EXPERIMENTAL AND STRESS

ANALYSIS OF PIPE ROUTING AT

VARIOUS TEMPERATURE AND
PRESSURE BY CHANGING THE
VARIOUS MATERIAL AND SUPPORT
ABSTRACT
 ABSTRACT

A steam power plant is housed with various types of equipments

like boiler, turbine, heat exchanger etc. These equipments are mainly
connected with piping systems. Such a piping layout design depends
mainly on stress analysis and flexibility. It will vary with respect to pipe
geometrical properties, pressure, temperature, and supports. The present
paper is to analyze the pipe routings by various temperature and Pressure
by changing various materials and support using CAESAR-II software.
Main aim of piping stress analysis is to provide adequate flexibility for
absorbing thermal expansion, code compliance for stresses and
displacement incurred in piping system. The design is said to be safe if
all these are in allowable range as per code. In this study, a sample
problem is considered for analysis as per power piping ASME code are
followed and the results are obtained .
INTRODUCTION
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

Pipe Design mainly depends upon stress analysis. Process piping

and power piping are typically checked by pipe stress engineers to verify
that the routing, nozzle loads, hangers, and supports are properly placed
and selected such that allowable pipe stress is not exceeded under
different loads such as sustained loads, operating loads, pressure testing
loads, etc., as stipulated by the ASME B31, EN 13480 or any other
applicable codes and standards. It is necessary to evaluate the
mechanical behavior of the piping under regular loads (internal pressure
and thermal stresses) as well under occasional and intermittent loading
cases such as earthquake, high wind or special vibration, and water
hammer.

CAESAR II is a complete pipe stress analysis software program

that allows quick and accurate analysis of piping systems subjected to
weight, pressure, thermal, seismic and other static and dynamic loads. It
can analyze piping systems of any size or complexity.

Pipe Stress Analysis (PSA) is a complex engineering discipline which covers

the design, analysis and identification of piping problems by ensuring that weight,
thermal, and pressure stresses are at acceptable levels specified in engineering
design standards. PSA includes the calculation of piping code stresses, loads and
deflections under static and dynamic loading conditions.
 The stress analysis of pipe networks is normally done using the Finite
Element Method (FEM). The reasons for the analysis of pipe stresses on a piping
system is essential to ensure that the piping is well supported and does not fall or
deflect under its own weight; the deflections are well controlled, when thermal and
other loads are applied; the loads and moments imposed on machinery and vessels
by the thermal growth of the attached piping are not excessive; and that the stresses
in the pipe work in cold and hot conditions are under the range allowed. PSA
addresses problems such as thermal analysis (analysis for free and restrained
thermal growth conditions); deadweight analysis (analysis at ambient temperature
with a system of hangers at specific locations to support the weight of the system,
for allowable stress and reactions at equipment connections) seismic analysis
(static or dynamic); wind load analysis (static stress analysis); transient analysis
(for various transient loading conditions such as, turbine trip, pipe whip, safety
relief valve trip etc.).PIPING stress analysis is a method which is highly reciprocal
with piping layout and support. In piping system, the layout should be performed
with the concern of the piping support and stress in mind. It shows sufficient
flexibility for thermal expansion in pipe routing so that various simple and
economical pipes can be build using various piping materials & section properties
which includes pressure, temperatures & loading. The required layout should be
perfectly balance between stresses so that layout efficiency is achieved. After
piping layout is made, piping support system is determined. Various support
locations & types should be repeatedly iterated until all the stress requirements
were satisfied with piping allowable (e.g., nozzle loads, valve accelerations, and
piping movements). The piping supports are designed based on the selected
locations, types and the applied loads. The discussion is heavily weighted to the
stress analysis of piping systems in thermal power plants, since this type of piping
has the most stringent requirements. Basavaraju has carried out research on piping
systems, supports, materials used, fittings, insulation properties, operating medium
in pipe line and analyzed the main Stream line of thermal power plant.

Hanger is mainly used in the analysis of the piping systems. A significant

research on piping systems, span length, number of supports, and cost of the piping
layout had been studied by using CAESER-II software. He optimized the number
of supports by changing temperature and pressure within operating medium,
density of pipe material and the span length between the supports. It was reported
by that by modifying the layout of steam piping system, the pressure drop can be
minimized and hence power can be minimized in thermal power stations. Due to
the layout changes, the hanger supports position also changed.

