Causes for Development of Sociology...................................................................................

Tendencies During Development of Sociology.....................................................................6

Early Contributions (Founding Fathers)................................................................................6

Development of Sociology.....................................................................................................7

Definitions of Sociology........................................................................................................8

1. Auguste Comte............................................................................................................8

2. Emile Durkheim..........................................................................................................8

3. Max Webber.................................................................................................................9

Characteristics of Sociology...................................................................................................9

Scope of Sociology..............................................................................................................10

Nature of Subject Matter of Sociology................................................................................10

1. Formalistic School of Thought (John Simmel, Max Webber)...................................11

2. Synthetic School of Thought (Emile Durkheim, Sorokin)........................................11

Approaches of Sociology.....................................................................................................11

1. Functionalist..............................................................................................................11

2. Conflict......................................................................................................................11

3. Interactionist..............................................................................................................12

Social Methods.....................................................................................................................12

1. Comparative..............................................................................................................12

2. Historical (Karl Marx and Max Webber)...................................................................12

1
 3. Functional (Durkheim)..............................................................................................13

4. Case Study.................................................................................................................13

5. Quantitative...............................................................................................................13

6. Scientific....................................................................................................................14

Auguste Comte.........................................................................................................................15

Introduction of Positivism....................................................................................................15

The Law of Three Stages.....................................................................................................15

1. The Theological Phase...............................................................................................15

2. The Metaphysical Phase............................................................................................15

3. The Positive Phase.....................................................................................................16

Hierarchy of the Sciences.....................................................................................................16

Social Static and Social Dynamic........................................................................................16

Pure and Applied Sciences...................................................................................................16

Herbert Spencer........................................................................................................................17

The Theory of Evolution......................................................................................................17

Organic Analogy..................................................................................................................17

Emile Durkheim.......................................................................................................................20

Social Facts and Collective Representation.........................................................................20

Division of Labour, Social Solidarity and Law....................................................................21

Theory of Religion...............................................................................................................22

Max Weber...............................................................................................................................23

2
 Ideal Type.............................................................................................................................23

Theory of Religion...............................................................................................................23

Theory of Authority and Bureaucracy..................................................................................24

Karl Marx.................................................................................................................................25

Dialectical Materialism........................................................................................................25

Class-Conflict Theory..........................................................................................................25

Sociological Terms...................................................................................................................27

Community...........................................................................................................................27

Society..................................................................................................................................27

Association...........................................................................................................................27

Institution.............................................................................................................................27

Social System.......................................................................................................................28

1. Actor and the Social Act/Social Action.....................................................................28

2. Role and Status..........................................................................................................29

3. Means and Ends.........................................................................................................29

4. Social Condition........................................................................................................30

Mechanism...........................................................................................................................30

1. Socialization..............................................................................................................30

2. Social Control............................................................................................................30

Level.....................................................................................................................................31

Social Research........................................................................................................................32

3
Methods of Social Research.....................................................................................................33

Observation..........................................................................................................................33

1. Non-Controlled Participant Observation...................................................................33

2. Non-Controlled Non-Participant Observation...........................................................33

3. Systematically Controlled Observation.....................................................................33

Questionnaire.......................................................................................................................34

Interview..............................................................................................................................35

1. Structured..................................................................................................................35

2. Unstructured..............................................................................................................35

3. Focused......................................................................................................................35

4. Repeated....................................................................................................................35

5. In-depth......................................................................................................................36

Social Survey.......................................................................................................................36

1. Simple........................................................................................................................37

2. Systematic..................................................................................................................37

3. Stratified....................................................................................................................37

4. Cluster/Multi-Stage...................................................................................................37

1. Convenience..............................................................................................................38

2. Judgement..................................................................................................................38

3. Quota.........................................................................................................................38

4. Snowball....................................................................................................................38

4
 Experiment...........................................................................................................................39

Ethnography.........................................................................................................................40

Sociometry...........................................................................................................................40

Verstehen..............................................................................................................................40

Case Study............................................................................................................................40

Methodology For Social Research...........................................................................................41

Stage 1: Identifying and Defining the Problem....................................................................41

Stage 2: Literature Review...................................................................................................41

Stage 3: Framing of the Hypotheses....................................................................................41

Stage 4: Data Collection.......................................................................................................41

Stage 5: Data Analysis.........................................................................................................41

Stage 6: Testing and Verification of the Hypotheses............................................................42

Stage 7: Generalization........................................................................................................42

5
Introduction

Sociology is a study of the web of social relationships. It has a long past and a short history.
Long past: The content of the study has been discussed since time immemorial, either under
political philosophy or history. Earlier, it focused on what society ought to be. The study was
idealistic and philosophical. Short history: The systematic study itself evolved very recently.
This study asked the question ‘What society is?’.

Studies developed in this order: Philosophy, Physical Sciences, Social Sciences.

CAUSES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

1. The development of physical sciences led to a number of social issues which needed
to be resolved.

2. Industrialisation and the Factory System

This led to mass migration and changes in social dynamics. A branch was needed to
study the change in human behavior.

3. New Inquiries: Positivism and Humanitarianism

Intellectuals earlier had not studied society as a positive fact, the study of society was
more idealistic earlier. The modern schools of thought studied the present social
problems, research and field studies.

TENDENCIES DURING DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Unification of social sciences which covered distinct aspects. This was the view
during the initial phase of development of social sciences.

2. Later, specialization was chosen over unification. Sociology was the subject chosen to
study behavior among men.

EARLY CONTRIBUTIONS (FOUNDING FATHERS)

The study was influenced by biology. Society seen as an organic unit. Influenced by
philosophy, history. It was encyclopedic.

1. Auguste Comte (Father of sociology. Introduced positivism.)

6
 2. Emile Durkheim
3. Max Webber
4. Karl Marx
5. Herbert Spencer

Use of the scientific, empirical methodology was undertaken. It is based on the law of
causation and the law of uniformity. Under science, the research is based on the cause-effect
relationship. The application of theories is universal.

The social scientists wanted to apply the positive methodology directly for social sciences.
But there was a limitation. Causes, effects and reasons differed from society to society. This
nature of social sciences arises from the fact that human behavior is dynamic. It forever
evolves. Therefore, while the empirical methodology was used by the social scientists, the
application was different. This was because social sciences are based on correlation and not
causation (Limitation of application of the methodology of the physical sciences). This also
allows only for a result on the basis of probability. One can never be completely sure.

The word ‘Sociology’ was first used by Sieyes in an unpublished work. Later, Comte defined
it independently.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
Comte talked about the need for a break from idealism and normatism. He felt that sociology
must be studied as a positive science. The presence of abstract formats for social concepts
was an important contribution of his study. He wanted society to be seen as a social static and
a social dynamic. He emphasized also on the applied aspects of sociology. This approach had
both positives and negatives.

