
equator and passes through the North and South poles and is denoted by a number of degrees
(0-180°) East or West of Greenwich. However, for the purposes of planning a directional well, it is
more convenient if the curved surface of the Earth is projected onto a flat surface on which maps can
be drawn. One such system is known as the Universal Transverse of Mercator (UTM)*. This is
basically a projection of the section of the Earth's surface that contains the area of interest. In
carrying out the projection there is some distortion of the axes such that UTM North is slightly offset
from Geographic (True) North. This small difference is significant over large distances and so must
be taken into account when converting coordinates from one system to another.

Latitude and longitude


For the purposes of planning and monitoring, all measurements must be tied back to a common
reference point. On offshore platforms this point is usually chosen to be the centre of the platform.
All depths are measured from the elevation of the rotary table. If the target coordinates are given in
the UTM system they must be converted and referenced back to the platform centre. All calculations
are then simplified by adopting Northing and Basting coordinates. If the surface (slot) coordinate and
the target coordinates are known, the two end points of the trajectory are fixed. The target bearing
(the direction in which the well must be drilled) can then be calculated. All directions must be given
relative to True North before they can be used in survey calculations. Directions can be stated in two
ways:
(i) quadrant system, in which the angle is measured 0-90° from North or South. Some examples
are given in Fig. 4.2.
(ii) azimuth, in which the angle is measured 0-359° clockwise from North.

Compass bearings (azimuth equivalents)

Target Zone
As well as defining a particular point as the target, the geologist will also specify a circular or
rectangular area around that point known as the target zone. This allows the directional driller some
tolerance on the final position of the well. A radius of 100 ft is commonly used as a target zone, but
this will depend on particular requirements (for example, a relief well requires a much smaller target
in order to be effective). The smaller the target zone the greater the number of correction runs
necessary to ensure the target is intersected. This will result in longer drilling times and higher
drilling costs. The target zone should therefore be as large as the geologist or the reservoir engineer
can allow. The directional driller's job is then to place the wellbore within the target zone at
minimum cost.
Formation Characteristics
The type of formations to be drilled can affect the planning of the profile in several ways.

(a) In selecting the kick-off point (KOP) the hardness of the formation is important. Hard
formations may give a poor response to the deflecting tool, so that the kick-off may take a
long time and require several bits. Kicking-off in very soft formations may result in large
washouts. A soft-medium formation provides a better opportunity for a successful kick-off.

(b) Certain formations exhibit a tendency to deflect the bit either to the left or to the right. The
directional driller can compensate for this effect by allowing some "lead angle" when
orienting the deflecting tool. If the bit is expected to walk to the right by a certain number of
degrees, the lead angle will point the bit an equal number of degrees to the left (Fig. 4.3). As
the bit begins to drill, the formation effect will bring the well back on to its intended course.

Deflecting Tools Available


The capabilities of the deflecting tools available and the techniques that are applicable in a particular
situation will influence the shape of the wellpath. If jet deflection is to be used, the KOP must be at a
relatively shallow depth in a fairly soft formation. The availability of different bent subs will dictate
the rate of build up. If a turbodrill is to be used over the long tangential section, it will tend to make
the bit walk to the left.

Use of lead angle to compensate for bit walk.

The directional behaviour of the various tools and bottom hole assemblies to be used must be
considered when planning the well.
Location of Adjacent Wellbores
On offshore platforms there is only a small distance (7-12 ft) between adjacent conductors (Fig. 4.4).
Under these conditions precise control is required and great care must be taken to avoid collisions
directly beneath the platform. For this reason the KOPs for adjacent wells are chosen at varying
depths to give some separation. When choosing slots it is better to allocate an outer slot to a target
which requires large horizontal displacement. This will result in a shallower KOP to allow a smaller
inclination. Slots closer to the centre of the platform should be allocated to targets requiring smaller
inclinations and deeper KOPs (Fig. 4.5). This will help to avoid the problem of wells running across
each other. As each well is being drilled, the proximity of all the adjacent wells should be checked by
calculating inter-well distances from survey results. Anti-collision plots generated by computer are
now widely available for doing this. It may be necessary to nudge a new well away from the existing
wells, even though this means going away from the target direction. Once the well is a safe distance
away, the well path can be corrected to bring it back onto the planned course (Fig. 4.6.).