A research on pipelines with an aim of maximizing the distance between

supports, minimizing the number of supports and reducing the total cost of erecting
these pipe supports was done by with mathematical calculation. Shweta Bisht et al.
have given the basic ideas about the piping analysis software CAESAR II. The
design and analysis of piping systems using software was explained elaborately in
this work. The benefits of using FRPC and interaction between the different
stresses on the pipe walls were analyzed by. It was reported that carbon composites
pipes improved ultimate internal pressure capacity of pipes. The possibilities and
disadvantages of finite elements methods Emphasis was given in the literatures
only on piping systems and its layout and there were no report giving emphasis to
piping supports. As for as steam piping is concerned, there are so many supports
that can be used in the piping system and it should be selected based on the
position and as per ASTM codes. In this paper, the piping supports mainly used in
industries such as hanger, expansion joints and restraints were considered with an
objective of better flexibility and reduced stress. The analysis is performed using
CAESAR II software. Among the various types of hangers, variable supports are
preferred for use in power plants

The basic concept of a geothermal piping design is to safely and

economically transport steam, brine, or two phase flow to the destination with
acceptable pressure loss. The piping associated with geothermal power plant can
be divided in piping inside the power plant and the piping in the steam field. Piping
in the steam field consists of pipelines connecting the production wells to the
separation station and those that run cross-country from the separation station to
the power plant, and lastly to reinjection wells. The cross country pipelines run on
top of ridges, up and down steep hill slopes, cross roads, areas threatened by
earthquakes, wind, rain and landslides. Geothermal piping system has to be
flexible enough to allow thermal expansion but also stiff enough to withstand the
seismic and operational load actions. The steam field model used is a wet field as
the piping encountered in this model covers most, if not all the possible types of
fluids and piping that could be expected in any geothermal system. The wet steam
field system consists of:

 Two-phase flow piping which collects the fluid from several wellhead and
sends them to the separator;
 The separator vessel;
 The steam pipelines which take the steam from the separator to the power
plant;
 The brine pipelines which take the separated brine from the vessel to a well
pad where the fluid is re- injected into several wells;
 Miscellaneous cross-country piping includes the instrumental air lines, the
water- supply line and also the condensate line.
Two aspects of the design process of geothermal piping systems that must be
considered are the process of preparing the design and the deliverables. The scope
of this paper will be in the piping for the steam field and the process of preparing
the design divided in the following main categories: design criteria, produce
process flow diagram, define control philosophy, separator location, route
selection, dimension design, pressure design, load design, design codes and pipe
stress analysis.

FUNCTION OF THE PIPING ENGINEERING

The function of the piping engineering is to apply knowledge of fluid flow, stress
analysis, material properties, engineering judgement and convert the process
engineer’s specification into drawings and data from which materials can be
purchased, fabricated and assembled into piping systems which fulfil the
requirement of the process. this must be fulfilled at the minimum design cost
without sacrificing the quality and desired function, the piping system will operate
without physical failure or excessive pressure losses for the entire span of designed
plant life.

PLANT LAYOUT

A Process plant, which consist of the various different sections such as raw
material storage, intermediate and finished product storage, process units, control
rooms, Flare system, Raw material loading and uploading facilities, utilities
generation and distribution etc. should be arranged so as to follow the general route
of the raw material to process, to Intermediate/Finished product storage, to
dispatch. Generally block concept is prevalent for the plant layout where in the
entire plot area is divided into blocks. The size of the blocks depends upon the
facilities to be accommodated.

Following points are to be considered while locating the blocks.

 Process unit block shall be centrally located with straight approach from the
main gate.
 The blocks shall be so arranged considering the prevalent wind direction that
flammable gases should not be carried by the wind on to source of ignition.
 Utility blocks shall be located adjacent to unit blocks.
 Flare shall be located upwind of process units so that the inflammable gas
from plant is not carried towards flare.

Equipment requiring frequent maintenance shall have easy accessibility.

