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Careful planning before the well is spudded can lead to substantial savings in the cost of drilling a
directional well. Many factors influence the trajectory of the borehole. Some of these may be difficult
to estimate (for example, the amount of bit walk that may occur in certain formations). The
experience gained from drilling previous directional wells in the same area is therefore very useful
and should be incorporated at the planning stage of the next well.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Target Zone
As well as defining a particular point as the target, the geologist will also specify a circular or
rectangular area around that point known as the target zone. This allows the directional driller some
tolerance on the final position of the well. A radius of 100 ft is commonly used as a target zone, but
this will depend on particular requirements (for example, a relief well requires a much smaller target
in order to be effective). The smaller the target zone the greater the number of correction runs
necessary to ensure the target is intersected. This will result in longer drilling times and higher
drilling costs. The target zone should therefore be as large as the geologist or the reservoir engineer
can allow. The directional driller's job is then to place the wellbore within the target zone at
minimum cost.
Formation Characteristics
The type of formations to be drilled can affect the planning of the profile in several ways.
(a) In selecting the kick-off point (KOP) the hardness of the formation is important. Hard
formations may give a poor response to the deflecting tool, so that the kick-off may take a
long time and require several bits. Kicking-off in very soft formations may result in large
washouts. A soft-medium formation provides a better opportunity for a successful kick-off.
(b) Certain formations exhibit a tendency to deflect the bit either to the left or to the right. The
directional driller can compensate for this effect by allowing some "lead angle" when
orienting the deflecting tool. If the bit is expected to walk to the right by a certain number of
degrees, the lead angle will point the bit an equal number of degrees to the left (Fig. 4.3). As
the bit begins to drill, the formation effect will bring the well back on to its intended course.
The directional behaviour of the various tools and bottom hole assemblies to be used must be
considered when planning the well.
Location of Adjacent Wellbores
On offshore platforms there is only a small distance (7-12 ft) between adjacent conductors (Fig. 4.4).
Under these conditions precise control is required and great care must be taken to avoid collisions
directly beneath the platform. For this reason the KOPs for adjacent wells are chosen at varying
depths to give some separation. When choosing slots it is better to allocate an outer slot to a target
which requires large horizontal displacement. This will result in a shallower KOP to allow a smaller
inclination. Slots closer to the centre of the platform should be allocated to targets requiring smaller
inclinations and deeper KOPs (Fig. 4.5). This will help to avoid the problem of wells running across
each other. As each well is being drilled, the proximity of all the adjacent wells should be checked by
calculating inter-well distances from survey results. Anti-collision plots generated by computer are
now widely available for doing this. It may be necessary to nudge a new well away from the existing
wells, even though this means going away from the target direction. Once the well is a safe distance
away, the well path can be corrected to bring it back onto the planned course (Fig. 4.6.).
If the change of angle occurs too quickly, severe dog-legs can occur in the trajectory. These sharp
bends make it difficult for drilling assemblies and tubulars to pass through.
Severe dog-legs also cause more wear on the drill string. If the angle is built up very slowly then it
will take a longer interval of hole to reach the required inclination. To obtain a gradual build-up of
angle at a reasonable curvature, a build-up rate of 1.5-2.50 per 100 ft is commonly used, but higher
build-up rates may be necessary in some cases.
Slot allocation and choice of KOPs
This is the most common and the simplest profile for a directional well. The hole is drilled vertically
down to the KOP, where the well is deviated to the required inclination. This inclination is
maintained over the tangential section to intersect the target (Fig. 4.7a). Generally, a shallow KOP is
selected since this reduces the size of the inclination angle necessary to hit the target. This type of
profile is often applied when a large horizontal displacement is required at relatively shallow target
depths. Since there are no major changes in inclination or azimuth after the build-up section is
complete, there are fewer directional problems with this profile. Under normal conditions the
inclination should be 15-55°, although greater inclinations have been drilled.
This profile is similar to the Type I down to the lower part of the tangential section. Here the profile
enters a drop-off section where the inclination is reduced, and in some cases becomes vertical as it
reaches the target (Fig. 4.7b).
This profile is only used in particular situations such as salt dome drilling or sidetracking (Fig. 4.7c).
A deep KOP has certain disadvantages.
Horizontal Wells
A horizontal well is one in which the inclination reaches 90° through the reservoir section.
Horizontal wells have important applications in improving production from certain reservoirs that
would otherwise be uneconomic (e.g. fractured limestone, low-permeability zones, etc.) The profile
of the horizontal well is shown in Fig. 4.7d. Notice that there is more than one build-up section used
to achieve the inclination of 90°. Conventional techniques are employed to drill this type of
horizontal well, but there are many drilling problems to be overcome and so drilling costs are higher.
