International Political Economy

Micah Jonah A. Afuang March 24, 2018

FS 302 Mr. Jumel G. Estrañero

THE METANARRATIVE OF MASS MEDIA: HUBS AND SPOKES TO THE

NATIONAL SECURITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

I. Introduction

The Philippine mass media today has a huge role when it comes to building the
nation’s credibility. The term “mass media” refers to the various forms of communication
tools such as television, advertisements, magazines and even internet. These tools of
communication are used when delivering messages to a larger audience. Today it plays
a big part in disseminating accurate and exact news to people.
Mass media is defined as a diversified collection of media technologies that
reach a large audience via mass communication. Although traditional television watching
and newspaper reading are no longer as popular as before, people spend more time in
front of computers listening to music and radios, reading news and information,
interacting with other people in social network and watching television programmes and
films. The developing technology of mobile phone allows people to do almost everything
they can do with the computer.

The 1972 Martial law placed by President Ferdinand E. Marcos has suspended
the civil rights and imposed military authority in the country. He defended his declaration
stressing the need for extra powers to settle the rising wave of violence caused by the
communists. It was also intended to eradicate the rebellion and to promote quick
development for the nation. Under the proclamation of martial law, Marcos’ orders the
closure of media establishments and opposition personalities that are known to be
critical against the administration were taken for investigation and detention. The
presidential decree 36 had cancelled the franchises and the permits of all mass media
that were trying to overthrow the government. Because of this, the Filipinos had learned
lessons and even adopted some of it that leads to the creation of the 1987 Philippine
Constitution.

According to Rene Guioguio, a professor, he assumed that the Philippine mass

media are shaped by various factors, not at least of them the preferences of media
consumers and the attempt of media to cater them.

------------------------------------
[1] Guioguio, Reynaldo V. "A look at the mass media situation in the Philippines: implications in education and
research." Media Asia7, no. 2 (March 22, 2015): 71-76. doi:10.1080/01296612.1980.11725997.
[2] "The Philippines During Martial Law." The Philippines During the Martial Law. March 1, 2017. Accessed March 16, 2018.
http://www.philippine-history.org/martial-law-philippines.htm.
[3] Santos, Jose Bimbo F., and Melanie Y. Pinlac. "Back to the Past: A Timeline of Press Freedom." CMFR. September 1, 2007.
http://cmfr-phil.org/media-ethics-responsibility/ethics/back-to-the-past-a-timeline-of-press-freedom/.
Considering that the media nowadays are in demand, the industry became conscious
on the consumer’s taste and they are now producing news that they think that the public
wants.

The success that the media receives from the public is one major achievement in the
history of the Philippines over the last years. But despite of their achievements, there
are still room for improvements and areas where they need to be fair and just in
exposing information.

II. A. Statement of the Problem

The study aimed to determine the metanarrative of mass media and its hubs and
spokes to the national security of the Philippines. Specifically, it sought to answer the
following problems.
1. What is the role of mass media in the political economy of the Philippines?
What was the status of the mass media before and after EDSA?

2. What is the extent of media in accordance to the laws set by the government?

3. How do mass media affect the politics and economic side of the Philippines?
What are its positive and negative effects to the country?

B. Methodology

This chapter presents the research method that was used. In order to satisfy the
objective of the study, the methods selected are historical research, and SWOT
analysis. Historical development provides an overview of the study and involves
interpreting past events to predict future ones. It involves synthesizing data from many
different sources. The SWOT analysis is a strategic planning used to identify the
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats related to project planning. It can be
use in decision-making situations, pre-crisis planning, and in creating recommendations.
The study aims to analyze the metanarrative of Philippine mass media and its
hubs and spokes to the national security.
III. Review of Related Literature

Definition of Mass media

Mass media is a communication. It can be written, or broadcast as long as it

reaches a large audience. This includes television, radio, advertising, movies, the
Internet, newspapers and magazines.

The current level of media saturation has not always existed. During the 1960s
and 1970s, the television industry has only consisted primarily of three networks, the
public broadcasting, and a few local independent stations. Television at that time is not
a really a need for some family. Some middle-class families don’t own a television. But
as of today, even in the poorest homes we can find a television. Not only has availability
increased, but programming is increasingly diverse with shows aimed to please all
ages, incomes, backgrounds, and attitudes. This widespread availability and exposure
makes television the primary focus of most mass‐media discussions. More recently, the
Internet has increased its role exponentially as more businesses and households “sign
on.” Even though there are many forms of media, the TV and the internet are the two
most used.