PIPING DESIGN

Design

Procedure The problem of design procedure is to find a pipeline configuration and

size within the constraints, which is safe and economical The steps in pipeline
design are as follows: I. The determination of the problem, which includes: a. The
characteristics of the fluid to be carried, including the flow rate and the allowable
head loss; b. The location of the pipelines: its source and destination, and the
terrain over which it will pass, the location of separator station and the power
plant; c. The design code to be followed; and d. The material to be used. II. The
determination of a preliminary pipe route, the line length and static head
difference. III. Pipe diameter based on allowable head loss; IV. Structural analysis:
a. Pipe wall thickness; and b. Stress analysis. V. The stress analysis is performed in
pipe configuration until compliance with the code is achieved. VI. Support and
anchor design based on reaction found in the structural analysis. VII. Preparation
of drawings, specification and the design report

Pipe routes

Aerial photographs and contour plan of the area are sufficient information to
identify a preliminary route for the pipes and suitable locations of the plant
components. The preliminary route is then inspected on site to check land owner,
houses, swamps, soil condition for foundations, anchors and expansion loops, hot
spots, slip risk, road crossing, watercourses, change in elevation, access. Using the
preliminary pipe route, an estimate of equivalent line length can be made. The
design flow and enthalpy are determined from the well data, and with this
information, the optimum diameter for the pipes can be known. Figure 3 shows a
contour plan of Berlín geothermal field. Stress analysis should be carried out for
the following load cases for compliance with the code requirement and support
load calculation. B31.1 requires that a pipeline shall be analyzed between anchors
for the effects of:

 Sustained loads, Gravity + Pressure;

 Operation loads, thermal expansion stress alone or thermal expansion stress
+ sustained loads;
 Occasional loads, sustained loads + seismic load or wind load perpendicular
to the general alignment of the pipe;
 Occasional loads, sustained loads + seismic loads along the general direction
of the pipe; 5. Reverse the direction of seismic or wind loads; 6. Modes of
thermal operation need to be considered in the analysis. In addition to this,
an analysis should be carried out for zero friction to determine the maximum
load on the anchors in the event of an earthquake. Other dynamic loads that
 can be considered are fluid hammer effects, thrusts from safety valves, and
slugging flow. In Figure 4 is shown the well pad piping analysis using the
software Pipe Plus

Expansion loops, pipe supports and anchors locations

Expansion loops are the most commonly used in cross-country pipelines to handle
thermal expansion. On standard runs, L bends, Z bends, conventional 90 degree
elbow and V bends are the mostly used pipe configuration for the design. Z bends
can be very stable on downhill runs. Horizontal loops are very effective in
congested areas. Custom design based on following the natural configuration of the
terrain can be very effective on cross- country designs. Anchors shall be
strategically located to reduce the magnitude of the resultant load. This reduces the
size of the foundation. Typically, a cross- country pipe run without compensators
will require an anchor every 150 to 200 meters. The types of supports used are Y
stop, Guide, Line Stop, Constant Weight Support, Shock absorbers.

Reducing the number of pipe supports by spacing them as far apart as the
maximum pipe span is allowed. There should be a pipe support located near every
bend, as it reduces eccentric loading on the pipe and minimizes vertical vibration at
bends, especially in two- phase lines. Pipes are run close to the ground to reduce
overturning moment effect on the pipe support and anchors, which then reduce the
foundation size and hence the cost

Piping connected to equipment shall be designed so that any forces or

moments caused by thermal expansion, dead and operating loads, do not exceed
the limits specified by R-001 or the manufacturer. Piping configurations at
equipment shall be designed and supported so that equipment can be dismantled or
removed without adding temporary supports or dismantling valves and piping
other than removing spool pieces or reducers adjacent to equipment.

Clearances shall permit installing blind flanges or reversible spades on block

valves on hazardous fluids or high pressure lines. Break out spools shall be as short
as possible. In the design of piping for rotating equipment provision shall be made
for sufficient flexibility without the use of flexible couplings and expansion
bellows. Cold springing of piping at rotating equipment shall not be used. Where
deck level pipe supports are required at pumps, compressors or turbines, they shall
be supported on integral extensions of the equipment support structure, and not be
anchored to equipment base plate. This requirement shall apply to resilient as well
as fixed supports, guides and anchors. Provision shall be made for the isolation of
equipment with blinds or the removal of spool pieces for pressure testing and
maintenance. Suitable supports and anchors shall be provided so that excessive
weight and thermal stresses are not imposed on the casing of rotating equipment.
Piping shall be balanced through the use of spring supports and other supports to
minimise the load exerted on the main compressor gas nozzles. The same is
applicable for nozzles of large centrifugal pumps.

Additional requirements related to piping systems

4.9.1 Air piping

Air piping shall have self draining provision at all low points for the collection of
condensate. Air traps shall be provided with isolation valves, balance lines and
drains to local collection points. Instrument air headers and manifolds shall not be
dead ended but supplied with blind flanges for cleaning and maintenance. All
branches and take-offs shall be from the top of the headers.