Spencer was not a strong advocate of positivism. Spencer did not accept all aspects of the
positive approach. He was influenced by biology and used it in sociology. He talked about the
organic analogy. He saw society as an organism with different systems.

Marx provided a break from the functionalist approach which existed till then. Earlier, all
systems were seen to have a function, and conflicts were rarely spoken about. Marx took an
economic view to explain certain important conflicts and change. This different view was
another major contribution to sociology.

7
Durkheim developed a department of sociology for the first time. He gave great emphasis on
social facts which influences everyone. He also talked about the development of law as a
result of society. He observed the shift of criminal law heavy legal systems in primitive
societies to criminal law light legal systems in modern societies.

Webber focused more on individualism. His ideas conflicted with those of Marx.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIOLOGY
1. Auguste Comte
Sociology is a science subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which,
is the object of investigation.

The scientific methodology is based on inductive reasoning. On the basis of this, the
laws and theories are developed which turn into self-evident axioms. These could be
applied anywhere. Comte wanted to deduce such invariable, natural laws. Natural
laws are laws determined from the natural, social situations. Invariable laws are the
laws which do not change from one society to another.

2. Emile Durkheim
Sociology is the science of the social institutions.

An institution, in society, is a concept which is developed slowly and gradually, over a

long period of time. Primary institutions (developed first): Family, marriage, religion.
Secondary institutions (developed later): Education, laws etc. The sociologist must
study the role of the institutions.

Family came into existence because of the idea of possession and control over
children. This led to the idea of living together with the person with whom they
created their children.

3. Max Webber
Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of society
and social actions in order, thereby, to arrive at a causal relationship for its cause and
effect.

8
 For social action, social interaction is an essential element. Webber said that the
average man provides an average interpretation on the basis of emotion. The rational
man must look into the fact situation completely and must then provide a rational
decision or judgement. Social actions must also be interpreted rationally.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGY
1. Independent social science

Earlier, sociological study was a part of other branches. Later, however, it was
developed as a separate branch.

2. Categorical, not a hypothetical social science

It is categorical, as opposed to a hypothetical social science, i.e., it is independent of

other conditions. The study is not based on any ideal. Thus, the study is not
normative. The study involves positive facts.

3. Pure, not an applied science

It discusses concepts and theories. The application of theories comes under the scope
of a separate study: applied sociology, or social work. The solving of social problems
does not come within the scope of sociology.

4. Abstract, not a concrete science

Abstract concepts must describe the framework. An abstract is a concept which can be
presented in various factual situations. The concretes are the particular facts which
will be based on an abstract. These abstracts are constituted of a common set of
features. Removing all the concretes cannot remove the abstracts.

5. General, not a particular science

This science is not concerned with particular situations, institutions or societies. The
study is of general theories which can be applied in any particular case.

6. Both rational and empirical

9
 Rationalism believes that knowledge comes with birth, not with experience.
Empiricism believes that knowledge is gained from experience. These are clashing
schools of thought. However, sociology draws upon from both.

SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
The objective of a sociologist is to conduct sociological analysis of any particular subject.

He studies how a certain practice will affect various social institutions. For example, a
sociologist will study the effect of live-in relationships on marriage. Sociological analysis is
done on social units, i.e., social institutions. The analysis involves a study of the structures
and functions of these institutions.

The sociologist will also be interested in the social processes. For example, a Muslim girl
marrying a Hindu boy might have to change her culture and values to assimilate into the new
family. Similarly, a girl marrying within her religion may have to change only certain ways of
living if when she enters her in-laws’ house in order to accommodate.

A sociologist is also interested in creating new concepts and theories and their further study.
Correlation of various concepts can allow for the formation of a proposition. If it is proved
empirically, it might turn into a theory.

Sociologists are also concerned with specialization. Various fields of sociology have grown
with greater importance being given to specialization. Very particular branches have emerged.

NATURE OF SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY

This question has been answered differently by different thinkers. Broadly, two schools of
thought have emerged.

1. Formalistic School of Thought (John Simmel, Max Webber)

Two basic propositions:

 It is a pure and independent science.

 Sociology involves only the study of the form, not the content.

10
 For example, a glass has an outer form. It can be filled with various kinds of liquids.
Similarly, sociology can be filled with various structures. Sociology must not be
concerned with the content, but the common structure.

However, there are various criticisms of this school. In response, the synthetic school
was developed. The form may also be influenced by the content.

2. Synthetic School of Thought (Emile Durkheim, Sorokin)

This school of thought says that not just form, but content is also important. This
school is an extension of the formalistic school.

Sociology is not an independent science. Sociology must be studied along with all
other social sciences. Every social problem will have various aspects. This forms a
synthesis of various studies.

APPROACHES OF SOCIOLOGY
1. Functionalist
Macro-level study. This was the first approach. Comte, Spencer and Durkheim
systematically studied society as having different organs, with each having a role to
play. When these institutions play their roles properly, a harmony and balance is
achieved. The limitation is that social progress needs change, about which not a lot is
discussed.

2. Conflict
Macro-level study. Karl Marx talked about conflicts existing society. They might
manifest into large issues or stay dormant. This is the radical perspective which talked
about change in society. It believed that change brings progress.

Many conflicts exist in society. In India, for example, caste, religion, class, regional,
linguist, etc. conflicts exist.

3. Interactionist
Micro-level study. This is a contemporary approach. It studies the micro-interactions
at the grass-root level among the members of the society. It studies all units in the

11
 societies as having a certain role. This is a minute-level study of society. For example,
society is seen as a play, with every character having a role to play.

SOCIAL METHODS
Methods used by social scientists. Sociologists may use a single or multiple methods.

1. Comparative
This involves comparing two or more societies or groups within a society.

Emile Durkheim used this method heavily. He developed the concept that law is an
index of social solidarity. The type of law and social solidarity are correlated. This, he
developed on the basis of a study of a primitive and modern society, on the basis of
the division of labour.

On the one hand, in primitive societies, division of labour was gender-based and not
specialized. Individual identities not recognized and the group was very strong.
People adhered to norms and this was the general expectation. Strong sanctions
against the disobedience of these norms existed. Criminal law, therefore, was more
dominant. Restrictive laws were dominant. Social solidarity was very high. On the
other hand, in industrialized society, division of labour increased and got more
specialized. With this, individualism grew, and the individual-state relationship
changed. Protection of individual interests got more importance. This led to the
development of civil laws. Restitutive laws became dominant.

2. Historical (Karl Marx and Max Webber)

This is the class conflict theory. Every stage of society has had two classes: the haves
and the have-nots. These two classes have always been present. Marx believed that
economic forces are the center of the society. Marx used the historical method to
prove the historical materialism theory.