Many have debated on the question of what is the role of mass media. A lot of
people have different opinions but almost all agree that mass media is a permanent part
of modern culture. According to a website named Cliffnotes.com there are three main
sociological perspectives on the role of media: the limited-effects theory, the class-
dominant theory, and the culturalist theory.
The limited-effects theory argues that because people generally choose what to
watch or read based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible influence.
This theory was originated in 1940s and 1950s. Under this theory, this believes that the
ability of media to influence is based on well-informed people who rely only through their
personal experiences, prior knowledge, and through their own reasoning.
The class-dominant theory holds that the media reflects and projects the views of
minority elite, which controls it. Those people who own and control the corporations that
produce media comprise these elite. Advocates of this view concern themselves
particularly with massive corporate mergers of media organizations, which limit
competition and put a big business at the reins of media especially news media. Their
concern is that when ownership is restricted, a few people then have the ability to
manipulate what people can see or hear. Critics of this theory counter these arguments
by saying that local control of news media largely lies beyond the reach of large
corporate offices elsewhere, and that the quality of news depends upon good
journalists. They contend that those less powerful and not in control of media have often
received full media coverage and subsequent support.
----------------------
[4] Cliffnotes.com “The Role and Influence of Mass Media”, , https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-
guides/sociology/contemporary-mass-media/the-role-and-influence-of-mass-media.
While most people argue that a corporate élite controls media, a variation on this
approach argues that a political “liberal” elite controls media. They further point to
examples from the media itself and the statistical reality that the media more often
labels conservative commentators or politicians as “conservative” than liberals as
“liberal.” The advocates of this view point to the Strategic Arms Initiative of the 1980s
Reagan administration.

Last is the culturalist theory. It was developed in the 1980s and 1990s. It
combines the two theories and claims that people only interact with media to create
their own meanings out of images and messages they receive. This theory sees
audiences as playing an active rather than passive role in relation to mass media. One
strand of research focuses on the audiences and how they interact with media; the
other strand of research focuses on those who produce the media, particularly the
news. Therefore, culturalist theorists claim that, while a few elite in large corporations
may exert significant control over what information media produces and distributes
personal perspective plays a more powerful role in how the audience members interpret
those messages.
In telling us what is happening around the world, the media serve as a
messenger. Every people have different views regarding what media is. Luna (2016)
said in an article that media are the friend of the people but since they are starting to
give us biased news or wrong information, they become our antagonist.

Mass media also serves as an acting watchdog of the society. For instance, by
raising or exposing important issues such as political corruption in a particular
society/country, people are able to hold the government accountable through public
debate. It also promotes cultural diversity among nations and group of individuals.
In the book Media Studies: Media history, media and Society, Fourie (2007) used
Charles Wright’s model of media. It argues that the main functions of media are to
inform and entertain people and that through such information and entertainment the
media contribute either manifestly or latently to cultural growth for both individuals and
society. However this is, as with many other functionalist models, a rather simplistic
model, especially when it comes to the political functions of the media.
He also added that in democracy, media functions are closely related to the
principle of pluralism. A single news paper with its own ideology and political stance
might perform a valuable informative function for a certain group; at the same time, it
might not inform other groups or individuals.
---------------------------
[5] Inquirer, Philippine Daily, and Anna Felicity F. Luna. "'Biased media and biased reporting'." Inquirer Opinion
Biased media and biased reporting Comments. September 17, 2016. Accessed March 01, 2018.
http://opinion.inquirer.net/97390/biased-media-and-biased-reporting.
[6] Fourie, Pieter J. Media Studies: Media History, Media and Society. Cape Town: Juta and Company (Pty), 2018.
2007.
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=MrlnwlKQDr4C&pg=PA89&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false.
For this reason the question of pluralism is emphasised in democratic societies. The
ideal is that there should be as many radio and television stations, newspapers,
magazines and films as possible, for as many people and groups in a society as
possible. (p.190)

According to libertarian theory, people are rational beings capable of

distinguishing between truth and falsehood, and between good and evil. In terms of
these beliefs, the media is seen as a source of information and a platform for the
expression of divergent opinions, informing people about government affairs and other
issues and enabling them to monitor their government and form their own ideas about
policy. The media should be free from government control and government influence,
and there must be a free market for ideas and information. (P.192-193)

Laws related to Mass Media

The 1987 Philippine Constitution provides and guarantees freedom of speech

and expression through provisions drawn from the American constitution and
jurisprudence, tempered with experience under martial law. It serves as the basis for the
mass media practice in the Philippines.
Article III Bill of rights, Section 4 holds that “No law shall be passed abridging the
freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or right of the people peaceably to
assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances."
Article II Declaration of State Policies, Section 24 states that "The state
recognizes the vital role of communication and information in nation-building."