Choice of Build-up Rate

If the change of angle occurs too quickly, severe dog-legs can occur in the trajectory. These sharp
bends make it difficult for drilling assemblies and tubulars to pass through.

Drilling slots in circular pattern

Severe dog-legs also cause more wear on the drill string. If the angle is built up very slowly then it
will take a longer interval of hole to reach the required inclination. To obtain a gradual build-up of
angle at a reasonable curvature, a build-up rate of 1.5-2.50 per 100 ft is commonly used, but higher
build-up rates may be necessary in some cases.
Slot allocation and choice of KOPs

Nudging well A away from adjacent conductors.


TYPES OF PROFILE
The well path may follow a number of different routes. The main types are summarized in the
following paragraphs.

Type 1 (Build and Hold)

This is the most common and the simplest profile for a directional well. The hole is drilled vertically
down to the KOP, where the well is deviated to the required inclination. This inclination is
maintained over the tangential section to intersect the target (Fig. 4.7a). Generally, a shallow KOP is
selected since this reduces the size of the inclination angle necessary to hit the target. This type of
profile is often applied when a large horizontal displacement is required at relatively shallow target
depths. Since there are no major changes in inclination or azimuth after the build-up section is
complete, there are fewer directional problems with this profile. Under normal conditions the
inclination should be 15-55°, although greater inclinations have been drilled.

Type II (Build, Hold and Drop)

This profile is similar to the Type I down to the lower part of the tangential section. Here the profile
enters a drop-off section where the inclination is reduced, and in some cases becomes vertical as it
reaches the target (Fig. 4.7b).

Examples of directional well profiles


This is a more difficult profile to drill than the Type I, owing to the problems of controlling the
drop-off section just above the target. Extra torque and drag can also be expected owing to the
additional bend. This type of profile is used when the target is deep but the horizontal displacement is
relatively small. (Under such conditions a Type I profile may produce a small inclination angle
which would be difficult to control.) It also has applications when completing a well that intersects
multiple producing zones, or in relief well drilling if it is necessary to run parallel with the wild well.

Type III (Deep Kick-off and Build)

This profile is only used in particular situations such as salt dome drilling or sidetracking (Fig. 4.7c).
A deep KOP has certain disadvantages.

(a) Formations will probably be harder and less responsive to deflection.


(b) More tripping time is to change out BHAs while deflecting.
(c) Build up rate is more difficult to control.

Horizontal Wells

A horizontal well is one in which the inclination reaches 90° through the reservoir section.
Horizontal wells have important applications in improving production from certain reservoirs that
would otherwise be uneconomic (e.g. fractured limestone, low-permeability zones, etc.) The profile
of the horizontal well is shown in Fig. 4.7d. Notice that there is more than one build-up section used
to achieve the inclination of 90°. Conventional techniques are employed to drill this type of
horizontal well, but there are many drilling problems to be overcome and so drilling costs are higher.

Horizontal Drainholes

In this type of profile the well is drilled vertically to the KOP using conventional techniques. A
special BHA is then run which is used to build up angle rapidly along a circular arc of about 30 it
radius (Fig. 4.7e). This corresponds to build-up rate of 2° per foot. This rapid build-up of angle is
only possible using special components in the drill string, such as articulated collars and knuckle
joints. This type of profile can be used for producing from tight formations and reducing gas or water
coning problems.
APPLICATIONS OF DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

The applications of directional drilling can be grouped into the following


categories:

(a) sidetracking;
(b) drilling to avoid geological problems;
(c) controlling vertical holes;
(d) drilling beneath inaccessible locations;
(e) offshore development drilling;
(f) horizontal drilling;
(g) non-petroleum uses.