4.9.2 Steam piping

Steam piping shall be run to prevent pockets. Condensate shall be collected at low
points by using a standard steam trapping system. Drain points shall be from the
bottom of the header and steam take-offs from the top.

Utility stations

Utility stations shall be provided as required for air, water, steam/hot water and
nitrogen. Each station shall be numbered and located in the general working areas
at deck level. Freshwater, seawater and plant air systems shall be equipped with
hosereels. Nitrogen stations shall not be located inside enclosed areas. Nitrogen
hoses shall be installed if required (for reference, see L-003). Different types of
couplings shall be used for air and nitrogen.

Pressure relief piping

Piping to pressure relief valve inlet shall be as short as possible. When relief valves
discharge to atmosphere, the elevation at the top of the discharge line shall
typically be 3000 mm above all adjacent equipment. This is to keep adjacent
equipment outside plume area. Discharge tail pipes shall have a drain hole at the
low point of the line. Relief valves discharging to a flare system shall be installed
so as to prevent liquid being trapped on the outlet side of the valve. All relief lines
and headers shall be designed to eliminate pockets, but if a relief valve must be
located at a lower elevation than the header, an automatically operated drain valve
shall be installed at the valve outlet and piped to a collecting vessel or closed drain.
Relief valve headers shall slope towards the knock-out drum, taking into account
anticipated deck deflection and platform tilt during operation. Pockets are to be
avoided, but where a pocket is unavoidable, some approved means of continuous
draining for the header shall be incorporated. Unless specifically noted on the
P&ID all branch connections on relief and blow down systems shall be at 90° to
the pipe run. Should there be a special requirement for a particular branch to enter
a header 45°, this shall be highlighted by process engineers on the P&ID.
 METHODOLOGY

The piping layout) is modeled using CAESAR-II, the end of the pipe are rigidly
fixed using anchor and the input parameters listed in table are given, then the
analysis of layout is carried out with providing necessary supports, Then the input
temperature and pressure values are varied and their respective.

PARAMETERS VALUE

Operating temperature 400

Operating Pressure 100bar

Material SS 316

Diameter of pipe 4. 5 inch

Thickness of pipe 0. 5 inch

Corrosion 0.1
LITERATURE REVIEW
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

C. Basavaraju has done intensive research on piping systems, materials used,

supports, fittings, insulation properties, operating medium in pipe line and analysed
the main stream line of thermal power plant and provided supports to successful
installation. In the journal, the tertiary supports such as hanger was used.

Mat´as Alvarado has given the basic ideas about the piping analysis software
CAESAR II. PSA is a complex engineering discipline which covers the design,
analysis and identification of piping problems by ensuring that weight, thermal,
and pressure stresses are at acceptable levels specified in engineering design
standards, problems such as thermal; deadweight analysis seismic analysis (static
or dynamic); wind load analysis; transient analysis; dynamic analysis about
exchanging data from CAESAR II.

Dr. D. P. Vakharia, Mohamed. Farooq A investigated the piping stresses,

leakage at joints, excessive thrusts and moments on connected equipment,
excessive stresses in supporting, excessive interference with thermal expansion and
contraction in piping, excessive distortion in piping and determined the maximum
span based on the maximum bending stress theory. After the analysis, authors
listed the nominal pipe diameter and suggested maximum span . Jaroslav Mackerle
carried out a bibliographic review and provided a list of papers in FEA of pressure
vessels and piping domain. This is during the period 1998 to 2004. These papers
provide an over sight to problems in the work area and approaches used. Papers are
categorized based on type of analysis done like structural, thermal, fluid etc. His
studies were on the pressure vessels which were subjected to static and dynamic
analysis using the finite element techniques. The various types of analysis which
were conducted included deformation and stress, linear elastic static and dynamic
analysis both in 2D and 3D, seismic response analysis and impact analysis. He also
performed finite element analysis on the components of the pressure vessel and
piping to evaluate the residual stresses, response to detonation loading, damping
characteristics, local mechanical behavior studies determining plastic and limit
loads, stiffness evaluation and stress concentration factors. An organized approach
to piping vibration assessment and control was provided by Naren Sukaih.
Emphasis was on vibration control through measuring and refining the supporting
systems. To demonstrate the use and flexibility of the above method a case study
was considered, by carrying out a comprehensive stress analysis using CEASAR II
software. Maki M. Onari and Paul A. Boyadjis discussed vibration issues
associated with pumps used in chemical plants, refineries and waste water
treatment plant. Normally problems associated with 1X and 2X running speed
problems due to imbalance and misalignment problems were handled successfully
without much difficulty. But vibration due to resonance of structural natural
frequency or geometrical changes is complicated. So these type of problems can be
handled by ODS analysis and FEA. Mark H. Richardson and others explained
basics of ODS analysis and techniques using ME’ scope VES™ software by
Vibrant Technology, Inc. USA. Detailed procedures were provided for vibration
measurement, modeling and analysis. Various techniques of time domain there are
various methods to tackle the excessive vibration or resonance in the piping work.
Different cases require different methodology, due variation in support
configurations, geometrical and structural changes, type of fluid etc. For flow
related resonance computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tools can be used.
General static and dynamic analysis can be done using CAESAR II. For extensive
structural, modal and thermal analysis can be done using ANSYS for few elements
of the piping. ODS analysis can be done for modal as well as stress analysis with
real time vibration measurement systems
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 Chapter-2