Max Webber used this method differently. Max Webber said non-economic forces are
the center of the society. Policies always involve considerations of the non-economic
forces and certain backgrounds. He used the example of religion. He proposed a
hypothesis that there exists a correlation between Protestant ethics and the rise of
capitalism.

12
 He observed that the development of capitalism took place only in those European
countries where Protestants were in the majority, and not the Catholics. Webber’s
survey of 6 countries showed that the atmosphere for rise of capitalism was present
only in Protestants dominated countries. Protestants worked more, took less holidays,
discouraged alcohol consumption and encouraged lending of money. The teachings of
Protestants were very conducive to capitalist economies. They believed that work is
virtue. On the other hand, lending of money and working in this world (as opposed to
working in another world) was not advocated by the majority of faiths.

Webber, therefore, used both the historical and comparative methods. Webber’s use of
historical method was completely contrary to that of Marx.

3. Functional (Durkheim)
This is an analysis incentive method, not an investigative method. This method
analyses the role of an institution, its structure and function.

4. Case Study
A particular case is taken up and various aspects of this particular case is studied in
detail. Using this analysis, certain hypotheses and theories can be developed and
subsequently applied with generality. This study can be used to understand the social
problem and subsequently solutions can be formed.

5. Quantitative
Social sciences are moving towards more positive methods, making this method more
popular. Data is expressed quantitatively. The responses of any study are converted to
mathematical units and further analysis is undertaken. The limitations of this method
are that certain aspects of the study cannot be reduced to mathematical expressions. In
general, however, sociology is moving away from qualitative to quantitative analysis.

6. Scientific
This is a very detailed process. It involves the following steps:

 Observation: Careful perception.

13
  Framing the Hypotheses: This forms a probable explanation of the problem.
Usually, two of these are framed. In the end, one of these will be accepted,
while the other will be rejected.
 Collection of Data: This is done to test the hypothesis.
 Analysis: Relevant facts are distinguished from the irrelevant facts. This
involves a detailed study of the facts. This will allow for the establishment of a
correlation.
 Verification: The conclusion reached at is verified multiple times. At this
stage, one of the hypotheses will be accepted.
 Generalization: The hypotheses will be applied in general, and the result will
be studied.
 Theory: If the hypothesis can be applied generally, it becomes a theory.

This method has a limitation. Not all studies can be conducted through such a method.

14
 AUGUSTE COMTE
INTRODUCTION OF POSITIVISM
His most important contribution was to introduce positivism in social sciences. This meant
the introduction of scientific methodology in social studies. The study was not for abstract
metaphysical or normative knowledge, but the concrete knowledge which is already present
in the world.

THE LAW OF THREE STAGES

He used this to explain how human knowledge and parallelly, civil society, developed
through various stages.

1. The Theological Phase

In the first phase of development of society, humans were very curious about
everything going on in the external world. All natural phenomena fascinated humans.
Religion developed during this time. It was believed that various supernatural powers
existed, which caused these phenomena to occur. The idea of many supernatural
powers (polytheism) gradually turned into that of one supernatural power
(monotheism).

Knowledge in this phase was based on belief and faith, not on reasoning. It was
believed that everything occurring in the universe happened because of the
supernatural power. The individual surrendered his identity completely. The two
qualities of knowledge during this phase were 1. The belief in one absolute power and
2. The surrendering of individual identities to and complete obedience of this power.

Military societies developed during this period. Questioning of the absolute power did
not take place.

2. The Metaphysical Phase

Gradually, humans started questioning the absolute power. Was there a requirement
for rules and regulations? Reasoning took the place of belief. The second phase of
development emerged. Certain abstract metaphysical realities were searched for. The
abstract metaphysical ideas were different from the ones already existing.

15
 This led to a society based on abstract rules and principles which were laws. This
phase saw the development of legal nation states.

3. The Positive Phase

The third phase saw positivism replace the importance of reasoning. The human mind
started looking for more and more positive facts of the world. Emphasis was placed
on concrete reality and not on abstract principles. The utilization of resources was
given importance. This is the final stage of development of knowledge and society.

This led to the development of industrial societies.

HIERARCHY OF THE SCIENCES

This hierarchy was made on the basis of certain principles. One principle was that from
bottom to top, complexity of the sciences increases and their dependence also increases. The
movement upward is from most elementary to the most complex. Mathematics was placed at
the base. It was the most general and fundamental. Then came astronomy, physics, chemistry,
biology and finally sociology. Each study was dependent on the ones appearing below it in
the hierarchy.

SOCIAL STATIC AND SOCIAL DYNAMIC

When we talk about any institution in the social static, we must understand all the aspects of
that institution at a given point of time. Social dynamic refers to a complete progress check. It
studies the past, present and the future of that institution. Social dynamic involves a
progressive study. Comte has said that sociological study must involve both.

PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES

Comte has said that sociological study must involve both.

16
 HERBERT SPENCER
During his times, a lot of development was taking place in physical sciences. He was a
contemporary of Darwin. The principles developed by Darwin influenced Spencer, who
applied them in sociology. Thus, Spencer’s work is called Social Darwinism.

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Spencer was highly influenced by biology. The development of living organisms over time,
i.e., the concept of evolution was an important idea. An indefinite, incoherent, homogeneous,
single-celled, simple organism gradually develops into a definite, coherent, heterogeneous,
multi-cellular, complex organism. In the complex form, various systems evolve within the
organism, with each having its own functions. Even during a lifetime, humans change from
an embryo to a complex being. This process is linear, and not cyclic.

Herbert Spencer accepted these ideas and felt that this was true for society as well. Society
went from an indefinite, incoherent, homogeneous, simple system to a definite, coherent,
heterogeneous, complex social structure. Initially, the concept of family developed. This was
followed by formation of small groups of families. Then, due to clash of powers, larger
groups called clans came into being. Gradually, these changed into tribes and finally nations.
The present modern, complex nation-states are a result of this organic development. This
also, is a linear, progressive process.

Spencer equated living organism with society.

ORGANIC ANALOGY
Spencer drew an analogy between human and society. He observed certain similarities and
dissimilarities. He showed that the similarities between the two was very high, and thus, he
concluded that what was true for organisms was also true for societies.

According to him, the following similarities exist between a human/organism and society.
 Both have visible growth. The growth of an organism can be observed. For example,
we can see a child grow. Similarly, we are witnessing the growth of the society.
 Increase in complexity. The growth of an organism sees the growth of structures,
functions and organs. This is also true for society.
 Differentiation of structure leading to the differentiation in the function. Living
organisms are constituted of various organs and structures. These have undergone
17
 change through time. Initially, a single system used to take care of all functions in the
organism. Gradually, specialized organ systems developed in order to take care of
specific functions. This has led to harmony. The same is true for societies. Gradually,
specialized social structures have developed which take care of specialized functions.
This differentiation brings a balance.
 Loss of one organ would not result in a change in the entire organism. The loss of one
unit of the organism does not bring a change in the entire being. Similarly, loss of one
unit of society would not lead to the breakdown of the society.