SIDETRACKING
During the drilling of a well, an obstruction (or fish) may become stuck at the bottom of the hole.
This may be the result of a drill string failure or an intentional back-off where the lower part of
the string is left in the hole. No further progress can be made if the fish cannot be pulled out of
the hole. In the early days of rotary drilling it was soon realized that it was much cheaper to drill
around the obstruction rather than abandon the hole and start again.

Side tracking around the fish


A cement plug is placed on top of the fish and is allowed to set firmly. This forms a good
foundation from which the new section of hole can be kicked off. A whipstock was the first tool
designed to deflect the wellbore around a fish, but a downhole motor and bent sub are more
likely to be used today. The bent sub can be oriented in the required direction by using MWD or
a steering tool that will provide continuous monitoring of the wellpath. Once the sidetrack has
been drilled around the obstruction, the hole is continued down to the target (see Fig. 2.1)

Sidetracking may also be carried out for a re-drill or re-completion. If the original well
did not locate the anticipated formation or is producing from a zone that has become depleted,
the hole can be plugged back and then sidetracked towards a new target. If the kick-off point is
in a section of cased hole, a window must be milled out of the casing to allow the sidetrack to be
drilled. The same principle can be employed in an exploration well to test several different zones
using the same wellbore.

DRILLING TO AVOID GEOLOGICALPROBLEMS

Petroleum reservoirs are sometimes associated with salt dome structures. Part of the salt dome
may be directly above the reservoir, so that a vertical well would have to penetrate the salt
formation before reaching the target. Drilling through a salt section introduces certain drilling
problems such as large washouts, lost circulation, and corrosion. In this situation it would be
wiser to avoid the salt formation by drilling a directional well as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig .A directional well drilled beneath a salt dome

If a well is drilled vertically through a steeply dipping fault plane there is a risk of
movement or slippage along that plane. This problem can also be avoided by drilling a
directional well.
CONTROLLING STRAIGHT WELLS

To keep vertical wells on target and prevent them from straying across lease boundaries,
directional techniques have to be used. Small deviations from the planned course can be
corrected by altering certain drilling parameters or changing the bottom hole assembly (BRA).
More serious deviations may require the use of a downhole motor and bent sub to make a
correction run or drill a sidetrack. The same problem may occur in the tangential section of a
directional well.

Controlling a straight well

INACCESSIBLE LOCATIONS

Oilfields are often located directly beneath natural or man-made obstructions. Permission may
not be granted to drill in some sensitive areas, since there may be a risk to the environment. In
such cases, it may be possible to exploit the reserves by drilling directional wells from a surface
location outside the restricted area (Fig. 2.3).
Beneath inaccessible locations

When a blow-out destroys or damages the rig in such a way that capping operations are
impossible, relief wells are drilled to bring the blow-out safely under control. Improved
directional techniques have enabled relief wells to reach targets less than 10ft from the blow-out.
Often two relief wells are drilled simultaneously from different surface locations to ensure that
the blow-out is killed.

OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT DRILLING

One of the major applications of directional drilling over the past 20 years has been the
development of offshore reservoirs. Many oil and gas deposits in the Gulf of Mexico, North Sea
and other areas are situated beyond the reach of land-based rigs. To drill a large number of
vertical wells from individual platforms is clearly very expensive and impractical. The
conventional approach for a large oilfield has been to install a fixed platform on the seabed, from
which several directional wells may be drilled. The bottom hole locations can be carefully
spaced for optimum recovery. All the necessary production facilities can also be centralized on
the platform, from which the oil can be exported via pipelines or tankers. In the hostile
conditions of the North Sea, drilling and production platforms have been installed in over 500 ft
of water and over 100 miles from the nearest land. More than 50 wells may be directionally
drilled from some of these large platforms (Fig. 2.4).
Multiple wells from a single platform

In a conventional development, the wells cannot be drilled until the platform has been
constructed and installed in position. This may mean a delay of 2-3 years before production can
begin. This will have a very detrimental effect on the overall economics of the development,
especially for the smaller marginal fields. To reduce this delay in starting production, some of
the development wells can be pre-drilled through a subsea template while the platform is being
constructed. These wells will be directionally drilled from a semi-submersible rig and tied back
to the platform once it has been installed. (Fig. 2.5).