SELECTION OF MATERIAL

STAINLESS STEEL

Introduction

Stainless steel belongs to the high alloy steel group. Chromium (Cr) is the element
the makes stainless steel stainless or corrosion resistant. the chromium combines
with oxygen and creates an invisible though impregnable Chromium oxide on the
surface. I t must contain at least 11.5% chromium, that is the content at which an
effective layer is formed that seals the surface against any further atmospheric
corrosion. Nickel (Ni) in excess of about 6% increases corrosion resistance slightly
and greatly improves mechanical properties. Small amounts of Molybdenum (Mo)
increase resistance to pitting type corrosion and general resistance to certain
corrosive media. Stainless steel alloy with molybdenum is referred to as acid
resistant. Molybdenum also improves high temperature strength.

Carbon increases strength, but in connection with stainless steel and in

amounts above 0.04% it will cause chromium carbide formation (Chrome carbide
particles) between 430-870C . The chrome carbide cannot combine with oxygen to
create chrome oxide. This reduces the corrosion resistance in local areas leading to
inter granular corrosion. By chemical composition or heat treatment, or a
combination, the stainless steel receives one of the following micro structures
when manufactured: Austenitic, Ferritic, Martensitic and ferritic/Austenitic(Duplex
Stainless Steel)
Characteristics of Stainless steel

 Poor heat conductivity(40% less)

 Higher coefficient of expansion
 Occurrence of structural changes following welding(Carbide, sigma phase)
 Sensitivity to certain corrosion phenomena, such as strong pitting, or crack
formation(stress corrosion)

Out of the wide range of standard wrought austenitic stainless steels several have
been used extensively for equipment operating at sub-zero temperatures which
may be as low as the boiling point of liquid helium (-269°C). As the temperature is
lowered the strength of these steels increases rapidly, whilst ductility and impact
toughness are maintained at a high level as temperatures approach absolute zero.
The steels are well suited for equipment handling liquid gases and for other liquids
where corrosion resistance is also required, e.g., the low-temperature processing of
foods and other products where product contamination must be held to a minimum.
The most widely used wrought stain-less steels for cryogenic service are the AISI
Types 304 and 304L, while Types 316, 316L, 321 and 347 are also used,
dependent upon the availability in the particular form or size required. For
temperatures below about -200°C the non-stabilized grades are generally preferred.
Data for each of these types are included in the present publication together with
summaries of the relevant European national specifications and steel designations.
Data for the corresponding casting grades are also given. Particular care should be
exercised in selecting appropriate grades of cast stainless steel for cryogenic.
STAINLESS STEEL SS316

Chemical composition:

ELEMENTS % LEVEL
C 0.08
Mn 2.0
Si 0.75
P 0.045
S 0.03
Cr 16
Mo 2-3
Ni 10-14
N 0.10

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SS316:

 Contain between 16 and 25 percent chromium, plus sufficient amount of

nickel, molybdenum and/or nitrogen
 Have a face-centered-cubic (FCC) structure
 Nonmagnetic
 Good toughness
 Austenitic, High strength, best corrosion resistance. High temp capability up
to 1200 F.
 General use where corrosion resistance is needed.
  Typical alloy 18% Cr and 10% Ni = commonly known as 18/10 stainless.
 Higher ductility
 Higher strength and hardness
 Higher hot strength