According to him, the following differences exist between the two.

 An organism has a definite form, while society is an abstract concept. The society
does not have a definite, concrete structure.
 Consciousness in the organism lies in one component of the organism. The decision-
making power is not distributed. However, in the society, consciousness is diffused.
Various different parts have the power take their own decisions.
 Society exists for its parts, i.e., for the interests of the individual. This was the basis of
his ideas of individualism. He emphasized on minimal role of the State. He felt that
the interests of the individual could not be subservient to those of the State. On the
contrary, the units of the organism exist for the whole.

He felt that the similarities were greater than the dissimilarities. Thus, principles applicable to
organisms could also be applied to the social structure. Thus, if Darwin’s principles of
Natural Selection and The Survival of The Fittest could be applied to organisms, they could
also be applied to the society. This ideology has been a major criticism of Spencer. He
believed that the weak in the society must die. In the modern age, this proposition cannot be
accepted, where welfare forms an important part of State functions.

Classification of societies on the basis of composition.

 Simple - Family
 Compound - Clan
 Doubly Compound- Tribe
 Trebly Compound- Nation

Method of construction of societies.

18
Military Society: Compulsory cooperation. Centralized administration. Autonomy in
economy present. Functions of the state are very high.

Industrial Society: Voluntary cooperation. Decentralized administration. Autonomy in

economy not present. Function of the state are limited.

19
 EMILE DURKHEIM
Relevant to legal studies since he developed sociological jurisprudence. It was later taken up
by others. He spoke about how the group or the society is important. His theories are still
relevant, though in modern industrial society, individualism has emerged as an important
notion. He believed that individuals are affected by various social pressures. These pressures
get accepted, since all individuals are components of the group.

SOCIAL FACTS AND COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATION

Durkheim’s focus was on the group. “Social fact is a face of behavior (thinking, feeling or
action) which is subject to the observer and which has a controlling nature.” According to
him the characteristics of social fact are 1. They are external to the person and 2. They exert a
pressure. Social facts can be seen as tangible, objective things. They are external because they
are created by the group. For example, customs are created by the group and affect us
externally. Social facts work at the group level.

Durkheim’s arguments supporting the existence of social facts.

Heterogeneity of individual and collective state of mind.

There exist different individuals in the society. But in some instances, all individuals
exhibit a collective state of mind. For example, the identity shown by individuals of a
country in cases of national danger does not involve regional identities. The collective
state of mind is evidence of social facts.

Difference in attitude of individual outside and inside the group.

Why does behavior change when an individual is in a group? This happens because of
an external force which makes us behave this way.

Uniformity of social data.

The uniformity in existence of things like crime, religion, marriage and the trends
shown by these show that social facts force us to behave in a certain way. These
forces bring a uniformity in ways of living. These forces control our lives.

20
Emergence of collective consciousness.
When individual representation of identities merge, the collective consciousness
emerges at the group level. This is not just the simple addition of individual
consciousness but something more. The collective representation affects every
individual. For example, the ingredients of paan are not red by themselves, but when
chewed, it gets red AF. This also proves the existence of social facts.

DIVISION OF LABOUR, SOCIAL SOLIDARITY AND LAW

Division of labour can be defined in three ways. The original definition was based on gender.
Different roles were assigned to men and women. Subsequently, Marx gave the definition of
division of labour based on technicale division. This division depends upon the production
process. Durkheim gave the third dfinition of division which divided work in the entire
society. The society is taken as a whole. This was defined on the basis of functions assigned
to various components of the society. He felt that this could lead either to the integration of
(repressive laws) or disintegration of (restitutive laws) society.

According to Durkheim, division of labour is an index of social solidarity. Similarly, law is

also an index of social solidarity. In primitive societies, division of labour was low, group
norms were followed, criminal laws were harsh and social solidarity was high. Here,
mechanical solidarity was present. In industrial societies, division of labour is high (due to
specialization), laws are restitutive and social solidarity is low. This solidarity is organic.

The history of criminal theories shows that the idea of crime was based on the notion that
men had inherent criminal tendencies. This was based on some biological ideas, but was not
very scientific. Later, certain psychological theories were developed. The idea then, was that
the individual was responsible for his own acts. This was based on the mental element of the
person and not on the physical characteristics of the person. This idea did not believe that
society was responsible for crimes. Durkheim believed that crime might be an individual act,
but the cause is social in nature. Crime is a social fact. Certain social circumstances, and
conditions lead to the commission of a crime. The trigger leading to the crime comes from
the society. Such an idea was first proposed by Durkheim. This led him to suggest reforms in
the criminal justice system.

21
Talking about suicide, he said that either extreme integration or extreme disintegration could
cause the person to commit such acts. He classified suicide into 3 types.
1. Egoistic: Caused due to loss of integration with the group.
This leads to psychological problems. For example, an unmarried, single person is
more likely to commit suicide since the person is disintegrated, leading to
psychological issues. He observed that the suicide rate was higher among Protestants
than among Catholics. The reason could be that Catholics being more conservative,
showing greater conformity to norms, and greater social integration. Protestants, with
more liberal ideas, had greater individuality, and were not as integrated. Similarly,
integration in urban societies, with greater individuality, is lower than that in villages,
with greater conformity. Thus, depression, and consequently suicide rates are higher
in urban societies.
2. Altruistic: Caused due to high integration with the group.
This leads the person to surrender his identity to the group. The group is so important,
that the act of suicide for the sake of the group feels justified. Examples include hara-
kiri in Japan, sati in medieval India, santhara in Rajasthan and suicide bombers in
radical terrorist groups.
3. Anomic: This is caused due to sudden changes, either positive or negative.
The person is unable to accommodate to the change. This is a situation of
normlessness. The change, according to Durkheim, can either be positive or negative.
A sudden positive change, according to him, could also lead to such a state of
psychological confusion, that the person would commit suicide. Generally, however
the causes in this class are taken as negative changes. For example, sudden change in
financial status of a person.

THEORY OF RELIGION
Earlier, religion was considered to be the matter of individual belief. He believed that religion
was a social phenomenon. It is a social fact. All ingredients of a social fact are present in
religion. It is an external factor and it exerts a pressure on individuals. It brings people
together. Every religion has certain norms and as people follow these norms, people come
together. Many symbols are considered to be holy by a certain belief. These items and
symbols start becoming more important to the followers than general items. This

22
belongingness to symbols brings people together. For example, following religious traditions
brings people of the same faith together, resulting in increased social solidarity.