According to Rene Guioguio (2015), the Philippine media are the products of a
turbulent history, reflecting the upheavals and changes that have shaken the country
since the advent of colonialism in the 16th century. They have been shaped by a
succession of colonial regimes, which implanted in the Philippines a press system much
like those in the United States. The aspirations and ambitions of the Filipino elites also
moulded the media. The evolution of PH mass media started with newspapers,
television. These things are privately owned for a long time ago and have developed
into very market-oriented media. Most of the time, they are devoted to tabloid and
sensational reporting, and they are mostly closely connected with large and diversified
corporations and these have at times put limits on what got reported.

Guioguio (2015) also said in an article that unlike many other countries, there is
no body of laws in the Philippines that may be called Media Laws. Instead, certain laws
apply to the mass media as well as to other groups and persons.

--------------------------

[1] Guioguio, Reynaldo V. "A look at the mass media situation in the Philippines: implications in education and
research." Media Asia7, no. 2 (March 22, 2015): 71-76. doi:10.1080/01296612.1980.11725997.
 There is also a substantial body of jurisprudence, part of the law of the land,
which upholds, limits, modifies and otherwise interprets the constitutional provisions
related to freedom of speech and press (Article III) or otherwise affecting the media and
freedom of expression (such as Article IX on the Commission on Elections, and Article
XVI prohibiting foreign media ownership). The press tends to be regulated by extra-legal
forces, the power of government over the business enterprises of media owners, the
power of the advertisers, and the ideological shackles that unknown to many media
practitioners often shape their responses to public issues, thus hindering flow of
information during a crisis.

Political economy of mass media

This is a truly interdisciplinary field, and political economy has benefited

enormously from the knowledge acquired in other disciplines. However, according to
Prat and Stromberg (2013) at the risk of over generalizing, the political-economy
contributions tend to be characterized by a number of elements. First, in contrast to
most previous work, economic models of media influence tend to focus on the
informational role of mass media, on the premise that information makes a difference to
how people vote and that mass media provides the bulk of information that people use
in elections. A second and related innovation is the focus on economic outcomes. As in
most political economy, the final objective of interest is not the behaviour of the political
system but rather its outcome in terms of variables (e.g. public-goods provision) that
directly enter the citizens’ preferences. Third, economists emphasize the use of formal
game theory for modelling interactions within the media industry and between the media
and other agents. We observe, for instance, the subtle interaction among media outlets
that compete for audience by presenting information in a biased way, which is
discussed in Coverage and Policy Effects.

Fourth, on the empirical side, there is strong emphasis on identifying causal

media effects using observational data. Often, the effects of rapid changes in media
exposure due to the entry of a new mass media or media channel have been used.
Finally, our empirical work has a strong international nature. The date comes from a
large array of countries, at various stages and development and with different political
and media systems.

The writers also discussed what are some of the goals of the media. An outlet
can make money in two ways: audience-related revenues and bribes from politicians.
There is an amount of news-related commercial revenues (i.e. increase in sales and
subscriptions for newspapers;
-----------------------------
[1] Guioguio, Reynaldo V. "A look at the mass media situation in the Philippines: implications in education and
research." Media Asia7, no. 2 (March 22, 2015): 71-76. doi:10.1080/01296612.1980.11725997.
[7] Acemoglu. Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Tenth World Congress Volume 2, Applied Economics.
Cambridge University Press, 2013. 2013.
https://books.google.com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pe1UBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA135&dq=political economy of the
mass media&ots=H9pcpXNzTx&sig=iO9er-gnJwjlDAFn4L40G5g5wdo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.
increase in advertising and cable fees for television stations) that are sensitive to the
quality of information. It is divided (we assume equally) among the m outlets that
provide interesting news — namely, evidence that the politician is bad. The amount also
can be interpreted as an intrinsic motivation for outlet owners: They get direct utility from
“scoops.”