USES OF STAINLESS STEEL

A short description of the various grades of stainless steel used in marine

applications. It has been written primarily from a European perspective and may
not fully reflect the practice in other regions. Materials for marine applications are
selected to maintain the integrity of the structure (i.e. to be sufficiently robust
withstand their service environment) and to be corrosion resistant. Stainless steels
are used in marine applications because they are resistant to corrosion, easily
fabricated and offer good mechanical properties. The following examples may
serve to indicate the considerations made in selecting a suitable grade of stainless
steel for marine applications. Austenitic stainless steel grades 1.4401 (AISI 316)
and its derivatives are suitable for coastal service environments, splash zone
applications and intermittent submersion in seawater. Although 1.4401 and its
derivatives were once known as “marine grade” stainless steel, they are no longer
recommended for permanent contact with seawater. Super austenitic stainless
steels containing 6% molybdenum are now recommended for permanent
immersion in seawater.

SELECTION OF CAESAR SOFTWARE

Design review in piping stress analysis software CAESAR II . Design review on

the piping structure modelled in CAESAR II was conducted with static and
dynamic analysis with basic inputs as per code ASME standard. In dynamic
module modal analysis and harmonic analysis was carried out

Power piping : B31.1

Process piping : B31.3

Gas piping : B31.2

Refrigeration piping: B31.5

POWER PIPING

This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, erection,
test, inspection, operation, and maintenance of piping systems. Piping as used in
this Code includes pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, pressure-relieving valves/
devices, fittings, and the pressure containing portions of other piping components,
whether manufactured in accordance with Standards listed in specially designed. It
also includes hangers and supports and other equipment items necessary to prevent
overstressing the pressure containing components.

SELECTION OF CODE (B31.1)

Background

This chapter is based on the 2007 edition of ASME B31.1, Power Piping Code. As
changes, some very significant, are made to the Code every year, the reader should
refer to the Code for any specific requirements. This chapter should be considered
to provide background information and not specific, current Code rules.
References herein to Sections I, II, III, V, VIII, and IX are references to Sections of
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. References to a Para. Are generally to
a paragraph in ASME B31.1 or to a paragraph in this book. The equations that are
numbered in this chapter use the same numbers as are used in ASME B31.1.
Equations that are not numbered are either not in ASME B31.1 or are not
numbered therein. Published references are listed at the end of each major section
of this chapter. Reference documents other than codes and standards are numbered.
Codes and standards, such as those provided by the ASME, API, AWWA, and
ASTM, are simply listed at the end of each reference section

History of B31.1

In 1926, the American Standards Institute initiated Project B31 to develop a piping
Code. The ASME was the sole administrative sponsor. The first publication of this
document, American Tentative Standard Code for Pressure Piping, occurred in
1935. From 1942 through 1955, the Code was published as the American Standard
Code for Pressure Piping, ASA B31.1. It consisted of separate sections for
different industries. These sections were split off, starting in 1955, with the Gas
Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems, ASA B31.8. ASA B31.3,
Petroleum Refinery Piping Code, was first published in 1959. A number of
separate documents have been prepared, most of which have been published. With
respect to the initials that appear in front of B31.1, these have been ASA, ANSI,
and ASME. It is currently correct to refer to the Code as ASME B31.1. The initial
designation ASA referred to the American Standards Association. This became the
United States of America Standards Institute and then the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) between 1967 and 1969; thus, ASA was changed to
ANSI. In 1978, the Standards Committee was reorganized as a committee
operating under ASME procedures with ANSI accreditation. Therefore, the initials
ASME now appear in front of B31.1. These changes in acronyms have not changed
the committee structure or the Code itself.
Scope of B31.1

The ASME B31.1 Code was written with power piping in mind. It was intended to
cover the fuel gas and oil systems in the plant (downstream of the meters), central
and district heating systems, in addition to the water and steam systems in power
plants. The 1998 edition specifically listed systems that are included and those that
are excluded. However, the ASME B31 Standards Committee has directed that the
B31 Codes be revised to permit the Owner to select the piping code most
appropriate to their piping installation; this change is incorporated in the 1999
addenda. The Introduction to ASME B31.1 (as well as the Introductions to the
other B31 Codes) states the following: It is the Owner’s responsibility to select the
Code Section which most nearly applies to a proposed piping installation.