23
 MAX WEBER
Weber focused on rationality and logic. According to him, logical (objective) interpretation of
social actions bring us to the same conclusion, while average (subjective) interpretation
brings us to incorrect, varying conclusions. When Weber was active, it was being argued,
whether scientific methodology could be accepted in the study of sociology. Weber was of the
opinion that it could.

IDEAL TYPE
An ideal type is an analytical construct which serves the investigator as a measuring rod to
assert similarity as well as deviation in concrete cases. It is a mental construct. It is not a
hypothesis (not a proposal). It is not a normative or an ethical statement. No values are
attached to the construct. It is used only as a standard. The ideal type might not correspond to
the actual, empirical reality.

THEORY OF RELIGION
General misconceptions: Weber criticized Marx; Reversed Marx’s theory.

Marx said economics is the center of the society. Weber believed that non-economic factors
influence the society, with particular emphasis on religion. He said religion influences the
economy and used the scientific methodology to prove this hypothesis.

He observed that Protestants were generally richer than Catholics. He concluded that there
existed a correlation between the faith and wealth. He observed that the development of
capitalism took place only in those European countries where Protestants were in the
majority, and not the Catholics.

Webber’s survey of 6 countries (including India and China) showed that the atmosphere for
rise of capitalism was present only in Protestants dominated countries. Protestants worked
more, took less holidays, discouraged alcohol consumption and encouraged lending of
money. The teachings of Protestants were very conducive to capitalist economies. They
believed that work is virtue. On the other hand, lending of money and working in this world
(as opposed to working in another world) was not advocated by other faiths.

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THEORY OF AUTHORITY AND BUREAUCRACY
Weber, while talking about authority, talks about legitimacy. Legitimacy is based on various
factors.

He talks about three types of authority: Traditional, Rational-Legal and Charismatic.

Monarchy is the best example of the traditional system. The authority comes from the belief
or the faith in the power of the King. It comes from customs. It is not based on abstract rules
or principles. The best example of rational-legal authority is the modern state. The authority,
here, is based on abstract principles. The source here is law, as opposed to customs. And the
reason for authority comes from rationality or reason, as opposed to faith. The third system is
very different from the other two. In the charismatic system, the authority comes from the
personality of an individual. The virtues of the personality of such people leads others to
confer authority on them. Examples are Gandhi, Hitler and Modi.

The power is actualized by the bureaucracy in the rational-legal model.

Characteristics of the bureaucracy.

 An eligibility criteria exists.
 Hierarchy is fixed, and maintained strictly.
 Official jurisdiction is fixed, and maintained strictly.
 Division of labour is maintained strictly.
 Salaries are fixed.
 Bureaucrats have a superiority complex.
It’s a part of the training process, which focuses in isolating bureaucrats from the rest
of the society, focusing on their role of administration. This leads to their
dehumanization and breakdown of emotions and values. It is a di-functional aspect of
the profession.

25
 KARL MARX
DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
Marx was influenced by many philosophers and thinkers. Hegel, particularly, influenced him
a lot. Hegel’s dialectical materialism made an impression on Marx. Hegel used the dialectical
process to understand what is going on the society. He was an idealist and believed that
everything in the universe is an extension of the spirit. However, Marx was a materialist. He
believed that everything in the universe is an extension of matter. He believed that concrete
matter is the reality. And the concrete forces are the economic forces in the society.

Both Hegel and Marx, however, believed in the dialectical process of change, in thesis and
antithesis. At first, a positive emerges, followed by the emergence of a negative. Slowly, they
synthesize. This is how development takes place.

Marx talked about conflict and change. According to Marx, everything is dependent on other
things. Changes keep taking place and nothing can remain the same. Changes are taking place
every moment and changes are important. He used this to understand class-conflict and the
rise of communism.

CLASS-CONFLICT THEORY
Marx understood class in terms of the production process. People working in the same
manner, having the same relationship in the production process, share the same class. He
made two broad categories of people: The Haves (having control in the production process;
exercising monopoly) and The Have Nots (not having control in the production process,
working for the haves). Marx believed that those who controlled the economic forces
governed the superstructure, i.e., the law and the policies.

In the capitalist world, the capitalists are dependent on the labour. However, exploitation of
labour by the capitalists is an inherent characteristic of the capitalist system. Labourers get
meagre compensation for their value creation, while the capitalists extract massive excess
value over everything produced. This allows them to keep getting richer while the labourers
keep getting poorer.

This causes alienation of the labourers. They become alienated from the system, from their
work and from what they make. Subsequently, they form political associations based on
common interests stemming from common grievances. They unite against the capitalists and
26
the capitalist system. Through, revolution they seize the factors of production, and establish a
classless society. Marx believed that there existed no need for a state. The system is
established on the ideas of socialism. Each works according to ability and each works
according to need. Slowly, complete equality is established and a communist state is created.

Marx believed that initially, society was classless, since there existed no private property. All
were equal. Humans collected only what was required for their sustenance. This did not allow
accumulation of property. However, as the concept of private property emerged, slavery,
feudalism and eventually capitalism came into existence. This, he felt, has to be replaced with
communism.

Marx mentioned the middle class only fleetingly. However, the middle class has emerged as a
dominant force in modern society. Marx did not take this into account. Further, even today,
countries following Marxism have not realized equality and a classless society. These are the
limitation of his theory.

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 SOCIOLOGICAL TERMS
COMMUNITY
A community is a group of people with common locality. Common locality refers to a
common place of origin. This factor leads to the feeling of belongingness (the ‘we’ feeling) in
the members of the community, which is an essential characteristic. For example, a person
living in the US, but with Punjabi origins, will be said to belong to the Punjabi Community,
and will have, in all probability, a sense of belongingness to it. Community is a concrete
concept.

When seen with respect to society, it can be said that community is a subset of society. Many
communities form a society. The concepts of community and society, however, are relative
when seen in respect of one another. An example of a community in one case can be used as
an example of a society in another.

SOCIETY
Society is an abstract concept. In society, people have both similarities and dissimilarities.
Comparing this with community, a community is better defined, since it is based on the
common factor of locality. A community, has minimal differences.

ASSOCIATION
Every person has certain needs. These can either be fulfilled in isolation, through own efforts
or through dependence, with the help of others. In order satisfy various specific needs,
deliberate, artificial creation of groups takes place. These groups are called associations. All
members have common needs and their membership is voluntary. Associations necessarily
have a formal structure, with rules and regulations. Making changes in associations is easy.
Often, associations are also given the status of legal persons in order to facilitate their
functioning. A particular marriage or family is an example of an association.

INSTITUTION
These are structures which are developed slowly and gradually. Institutions too, like
associations, are created in order to satisfy needs. However, institutions are not deliberately,
artificially created at a particular point of time. Another distinction of institutions from
associations is that bringing change in institutions is very difficult. There exist symbols which
can be associated with every institution.