They first develop a model in which media effects are driven by the total amount
of coverage devoted to politics and the distribution of this coverage across issues.
There are three classes of actors: voters, politicians, and the media. Voters try to elect
politicians who will give them the most utility, politicians try to get re-elected and enjoy
political rents, and the mass media selects political coverage to maximize profits.

Thus, the model combines two classical building blocks: (1) a voting model to
determine how voters and candidates behave given the media coverage, and (2) a
horizontal competition model to determine how the media covers issues of interest to
different groups.

Effects from media access are probably most easily measured when new media
are introduced. Mass media are not neutral devices, uniformly distributing information to
everyone. Rather, each of the large mass media creates its specific distribution of
informed and uninformed citizens, partly because of specific costs and revenue
structure. As a result, in the wake of mass-media technology changes, there are
dramatic changes in who has access to political information. Stromberg (1999)
measured the effects of the introduction of radio on government policy and voter
turnout. Radio was introduced in the United States in the early l920s and expanded
rapidly to reach a household penetration of about 80 percent by 1940. It is interesting
that this also was an era of rapid changes in economic policy making. In the middle of
the expansion period of radio, the New Deal was launched.

Stromberg found that access to radio increased federal spending in the New
Deal programs. The effects are important economically. The estimates of this study
imply that a one-standard-deviation increase in the share of households with radios in a
certain county would lead the governor to increase per-capita relief spending by 9
percent. The spread of radio particularly improved the situation of rural voters,
accounting for as much as 20 percent more in social-assistance funds to a rural county
than an identical urban county. Radio also increased voter turnout, particularly in rural
areas. The results are robust to instrumenting radio ownership with exogenous factors
that affect the quality of reception: ground conductivity

The strong effects of media creating accountability are encouraging. The

converse is that voters without access to media risk are being neglected by politicians,
thereby reducing social welfare.
--------------------------------
[7] Acemoglu. Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Tenth World Congress Volume 2, Applied Economics.
Cambridge University Press, 2013. 2013.
https://books.google.com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pe1UBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA135&dq=political economy of the
mass media&ots=H9pcpXNzTx&sig=iO9er-gnJwjlDAFn4L40G5g5wdo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.
This may be of particular concern to poor rural voters in developing countries, whose
lack of access to the media could hinder their access to public services (Keefer and
Khemani 2005). Delivery costs also drive this type of policy bias. The most direct
evidence of this is perhaps Reinekka and Svensson (2005), who found that schools to
which it was less expensive to deliver newspapers because they were closer to a
newspaper outlet – received more government funds. Newspaper provision of news in
this way may produce a political bias that disfavors remote and rural areas. As
discussed previously, radio and television may reduce this pro-urban bias because they
reach rural areas at a lower cost.

Media scrutiny increases political accountability, which appears to improve policy

with a caveat about multitasking. During their survey, they encounter a number of
papers in which an increase in media activity is associated with better policy outcomes,
some of which use methods that we think convincingly identify causal media effects.
There is evidence that these media effects occur because the media transmits
information to voters, which improves both the incentives and the selection of
politicians. The only negative effect that is identified empirically is indirect: The
government may devote less effort to an issue or to a group as a result of other issues
receiving more coverage or other groups receiving more information. These types of
policy biases disfavour voters without access to the media and voters whose issues are
covered less — in particular, minorities, groups that care for journalistically less
newsworthy issues, and those to whom it is costly to deliver news. It also is likely that
they will disfavor voters who are not valuable to advertisers.

Media pluralism and a healthy commercial motive are effective defences against
media capture. Governments have a strong incentive to control the media industry.
There is evidence of capture in a large number of countries, even in high -income
nations such as Italy. However, capture is endogenous. Theory predicts that it is more
difficult for a government to silence the media industry if it faces a large number of
independent owners, if the media ownership is independent of other interests, and if the
media companies have a strong commercial motive to establish a reputation for
credibility. These predictions are consistent with evidence obtained through a variety of
empirical approaches, such as cross-country comparisons, in-depth case studies,
within-country evidence, historical series, and corporate-governance data.