Horizontal Drainholes
In this type of profile the well is drilled vertically to the KOP using conventional techniques. A
special BHA is then run which is used to build up angle rapidly along a circular arc of about 30 it
radius (Fig. 4.7e). This corresponds to build-up rate of 2° per foot. This rapid build-up of angle is
only possible using special components in the drill string, such as articulated collars and knuckle
joints. This type of profile can be used for producing from tight formations and reducing gas or water
coning problems.
APPLICATIONS OF DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
(a) sidetracking;
(b) drilling to avoid geological problems;
(c) controlling vertical holes;
(d) drilling beneath inaccessible locations;
(e) offshore development drilling;
(f) horizontal drilling;
(g) non-petroleum uses.
SIDETRACKING
During the drilling of a well, an obstruction (or fish) may become stuck at the bottom of the hole.
This may be the result of a drill string failure or an intentional back-off where the lower part of
the string is left in the hole. No further progress can be made if the fish cannot be pulled out of
the hole. In the early days of rotary drilling it was soon realized that it was much cheaper to drill
around the obstruction rather than abandon the hole and start again.
Sidetracking may also be carried out for a re-drill or re-completion. If the original well
did not locate the anticipated formation or is producing from a zone that has become depleted,
the hole can be plugged back and then sidetracked towards a new target. If the kick-off point is
in a section of cased hole, a window must be milled out of the casing to allow the sidetrack to be
drilled. The same principle can be employed in an exploration well to test several different zones
using the same wellbore.
Petroleum reservoirs are sometimes associated with salt dome structures. Part of the salt dome
may be directly above the reservoir, so that a vertical well would have to penetrate the salt
formation before reaching the target. Drilling through a salt section introduces certain drilling
problems such as large washouts, lost circulation, and corrosion. In this situation it would be
wiser to avoid the salt formation by drilling a directional well as shown in Fig. 2.2.
If a well is drilled vertically through a steeply dipping fault plane there is a risk of
movement or slippage along that plane. This problem can also be avoided by drilling a
directional well.
CONTROLLING STRAIGHT WELLS
To keep vertical wells on target and prevent them from straying across lease boundaries,
directional techniques have to be used. Small deviations from the planned course can be
corrected by altering certain drilling parameters or changing the bottom hole assembly (BRA).
More serious deviations may require the use of a downhole motor and bent sub to make a
correction run or drill a sidetrack. The same problem may occur in the tangential section of a
directional well.
INACCESSIBLE LOCATIONS
Oilfields are often located directly beneath natural or man-made obstructions. Permission may
not be granted to drill in some sensitive areas, since there may be a risk to the environment. In
such cases, it may be possible to exploit the reserves by drilling directional wells from a surface
location outside the restricted area (Fig. 2.3).
Beneath inaccessible locations
When a blow-out destroys or damages the rig in such a way that capping operations are
impossible, relief wells are drilled to bring the blow-out safely under control. Improved
directional techniques have enabled relief wells to reach targets less than 10ft from the blow-out.
Often two relief wells are drilled simultaneously from different surface locations to ensure that
the blow-out is killed.
One of the major applications of directional drilling over the past 20 years has been the
development of offshore reservoirs. Many oil and gas deposits in the Gulf of Mexico, North Sea
and other areas are situated beyond the reach of land-based rigs. To drill a large number of
vertical wells from individual platforms is clearly very expensive and impractical. The
conventional approach for a large oilfield has been to install a fixed platform on the seabed, from
which several directional wells may be drilled. The bottom hole locations can be carefully
spaced for optimum recovery. All the necessary production facilities can also be centralized on
the platform, from which the oil can be exported via pipelines or tankers. In the hostile
conditions of the North Sea, drilling and production platforms have been installed in over 500 ft
of water and over 100 miles from the nearest land. More than 50 wells may be directionally
drilled from some of these large platforms (Fig. 2.4).
Multiple wells from a single platform
In a conventional development, the wells cannot be drilled until the platform has been
constructed and installed in position. This may mean a delay of 2-3 years before production can
begin. This will have a very detrimental effect on the overall economics of the development,
especially for the smaller marginal fields. To reduce this delay in starting production, some of
the development wells can be pre-drilled through a subsea template while the platform is being
constructed. These wells will be directionally drilled from a semi-submersible rig and tied back
to the platform once it has been installed. (Fig. 2.5).
The template is lowered down to the seabed and secured in position by piles. The development
wells are then drilled through the template using equipment similar to that used in exploratory
drilling from a floating rig (subsea wellheads and BOP stacks). The major difference between
drilling deviated wells from a floater, as opposed to a fixed platform, is the effect of the vessel's
movements. A heave compensator is essential to ensure that constant WOB can be applied and
the pipe can be controlled while tripping out through sticky formations. Drilling operations may
have to be suspended completely in very bad weather.