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Primary institution came into existence first. These satisfied the primary needs of people in
society. Thus, religion, family, marriage and state are primary institutions. Secondary
institutions came into existence later. Examples include law and education.

SOCIAL SYSTEM
The social system describes how a society operates. A social system is an orderly
arrangement, an interrelation of parts. Each part has a specific role to play. The parts are
bound by interaction. Every system has multiple sub-systems which work together for the
preservation of the whole. The sub-systems and society are interdependent and exist for each
other. Examples of sub-systems within a social system are the educational system, the legal
system, the economic system, etc.

The system, therefore, is a patterned relationship between constituent parts of a structure

based on functional relations. These functional relations bind the parts and make them active.
The system is a logical abstraction of the relationship between the part and the whole.

The term ‘social system’ was coined by Montesquieu. Herbert Spencer gave the idea of an
organic social system.

Elements of a Social System.

 Actor (The Individual) and Social Action
 Relation to Role and Status
 Means and Ends
 Social Conditions

1. Actor and the Social Act/Social Action

Social actions are associated with need and arrangement. They are based on gratification and
personal action. Social action depends on the cultural context.

2. Role and Status

Status is a social position. Society prescribes various statuses to every individual. Each
member of the society is a functional. Role is the functional aspect of status. Social actions
are decided by role and status. Individuals in a society occupy multiple statuses. A position
prescribed at birth is an ascribed status. A position acquired otherwise is an acquired status.

29
Every individual’s experiences in life determine his social position. The role is played in
relation to others.

The relational viewpoint believes that role and status cannot be separated. The analytical
viewpoint believes that a separation between the two exists, but this separation is not hard
and fast. It believes that status is a sociological concept, while role is a psychological
concept. The relative viewpoint believes that role and status cannot be understood in
isolation.

It is possible to have a status without role and a role without status. For example, a mother
taking special care of her children might be performing the role of a nurse without actually
having that status. Similarly, the registrar on leave retains his status, but dos not enjoy the
roles attached to it.

3. Means and Ends

There exist two views regarding means and ends. The Gandhian view and the Marxian view.

According to Marx, ends justify the means. As long as the end is achieved, it is immaterial
what the means used to achieve that end were. This is why, under his theory, it was justified
to use violent means to achieve the end. Gandhi believed that the means justify the ends and
that whatever the end may be, the means should be good.

For example, under the Marxian view, cheating in an exam in order to get better grades is
justified, but under the Gandhian view it is not. Here, cheating is the means while getting
better grades is the end. While Marx justifies these actions, Gandhi does not.

Here, we use our social understanding to judge the means and ends, not our ethical
understanding. An ethical understanding will be used to make a judgement on what is good
and what is bad. An ethical judgement will have universal application. A social understanding
will judge something as right or wrong. The social judgement is relative.

4. Social Condition
Society imposes barriers or obstacles. For example, if a student with a test tomorrow has a
friend who is ill and needs to be taken to the hospital, the society will believe that helping the
friend is the student’s prime duty. This is an obstacle towards preparing for the test. These
obstacles are called social conditions, which are always present in our lives, and which raise
30
social problems. The conditions act as obstacles for performing any action. Social conditions
may be both positive or negative. For example, social conditions may form an obstacle for
woman going out in the night.

MECHANISM
Mechanism describes how a social system operates. Two mechanisms exist.

1. Socialization
Socialization is training. Through socialization, new members of the society are given the
knowledge, skills and values needed for them to conform to the norms of the society. When a
new member enters a society, it is the duty of the members of the group (the social agents in
particular) to make that member aware of group norms. This process continues from birth to
death. It is a continuous process. Socialization helps in the development of the ego, the self.
Looking Glass Self Theory (Coolie).

Examples of social agents are parents, peers, teachers, etc. Stages of socialization are
changing. Different social agents play a more important part now. Peers for example, have
more influence now.

2. Social Control
These are methods of controlling behavior. These are methods to control behavior, when
deviation from norms takes place. Social Control is of two types: formal and informal. Law is
an example of the formal while customs are an example of the informal. The formal has a
structure. The informal does not. Fashion trends, for example, are a means of informal
control. Society is largely run by informal control mechanisms. Examples of formal control
are state propaganda, governmental guidelines etc.

LEVEL
There exist two criteria to determine levels in society.
 Number of individual members
 Type of relationship shared by members

The smallest level is the family. This has the smallest number of members and the most
proximate relationship. Then come big organisations. The number of members increases, as
does the formal nature of the relationships. Face-to-face relationships do not exist. The next
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level is the national society. Here, the number of members is large, while the relationship is
abstract, difficult to define. Finally comes the global society. The boundaries of nations are
crossed. The number of members is the greatest and the relationship is again, abstract. The
differences between the members increases. Relationships exist among members, not
between members.

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 SOCIAL RESEARCH
Keep in mind that social research is different from scientific research. Scientific research is
based on causation while social research is based on correlation.

Social research is defined by Young as a systematic understanding which by means of logical

techniques, aims at
 Discovering new facts or verifying and testing the old facts;
 Analysing their interrelationship and the causal explanations;
 Developing tools and concepts in the theories which would facilitate reliable and valid
study of human behavior.

Social research has a number of applications. Its greatest utility, however, is concerned with
policy formulation. In most cases, the enforcement of a policy is preceded by social research.
Laws made without conducting social research can face many problems.

Three types of research, generally, are carried out.

 Governmental (simple data collection, largely through surveys)
 Economic (involved only with quantitative correlation)
 Social (involved with both quantitative and qualitative correlation. Also involved with
providing suggestions for policy formulation)

There exist two important ethical considerations which must be kept in mind in all methods
of social research.
 The approach of the researcher must be unbiased. An objective view must be taken in
all situations as far as possible.
 Information given by the respondents must be used only for purposes disclosed to
them.

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 METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
OBSERVATION
Observation can be classified into 3 types.

1. Non-Controlled Participant Observation

The observer does not influence the situation or the conditions. However, he becomes
involved in the situation himself. Research in tribal areas, for example, is often conducted
using this method.

William Whyte gave theories in socio-criminology using this method. He wanted to

understand the gang-culture. He became a member of a gang and became immersed in their
activities. He learned their language. He wanted to find out whether the pre-established
theory of gang members not having a systematic culture is correct. He proved that the theory
was incorrect. Gangs have a systematic culture as well, though the culture is very different
form the one generally followed. Adherence to norms tales place there as well.

Erving Goffman used this method to conduct research on social institutions. He focused on
social institutions which provided obstacles for the development of an individual. Examples
are mental hospitals, prisons, etc. He admitted himself as a patient in a mental institution. He
found that the condition of patients only worsened in the hospital. The first thing to happen
there was depersonalization. The patients start losing their identities, since they are treated
alike in the hospital. He concluded that these institutions were great obstacles in personal
development.