Voter information and voting outcomes are affected by the media. We review
evidence that the media significantly informs voters, makes votes more responsive to
policy outcomes, and increases voter participation in elections. The media also seems
to have an impact on aggregate vote shares. In particular, effects have been found for
new media and in settings in which political preferences are unstable. There is evidence
that voters, to some extent, filter out the political biases of the media. For example,
expected media endorsements of political candidates have a limited impact. Moreover,
there is clear evidence that voters select media that are ideologically close.
------------------------------
[7] Acemoglu. Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Tenth World Congress Volume 2, Applied Economics. Cambridge
University Press, 2013. 2013. https://books.google.com.ph/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pe1UBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA135&dq=political
economy of the mass media&ots=H9pcpXNzTx&sig=iO9er-gnJwjlDAFn4L40G5g5wdo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.
IV. Presentation, Interpretation & Analysis

This chapter presents the analysis, and interpretation of the data gathered based
on the questions raised on the chapter II section A. The study’s primarily concern is to
determine the metanarrative of mass media and its hubs and spokes to the national
security of the Philippines. The research seeks to answer the following problems.
1. What is the role of mass media in the political economy of the Philippines?
What was the status of the mass media before and after EDSA?

The Mass media in the Philippines has been playing a huge role in building the
nation’s integrity. According to a website, there are three major roles of the media, to
spread information, to provide education, and to provide entertainment. Their basic duty
is to produce all the information that is needed. The political economy of mass media
tends to focus on the informational role of mass media. The information that they are
publishing serves as a guide in the decision making process during the elections. On
the economic side, it has a large impact that directly enters the citizen’s preferences.
The Philippine mass media before the 1972 Martial Law were privately owned
and is independent of government control. The leadership was exercised by the English
Language Press. They enjoyed a political freedom but they were owned by big
businesses. The news coverage regarding environment, women’s and gender issues,
and on human rights are very minimal. Professionalism and ethics are some of the
attitudes that the media before are lacking. After the 1986 EDSA People Power
Revolution, things have changed and there has been an important development on the
said issues. The press freedom has been restored and other restrictive laws governing
the media. Sadly, since the media gained the trust of the government again, they
became relaxed that led to poor professionalism and ethical standards of the media.

2. What is the extent of media in accordance to the laws set by the government?

In the 1987 Philippine Constitution Article II section 1, it states that the Philippines
is a democratic and a republican state. As republican state, the sovereignty resides in
the people and all government authority emanates from them. Being democratic on the
other hand is well practice in the Philippines and even the media is one good
beneficiary of the democracy. On the section 24 of the article II, it holds that the state
recognizes the vital role of communication and information in the nation-building. The
media has also given constitutional provisions such as freedom of expression, the right
to information, the right to privacy, holds the commission on elections, and even policy
environment for communication and media ownership. These provisions can be found
on Article III section 4 of the Philippine constitution. Under article XVI of the General
provisions section 11 part one, it explains that the ownership and management of the
mass media shall be limited to the citizens of the Philippines, or to corporations,
cooperatives or associations, wholly-owned and managed by such citizens.
 According to the 1987 Philippine Constitution Article III, section 4, it holds that there
should be no law abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or the
right of the people to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances.

3. How do mass media affect the politics and economic side of the Philippines?
What are its positive and negative effects to the country?

Mass media can be useful and beneficial in many ways and it affects the way of
thinking of its audiences. It allows the information to be shared with many Filipinos
nationwide in just only one click. In some cases, it is a good thing because news reports
can spread easily such as government issues, calamities, and foreign reports and public
reports. Through this many people will be informed. Media can make the world smaller
because it keeps people connected anywhere in the world. Facebook, twitter, and news
articles online are some of the modern day materials of mass media that enables the
people to get closer to everyone. It also gives us a sense of belongingness when it
comes to freely exposing our opinions on the social media, in that way, we are not just
only receiving but also we can be a part of the discussion. One good thing about mass
media is that it educates people about the things around the world and it gives
awareness about different almost everything.
On the opposite side, the lack of professionalism of some journalists, non-stop
politicisation, lack of pluralism, and hate speeches are some of the challenges that the
media are facing today and became the reason why some Filipinos are losing their trust
to the media. Since the media has a very strong appeal to the public especially to the
youth, they get easily persuaded by what the mass media had presented. The
truthfulness of the information is sometimes hard to determine. Considering that there is
a leak of “fake news” today, the audience can easily be misinterpreted and can lead to
societal imbalance.