The template is lowered down to the seabed and secured in position by piles. The development
wells are then drilled through the template using equipment similar to that used in exploratory
drilling from a floating rig (subsea wellheads and BOP stacks). The major difference between
drilling deviated wells from a floater, as opposed to a fixed platform, is the effect of the vessel's
movements. A heave compensator is essential to ensure that constant WOB can be applied and
the pipe can be controlled while tripping out through sticky formations. Drilling operations may
have to be suspended completely in very bad weather.

As exploration moves into deeper waters (1000 it and more), the cost of a fixed platform rises
sharply. Many operators are looking towards floating drilling and production units for these
deep-water developments (e.g. tension leg platforms). Again, these fields will rely on directional
drilling from the floating platform for efficient exploitation of the reserves.
HORIZONTAL DRILLING

Conventional directional wells may be drilled to an inclination of around 60°. Inclinations


beyond 60° give rise to many drilling problems that substantially increase the cost of the well.
However, there are certain advantages in drilling highly deviated wells and horizontal wells.
These include:

(a) increasing the drainage area of the platform;


(b) prevention of gas coning or water coning problems;
(c) increased penetration of the producing formation;
(d) increasing the efficiency of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques;
(e) improving productivity in fractured reservoirs by intersecting a number of vertical fractures.

The extra cost of drilling a horizontal well must be justified by the increased productivity
it will provide. The potential benefits and the risk involved must be carefully considered before
drilling the well. Normal drilling procedures may have to be modified and special drilling
equipment may have to be installed to drill and complete a horizontal well (see Fig. 2.6).
Horizontal drain holes (short radius drilling) can also be applied to overcome certain reservoir
problems (Fig. 2.7).

Horizontal well intersecting vertical fractures


Horizontal drainhole

NON-PETROLEUM APPLICATIONS

Mining industry
The drilling of small-diameter boreholes in rock to measure thickness of the strata and to obtain
core samples is well established. Indeed, some of the techniques used in the oil industry were
adopted from earlier techniques used in mining (e.g. borehole surveying to measure inclination
and direction). Directional wells are also used to produce methane gas that is contained in coal
seams. The methane presents a safety hazard and must be drained off before mining operations
can begin. In deep coal seams that are beyond the reach of conventional mining techniques,
directional wells have been drilled for in situ gasification projects.

Construction industry
An unusual application of directional drilling is the installation of pipelines beneath river beds. A
small-diameter pilot hole is drilled in a smooth arc beneath the river until it emerges on the other
side. This acts as a guide for the larger-diameter pipe that forms the conduit. The pilot hole is
drilled using a downhole motor and bent sub. The hole is drilled through soft sediments about 40
ft below the river bed. The technique has been used to cross rivers up to 200 ft wide.

Geothermal energy
In certain areas of the world the high geothermal gradient found in some rocks can be harnessed
to provide energy. The source rock (e.g. granite) is generally impermeable except for vertical
fractures. Extracting the heat from this rock requires the drilling of injection and production
wells. The wells are directionally drilled to take advantage of the orientation of the fractures. The
high temperatures and hardness of the rock cause some major drilling problems (such as severe
abrasion of downhole components, reduction in yield strength of steel at temperatures greater
than 200°C, and the need for special downhole motors).
Geometrical Planning for Type I Profile
The following information is required:
(a) surface (slot) coordinates;
(b) target coordinates;
(c) true vertical depth of target;
(d) true vertical depth to KOP;
(e) build-up rate.