Factors to be considered by the Owner include: limitations of the Code

Section; jurisdictional requirements; and the applicability of other Codes and
Standards. All applicable requirements of the selected Code Section shall be met.
The applications considered in the preparation of ASME B31.1 include piping
typically found in electric-generating stations, industrial and institutional plants,
geothermal heating systems, and central and district heating and cooling systems. It
also includes the following: (1) central and district heating systems for the
distribution of steam and hot water away from the plant; and (2) fuel gas or fuel oil
piping from where it is brought into the plant site from a distribution system,
downstream from the outlet of the plant meter set assembly, unless the meter set
assembly is located outside of the plant property.
TYPES OF LOADS IN PIPE

Primary Loads

These are typically steady or sustained types of loads such as internal fluid
pressure, external pressure, gravitational forces acting on the pipe such as weight
of pipe and fluid, forces due to relief or blow down pressure waves generated due
to water hammer effects. The last two loads are not necessarily sustained loads. All
these loads occur because of forces created and acting on the pipe. In fact, primary
loads have their origin in some force acting on the pipe causing tension,
compression, torsion etc. leading to normal and shear stresses.
Secondary Loads

Just as the primary loads have their origin in some forces; secondary loads are
caused by displacement of some kind. For example, the pipe connected to a storage
tank may be under load, if the tank nozzle to which it is connected moves down
due to tank settlement. Similarly, pipe connected to a vessel is pulled upwards
because the vessel nozzle moves up due to vessel expansion. Also, a pipe may
vibrate due to vibrations in the rotating equipment it is attached to. A pipe may
experience expansion or contraction once it is subjected to temperatures higher or
lower respectively as compared to temperature at which it was assembled. The
secondary loads are often cyclic, but not always. For example load due to tank
settlement is not cyclic. The load due to vessel nozzle movement during operation
Internal/External Pressure

A pipe used for transporting fluid would be under internal pressure load. A pipe
such as a jacketed pipe core or tubes in a Shell & Tube exchanger etc. may be
under net external pressure. Internal or external pressure induces stresses in the
axial as well as circumferential (Hoop’ s) directions. The pressure also induces
stresses in the radial direction.
Bending Load
A pipe can face sustained loads causing bending. The bending moment can be
related to normal and shear stresses. Pipe bending is caused mainly due to two
reasons: Uniform weight load and concentrated weight load. A pipe span supported
at two ends

PIPING SUPPORT

People around the world use pipe supports and restraints, in fact they spend
somewhere in the region of £250million on ‘engineered supports’ each year. When
people ask me what I do for a living, the usual response to my answer is ‘Oh, the
things you see in hospitals, colleges and large buildings.’ The next time you go to a
shopping mall or into a department store just peer through the suspended ceiling
and you will understand their answer. When I then explain that we support pipes
that operate at temperatures as high as 850o C and diameters large enough to walk
through they become very interested. Add a little spice by telling them that our
main market places are Asia and the Middle East and suddenly they want to know
much more about the subject. However, setting aside the images that these remarks
conjure up there are very real and practical reasons for companies and corporations
to spend such large sums of money on what for many appear to be just rods and
clamps. The majority of pipes that we support and restrain are actually long thin
pressure vessels operating at extreme pressures and temperatures.

In general they connect one large piece of equipment to another and

facilitate the flow of fluid between the various processes. During the operating
cycle of the plant there is inevitably a change in temperature. Even changes in
temperature between day and night can have significant effects on long pipe-lines
or pipes made from non-metallic materials. Almost all materials expand or contract
as their temperature is increased or decreased. A pipe that carries steam from a
boiler to a turbine heats up from ambient temperature to 570o C. This change in
temperature will cause the pipe to expand by approximately 7.5mm/m, though the
change is most prominent in the length of the pipe rather than in its diameter.

A 100m length of pipe will therefore increase in length by 750mm. Imagine

if the pipe could not expand or contract freely, the force generated in preventing
the expansion to take place would cause substantial damage to either the pipe or
the equipment at each end of it! Consider the pipe work in a power station and
liken it to your own central heating system where fluid is pumped around a closed
system. In the boiler water is heated under pressure allowing its temperature to be
increased to over five times the normal boiling temperature of water. An escape of
steam under these conditions could simply cut a man in half. This steam passes
through the piping into the turbine where the pressure drives the turbine and
generates the electricity. Inside the turbine the pressure is reduced and the
temperature of the steam decreases. It is then sent back to the boiler where it is
heated up again and so the cycle continues. The greater the demand on the power
station, the higher the operating pressure and temperature will be. The analogy
with the central heating system is that when your heating comes on or goes off you
hear all sorts of creeks and bumps as the system heats-up or cools-down.