---------------------------------------
[8] Cee, Jay. "LAWS ON THE PHILIPPINE COMMUNICATION MEDIA." Prezi.com. November 25, 2014.
https://prezi.com/lau0-5dvcg2n/laws-on-the-philippine-communication-media/.
[9] Lad, Kashmira. "Weighing the Pros and Cons of Mass Media - What You Need to Know." Buzzle. August 14,
2016. https://www.buzzle.com/articles/pros-and-cons-of-mass-media.html.
[10] Murshed, Muntasir. "Pros and Cons of Mass Media." Pros and Cons of Mass Media | Theindependentbd.com.
November 16, 2016. http://www.theindependentbd.com/arcprint/details/68488/2016-11-16.
V. Summary, Conclusion & Recommendation

The study presented above explains that the media has an important role to the
society. Whether if it is about the political or the economic side of the country, it played
an important role in developing the history of the Philippines. The best of the
contemporary Philippine media are very good and remain a stronghold. Public issues
are widely discussed in print and broadcast media, and there is almost no official
control. Unlike most Asian countries, it is unheard of for the Philippine government to
successfully keep embarrassments and flaws out of the media. But the damage had
done by Marcos' martial law remains. By stripping down the press that was built over
the previous decades, the martial law weakened the professionalism of the media.

In our case, mass media has been playing a huge role in maintaining democracy.
During the time of former President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, the media became one
the instrument in the exposure of corruption that let the Arroyo’s administration down
and had put the weight of public opinion against her. As a result, she became one of the
most unpopular presidents since the establishment of the Philippine Republic in 1946.
The mass media of the Philippines needs to understand that not all things are
about them. As much as possible they should play their ideal roles in solving the
problem, and not to add or create more issues. They should use their influence properly
and speak truthfully in spreading the news to the people. Sadly, some of the media
today are just only focused on the urban areas of the country. The regions where the
poorest Filipinos reside are rarely covered in the news, except when there is calamity
strike or during elections.
Looking outside the country, the mass media of Singapore is highly controlled by
their government. They have their own government body which is the Ministry of
Information, Communication, and Arts which governs their media and they were the one
who’s responsible for imposing and enforcing the laws over locally produced media
contents. What is the main point of this? Contrary to the Philippines, the Singapore
media before they publish news allows their government body concerned with media to
filter all the news and they will decide whether the news will make or break their
countries reputation. If the filtered news can cause a chaos or disrespect to the
government this will not be publish and will remain to the writer’s memory only. The
Philippines’ can consider this kind of strategy when it comes to creating laws on media
in order for us to develop our country’s political economy, to lessen chaos and will also
serves as our instrument in regaining our position in the international arena.
VI. References

Guioguio, R. V. (2015). "A look at the mass media situation in the Philippines:
implications in education and research." Media Asia7, no. 2 (March 22, 2015): 71-76.
doi:10.1080/01296612.1980.11725997. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/overview-mass-
media-situation-philippines-rene-guioguio/
Luna, A. F. F. (2016). "'Biased media and biased reporting'." Inquirer Opinion Biased
media and biased reporting Comments. September 17, 2016..
http://opinion.inquirer.net/97390/biased-media-and-biased-reporting.

Cliffnotes.com “The Role and Influence of Mass Media”, ,

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/contemporary-mass-media/the-role-
and-influence-of-mass-media.
Fourie, P. J.. (2007). Chapter 3: Approaches to the Study of Mass Communication.
In Media studies: media history, media and society (pp. 185-193). Cape Town: Juta and
Company (Pty) Ltd. (Original work published 2007)

A., Prat, A., & Stromberg, D. (2013). Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Tenth
World Congress Volume 2, Applied Economics. Chapter 3: Political Economy of Mass
Media

EDSA People Power Revolution. (2017, March 1). Retrieved from http://www.philippine-
history.org/edsa-people-power-revolution.htm
Lad, K. (2016, August 14). Weighing the Pros and Cons of Mass Media - What You
Need to Know. Retrieved March, from https://www.buzzle.com/articles/pros-and-cons-
of-mass-media.html
Murshed, M. (2016, November 16). Pros and cons of mass media. Retrieved from
http://www.theindependentbd.com/arcprint/details/68488/2016-11-16
Cee, J. (2014, November 25). LAWS ON THE PHILIPPINE COMMUNICATION MEDIA.
Retrieved from https://prezi.com/lau0-5dvcg2n/laws-on-the-philippine-communication-
media/
Media of Singapore. (2018, March 10). Retrieved March, 2018, from
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_of_Singapore