The choice of slot depends on a number of factors including target location and
the proximity of other wells. The target coordinates and depth are selected by the
geologist. The choice of KOP and build-up rate has to be made by the directional
planning engineer.
The profile of the well is shown in Fig. 4.8. The coordinates of the points A, B, C
and T must be determined on both horizontal and vertical views of the wellbore.
Point A is defined by the surface coordinates, and point T by the target location.
On the horizontal plan the displacement of the target(Ht) can be calculated by:

Ht= [(Nt– Na)2+ (Et- Ea)2] 1/2


where Nt= Northing of target
Et= Easting of target
Na= Northing of slot
Ea= Easting of slot
Notice that all these Northings and Eastings must be given with respect to the
platform centre, or other reference point. The depths will be referenced back to
the rotary table.
The proposed direction or target bearing β can also be calculated from the
horizontal plan:

β= tan-1 (Et –Ea/ Nt –Na )

Knowing the displacement Ht and the depth of KOP (Vb) only the position of point
C remains to be found. Point C is at the end of the build-up section when the
maximum inclination is reached. In order to find the coordinates of C, the
maximum angle of inclination must be determined. Let the build-up rate = φ
degrees per 100ft and let R = radius of curvature. By proportion
=

R =

The inclination angle αis equal to the sum of angles x and y, which can be
calculated from
tan x= =
and
=
Where FT/PT = cos x and PC = R.
The angle αcan therefore be determined from

α =tan-1 +

At point C:
BE = R sin α EC = R - R cos α= R (1 - cos α)

The arc BC can be determined from


=

BC= 100
This allows the coordinates of C to be determined in Fig. 4.8

True vertical depth = Vc = Vb + R sin α


Horizontal departure = Hc= R (1 - cos α)
Measured depth = MDc= MDb+ 100α/𝝓
The measured depth at T can also be found:
MDt =MDc+ CT
= MDc +
Note that the measured depth (MD) is the cumulative along-hole depth for
that point from the reference point at surface.
Geometrical Planning for Type II Profile
The following information is required:
(a) surface coordinates;
(b) target coordinates;
(c) true vertical depth of target;
(d) true vertical depth of KOP;
(e) rate of build-up;
(f) rate of drop-off;
(g) required TVD at end of drop-off;
(h) final angle of inclination through target.
On Figure 4.10 the distances Vb, Ve and Vt are known, as is the horizontal displacement Ht
(determined from surface and target coordinates as before). The radius of curvature R1 can be
calculated from 𝝓1 (build-up rate).

Geometrical planning for a Type II profile


Likewise R2 can be found from 𝝓2(drop-off rate). The final inclination α2 is known, but the
inclination over the tangential section, α1, must be calculated. Since PS is parallel with CD, and
OP is vertical:
angle α1 = x + y
where

and

OQ = Ht - R1 – R2 2 - (Vt – Ve) 2
OP = Ve- Vb + R2 2
QS = R1 + R2
PS = (PQ2 – QS2)1/2 where PQ = (OP2 + OQ2)1/2
Having calculated the four distances OQ, OP, QS and PS, the angles x and y can be determined
and hence the unknown α1 can be found.
The coordinates of the various points C, D, E and T can be determined as follows:
At point C Vc= Vb + R1 sin α1
Hc = R1 – R1 cos α1
MDc = MDb +
At point D
Vd = Ve + PS cos α1
Hd = He + PS sin α1
MDd = MDe + PS

At point E
Ve (known)
He = Hd + R2(cosα2 – cosα1)
MDe = MDd +

At point T

MDt = MDe +
Geometrical Planning for Type III Profile
The following information is required:
(a) surface coordinates;
(b) target coordinates;
(c) one further parameter from
(i) vertical depth at KOP;
(ii) build up rate;
(iii) maximum angle of inclination.
If anyone of the parameters (i), (ii) or (iii) is known, the others can be determined.

Knowing Vt, Ht, and KOP depth (Vb), From Fig. 4.12 it can be seen that

Gemotrical planning for a type-iii profile


and since = 0; then =2 ,Also

= ↔ R=

↔ BT =

Build up rate = =

Or ( degrees per 100ft)

Você também pode gostar