2. Non-Controlled Non-Participant Observation

In this case, the observer is neither controlling the situation nor involved in it himself. The
conditions do not get created or catalyzed by the observer. The conditions develop on their
own. The observer joins the group but does not indulge in their activities. This requires the
observer to win the trust of the subjects of the research.

3. Systematically Controlled Observation

Research for physical sciences is carried out in laboratories which involves creation of
conditions for the research. The same methodology cannot be applied as it is in social
research. However, under this method, for example, if a new policy is introduced by NLU

34
administration, and this affects two groups of people differently, a research can be carried out
where under a pre-planned structure, the two groups are called on a particular day at a
particular place, to carry out observation. The conditions here are created by the observer.
The subjects are aware of the structure under which the research is taking place. Another
method under this category is socio-psychological observation. Here, the observer may assign
some tasks to the subjects and then observe their behavior.

QUESTIONNAIRE
This method is used when the universe is very large and where the respondents are educated
enough to complete the questionnaire themselves. In the questionnaire method, the
questionnaires are typically not distributed personally by the researcher. These are sent out in
large numbers. Where the researcher goes to a respondent and the respondent is not in a
position to complete the questionnaire on his own, and the researcher fills it up on the basis of
the answers of the respondent, the method is known as interview schedule. This also a type of
a questionnaire. This is usually done when there exists a language barrier or where the
respondents are not educated enough to fill the questionnaire.

A questionnaire can either be open-ended, close-ended or both. It is said to be close-ended

when the answers are already prescribed, and it need only be picked by the respondent. Two
popular formats under this include the Yes-No format and the 5-point scale. These are close-
ended because strict options are present. The advantage of close-ended questionnaires is that
there is a direction in the research. Easy quantitative research and analysis is possible.
However, the disadvantage is that there might be a situation where the respondent’s answer is
best not expressed under the available answers. In very large groups close-ended
questionnaires give the best results. In open-ended questionnaires, the answers are not already
prescribed as options. The advantage is that additional information and subjective opinion can
be extracted. But the disadvantage is that quantitative analysis is very difficult. Additionally,
if the questions are not framed well, the answers will stray and there will be no direction is
the research. Usually, it is believed that the best method is to use a mixture of both open and
close ended questions.

INTERVIEW
Interviews are of 5 types.

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 1. Structured
Everything is well prepared in advance. Nothing new is added during the interview. All
questions are formulated beforehand. The interview has a direction. However, extracting
supplementary information might become difficult.

2. Unstructured
Here, no preparation is done beforehand. No direction is present. Communication starts with
the respondent. In the course of the interview, information is acquired.

Where both structured and unstructured formats are present, a semi-structured interview is
formed. Here, there exists a structure according to which the interview takes place. Most of
the planning takes place beforehand. However, supplementary questions to gain more
knowledge may be used. Open communication is also used. This is generally considered to be
better than the previous two methods.

3. Focused
Here, a condition has already developed or an event has taken place. An interview is then
taken in order to gain information from respondents only on the particular issue. The
interview is completely focused on it. Study of the information received can be used to
understand various social problems and the different perceptions of the problem. An analysis
of this problem can allow framing of solutions. For example, interviews on live-in
relationships will not be a focused interview. But interviews on a particular rape case will
form focused interviews.

4. Repeated
Here, the particular social event being studied is in progress. Repeated interviews are needed
in order to gather information at various stages of the development of the social issue. The
behavior of respondents at various times are gauged. This method gives a better
understanding of the social problem. Examples include interviews during the course of
elections, at various stages of the implementation of government policies, etc.

5. In-depth
These interviews try to cover each aspect of the respondent related to the social problem. The
minute details of the problem are looked into. This requires a very high level of skill on part

36
of the interviewer. The skill to develop inter-personal relations with the respondent in order to
extract maximum amount of information is necessary. Most times, respondents do not reveal
the truth or the whole truth in interviews. They tend to share only such information which
matches with the social standard. Only when the interviewer can garner the level of trust
which will facilitate getting detailed information, will an in-depth interview be successful.
The interviewer needs to build a rapport with the interviewees. This is one of the most
difficult interview methods to conduct. However, it gives the best understanding of the social
problem being studied.

SOCIAL SURVEY

 The sample unit is that individual which is the researcher’s target point.
 The universe/population consists of all survey elements that qualify for inclusion in
the research study. It forms the entire domain in which the research is conducted.
 The sample is the part of the universe which represents the whole. The sample size is
the number of members in the sample.
 The sample frame is the list of all the members of the sample.

Social surveys are usually conducted by the government or by organisations who have to
conduct social research on a massive number of research elements. The term ‘social survey’
is sometimes used as an alternate to ‘social research’ because it often includes other types of
research.

Social survey is of two types: Census Survey and Sample Survey.

Census survey is essentially a population survey. This means that data is collected from all
members of the universe. In a sample survey, research is conducted only on a sample out of
the entire universe. This sample is used to represent the entire universe. A particular method
of collecting samples is undertaken. All members of the universe are not surveyed.

Sample surveys can be classified as follows.

A. Probability Sampling
a. Simple
b. Systematic
c. Stratified
d. Cluster/Multi-Stage
37
 B. Non-Probability Sampling
a. Convenience
b. Judgement
c. Quota
d. Snowball

Probability sampling is also known as random sampling. Random, here, means that each
survey element has an equal chance of being chosen as a sample unit.

1. Simple
The members are not selected on the basis of any formula or structure. For example, selecting
members 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 233, 245, and so on, from the sample frame.

2. Systematic
The members are selected on the basis of a structure or a formula. For example, selecting
every 6th person in the sample frame.

3. Stratified
Here, based on a particular attribute, the universe is divided into various strata. Elements for
the sample are then chosen in proportion of the weightage of each stratum in the universe, so
that the probability of selecting every element for the sample remains the same. For example,
if the universe is divided into 2 equal parts on the basis of gender and equal number of
sample members are selected from each stratum. If two strata have 30% and 70% weightage,
then 30% members in the sample are taken from the first stratum and 70% from the other.

4. Cluster/Multi-Stage
Under cluster sampling, the entire universe is divided into clusters and each cluster becomes
a sample unit for the research. For example, if in a research on Jodhpur, the entire city is
divided into clusters based on localities, each cluster would become a sample unit for the
survey. Thus, Mandore, Paota and Ratanada will be sample units.

In multi-stage sampling, either longitudinal studies or studies with different levels of sample
units are conducted. Longitudinal studies involve research conducted at various intervals of
time. An example of a multi-stage sampling survey with different level of sample units would

38
be a study on a locality, town, city, state and so on. The latter takes place in large scale social
surveys.