As exploration moves into deeper waters (1000 it and more), the cost of a fixed platform rises
sharply. Many operators are looking towards floating drilling and production units for these
deep-water developments (e.g. tension leg platforms). Again, these fields will rely on directional
drilling from the floating platform for efficient exploitation of the reserves.
HORIZONTAL DRILLING
The extra cost of drilling a horizontal well must be justified by the increased productivity
it will provide. The potential benefits and the risk involved must be carefully considered before
drilling the well. Normal drilling procedures may have to be modified and special drilling
equipment may have to be installed to drill and complete a horizontal well (see Fig. 2.6).
Horizontal drain holes (short radius drilling) can also be applied to overcome certain reservoir
problems (Fig. 2.7).
NON-PETROLEUM APPLICATIONS
Mining industry
The drilling of small-diameter boreholes in rock to measure thickness of the strata and to obtain
core samples is well established. Indeed, some of the techniques used in the oil industry were
adopted from earlier techniques used in mining (e.g. borehole surveying to measure inclination
and direction). Directional wells are also used to produce methane gas that is contained in coal
seams. The methane presents a safety hazard and must be drained off before mining operations
can begin. In deep coal seams that are beyond the reach of conventional mining techniques,
directional wells have been drilled for in situ gasification projects.
Construction industry
An unusual application of directional drilling is the installation of pipelines beneath river beds. A
small-diameter pilot hole is drilled in a smooth arc beneath the river until it emerges on the other
side. This acts as a guide for the larger-diameter pipe that forms the conduit. The pilot hole is
drilled using a downhole motor and bent sub. The hole is drilled through soft sediments about 40
ft below the river bed. The technique has been used to cross rivers up to 200 ft wide.
Geothermal energy
In certain areas of the world the high geothermal gradient found in some rocks can be harnessed
to provide energy. The source rock (e.g. granite) is generally impermeable except for vertical
fractures. Extracting the heat from this rock requires the drilling of injection and production
wells. The wells are directionally drilled to take advantage of the orientation of the fractures. The
high temperatures and hardness of the rock cause some major drilling problems (such as severe
abrasion of downhole components, reduction in yield strength of steel at temperatures greater
than 200°C, and the need for special downhole motors).
Geometrical Planning for Type I Profile
The following information is required:
(a) surface (slot) coordinates;
(b) target coordinates;
(c) true vertical depth of target;
(d) true vertical depth to KOP;
(e) build-up rate.
The choice of slot depends on a number of factors including target location and
the proximity of other wells. The target coordinates and depth are selected by the
geologist. The choice of KOP and build-up rate has to be made by the directional
planning engineer.
The profile of the well is shown in Fig. 4.8. The coordinates of the points A, B, C
and T must be determined on both horizontal and vertical views of the wellbore.
Point A is defined by the surface coordinates, and point T by the target location.
On the horizontal plan the displacement of the target(Ht) can be calculated by:
Knowing the displacement Ht and the depth of KOP (Vb) only the position of point
C remains to be found. Point C is at the end of the build-up section when the
maximum inclination is reached. In order to find the coordinates of C, the
maximum angle of inclination must be determined. Let the build-up rate = φ
degrees per 100ft and let R = radius of curvature. By proportion
=
R =
The inclination angle αis equal to the sum of angles x and y, which can be
calculated from
tan x= =
and
=
Where FT/PT = cos x and PC = R.
The angle αcan therefore be determined from
α =tan-1 +
At point C:
BE = R sin α EC = R - R cos α= R (1 - cos α)
BC= 100
This allows the coordinates of C to be determined in Fig. 4.8
and
OQ = Ht - R1 – R2 2 - (Vt – Ve) 2
OP = Ve- Vb + R2 2
QS = R1 + R2
PS = (PQ2 – QS2)1/2 where PQ = (OP2 + OQ2)1/2
Having calculated the four distances OQ, OP, QS and PS, the angles x and y can be determined
and hence the unknown α1 can be found.
The coordinates of the various points C, D, E and T can be determined as follows:
At point C Vc= Vb + R1 sin α1
Hc = R1 – R1 cos α1
MDc = MDb +
At point D
Vd = Ve + PS cos α1
Hd = He + PS sin α1
MDd = MDe + PS
At point E
Ve (known)
He = Hd + R2(cosα2 – cosα1)
MDe = MDd +
At point T
MDt = MDe +
Geometrical Planning for Type III Profile
The following information is required:
(a) surface coordinates;
(b) target coordinates;
(c) one further parameter from
(i) vertical depth at KOP;
(ii) build up rate;
(iii) maximum angle of inclination.
If anyone of the parameters (i), (ii) or (iii) is known, the others can be determined.
Knowing Vt, Ht, and KOP depth (Vb), From Fig. 4.12 it can be seen that
= ↔ R=
↔ BT =
Build up rate = =