Non-probability sampling is not random sampling.

1. Convenience
Convenience sampling is based on choosing elements for the sample on the basis of the
researcher’s convenience. An example would be a survey on police officers, where the
research is not in reality conducted on police officers, but on the general populace’s view of
the police, for the sake of convenience. This is poor method of carrying out research. The bias
of the researcher in choosing the respondents, the possibility of the respondents not being
best suited for the particular survey, and the relationship between the researcher and the
respondent are some factors which may affect the survey negatively.

2. Judgement
In this case the sample is chosen on the basis of a judgement on part of the researcher. This
introduces the possibility of the sample not being truly representative of the universe.
Respondents in this case might introduce a bias. Additionally, the judgement of the researcher
itself might adversely influence the research. This increases the possibility of an error.

3. Quota
Here, a quota carved out of the universe is given to each researcher. The researchers must
then form samples for each quota. His objective is to fill up the quota assigned to him. The
quota will not be based on an equal distribution between various categories in the universe. In
some cases, it might be chosen on the basis of a bias. The possibility of an error is high in this
case as well.

4. Snowball
Here, the sample is formed progressively, on the basis of recommendations from each sample
element. This is an unplanned method of sampling. An example would be a research on
doctors, where each respondent doctor suggests the names of other doctors who can form the
part of the sample in the survey.

39
EXPERIMENT
Under certain conditions, correlation is established through social experiments. This can be
conducted either through lab research or field study.

The sociological lab study is not the same as the scientific lab study. In a sociological lab
study, all conditions are controlled by the researcher and subjects are brought into this
controlled environment. There exist two groups – The Control Group and The Experiment
Group. A factor of the research is either introduced or changed for the experiment group but
not for the control group. In the experiment group, the independent variable in the research is
changed and the behavior of the group members are observed. For the control group, the
independent variable in the research is not changed. Thus, if the experiment group shows a
change in the dependent variable which the control group does not show, then the findings of
the experiment support the hypothesis of the research. For example, introduction of a new
teaching methodology and observance of changes compared between the control student
group and the experiment student group. This method is often used in cases of educational
system reforms, prison reforms, mental institutions etc.

In the field, conditions are not controlled by the researcher. In the field, no condition is
influenced by the researcher.

The limitation of the experimental method is the Hawthorne Effect. The name for this
particular effect comes from the Hawthorne Laboratory Company. The said company had
studied the effect of working conditions like lighting, coffee breaks, pay scales, etc. on the
productivity of the female workers, through a social experiment. It was found that the new
variables were always accompanied with rise in productivity. However, it was also found that
when the experiment was discontinued, productivity fell, though the working conditions were
kept just as they were during the rise in productivity. This happened because the
consciousness about the experiment had led the respondents to give favourable results. Thus,
the limitation of this method is that the behavior of subjects under experiments is often
different, making the collection of genuine results difficult. Additionally, the variable may
not be understood properly.

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ETHNOGRAPHY
This refers to extended observations. The ethnic aspect of a community, cult or religious
group is used to understand any aspect of a social issue. This method is popular with
sociologists. It is a kind of non-participant non-controlled observation. Lack of bias is
absolutely necessary here. Observations must be recorded with a lot of care.

SOCIOMETRY
This is a contemporary research method, used to quantitatively measure relationships within a
group of people. This is done to understand the attractions and repulsion in human
relationships. Charts or diagrams are used to make these socio-metrics. The method helps
understand the human relationships. This, in turn, helps in the creation of better, more
efficient groups. For example, on the basis of a study of the 5 most favourable students for
each student in a class, the class representative can be chosen as the student who is liked the
most.

VERSTEHEN
Verstehen is method of social research involving interpretive or participatory examination of
social phenomena. It was given by Max Weber. This method helps in plugging the gaps
between reading of the facts and the subjective interpretation of those facts. It allows us to
interpret raw facts in order to reach the required conclusion. The interpretation made, though
subjective, must be logically justified. However, since the interpretation is subjective, it may
wary from person to person. Weber used this method to understand how the Protestant ethics
have helped in the rise of capitalism. Protestants - ethics - value systems - accumulation of
wealth – capitalism.

CASE STUDY
This method allows us to understand a broad social problem by studying a particular social
incident or social event based on that social problem. A study of the particular event helps us
understand the reasons behind its occurrence, and allows us to come up with solutions for the
same. This helps us understand all the dimensions of the social problem. However, our
conclusions are based on a single event. Thus, when we a generalization, the possibility of
fallacy is very high. This results in an over-simplification of the social problem. This is the
limitation of this research method.

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 METHODOLOGY FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH
Research methodology describes the systematic process which needs to be undertaken, in
order to successfully carry out sociological research.

STAGE 1: IDENTIFYING AND DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Every social research must be based on a problem. Identification of the problem can be done
in two ways. Either by observing a phenomenon and developing the query subsequently or by
choosing a query and undertaking observation subsequently. In the latter scenario, a
particular topic in an interest area is chosen as the research problem.

Next, an operational definition is given to each term and each variable in the problem. The
scope and process of the research will depend on this definition. Thus, a precise definition is
very important in order to avoid confusion. For example, if the problem is ‘Drug abuse in
NLUJ’, then ‘drug abuse’ needs to be defined precisely.

STAGE 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Studies conducted on the same research question are studied and analysed. The research
being undertaken must have a different scope, context or procedure.

STAGE 3: FRAMING OF THE HYPOTHESES

A directionless research is poor research. The next stage, therefore, involves the framing of
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement giving the possible relationship between two
variables. A particular hypothesis forms the tentative explanation to the research question. It
forms the most probable explanation of the problem. The framing of the hypothesis is done
on the basis of reason and logic. In every research, two hypotheses are formed. At the end,
the alternate hypothesis is accepted, while the null hypothesis is rejected.

STAGE 4: DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is undertaken through various research methods, such as interviews, surveys
questionnaires, etc. The data collected at this stage is the raw data.

STAGE 5: DATA ANALYSIS

The raw data is analysed. Relevant data is segregated from the irrelevant data. In cases where
a correlation is sought to be established, the independent variable will be the factor under the
researcher’s control, which he keeps changing, while the dependent variable will be the factor
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undergoing a change due to the changes in the independent variable. A connection between
the dependent and the independent variable is made at this stage, and a correlation is
established. High-level, sophisticated software systems may be used. For example, a
correlation may be established between improvement in grades of students (DV) due to
changes made in teaching methodology (IV).

STAGE 6: TESTING AND VERIFICATION OF THE HYPOTHESES

On the basis of the analysis, the hypotheses are either accepted or rejected. The accepted
hypothesis is then verified. This involves proving the hypothesis again and again.

STAGE 7: GENERALIZATION
After verification, the accepted hypothesis is generalized.

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