PIPE HANGERS

A Guide to the Selection, Application & Function Of Pipe Hangers

To provide a general knowledge of the Pipe Supports Group, the market place, the
application and need for the product and the types of product and service offered.
Selection and Specification of Spring Hangers

encompassing manual methods of selecting constant and variable effort supports

together with a review of the selection methods described in our product catalogue
and detailed descriptions of how each of these items functions Pipe is held either
from above by hangers or supports of various types on which it rests. Hangers are
also referred to as supports. There are a number of typical pipe supports that can be
installed to support dead weight loads, and restrain the pipe for thermal and
dynamic loads. The designs are only limited by the imagination of the engineer and
designer, as literally thousands of different designs have been used for special
purposes. Pipe is rested on or secured to a support member usually of a standard
structural shape (I-beam, wide flange beam, angle, channel etc.). The pipe may be
secured to this member with a pipe support. Pipe supports and hangers are devices
which transfer the loads from the pipe or the structural attachment to the
supporting structure or equipment. They include rod hangers, spring hangers, sway
braces, turnbuckles, struts, anchors, saddles, rollers, brackets, and sliding supports.
Structural attachments are elements that are welded, bolted, or clamped to the pipe,
such as clips, lugs, clamps, clevises, and stops. The correct and economical
selection of the supports for any piping system usually presents difficulties of
varying degrees, some relatively minor and others of a more critical nature. Proper
support selection should be the objective of all phases of design and construction.
PIPE SUPPORTS STANDARDS

The code ASME B 31.1 specifies under clause 321.1.1 the ay out and design of
piping and its supporting elements shall be directed toward preventing the
following:

 Piping stresses in excess of those permitted in the Code

 Leakage at joints
 Excessive thrusts and moments on connected equipment (such as pumps and
turbines)
 Excessive stresses in the supporting (or restraining) elements
 Resonance with imposed or fluid-induced vibrations
  Excessive interference with thermal expansion and contraction in piping
which is otherwise adequately flexible
 Unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports
 Excessive piping sag in piping requiring drainage slope
 Excessive distortion or sag of piping (e.g., thermoplastics) subject to creep
under conditions of repeated thermal cycling
 Excessive heat flow, exposing supporting elements to temperature extremes
outside their design limits

DETERMINATION OF SUPPORT LOCATIONS

Support locations are dependent on many considerations, such as pipe size, piping
configuration, the location of heavy Valves and fittings, and the structure that is
available for support. Following rules of thumb will help when doing the flexibility
analysis and operation and maintenance:
 As much as possible, attach supports to straight pipe rather than elbows, other
fittings, Valves, flanges or instruments, but provide supports near instruments,
and other devices that are likely to be removed for maintenance.
 Provide space for adding loops to piping near load sensitive equipment, e.g. in
pump suction lines.
 Consider the need to add friction reducing slides between the piping and
support steel.
 Support piping such that spools to be removed for equipment maintenace can
be removed without adding temporary supports.
 Minimize the use of spring hangers
DETERMINATION OF LOADS AND MOVEMENTS

The anticipated movement at each support point dictates the basic type of support
required. Each type of support selected must be capable of accommodating
movements. It is a good practice to select first the most simple or basic rigid
support type and to add to the complexity only as conditions warrant. No
advantage will be realized in upgrading a support when a simpler, more
economical type can be shown to satisfy all the design requirements.

Both vertical and horizontal movement must be evaluated. When piping

vertical movement is small, the use of simple rod hangers should be adequate.
With small vertical movement and significant horizontal movement, the simple rod
hanger will still suffice, provided the overall length is sufficient to keep the angular
swing of the rod within reasonable limits-normally accepted as being 4° from the
vertical. When one is calculating the total movement experienced by the support,
both horizontal displacements and the vertical displacement must be combined and
normalized to the axis of the support.

Consideration should be given to relocating the upper connection some

percentage (usually two-thirds) of the total movement as a means for reducing the
angularity in the hot position. For piping supported from below, some form of slide
must be incorporated to provide for the horizontal movement; or, in the case of
ensured longitudinal movement, a pipe roll may be used. Rollers are usually only
used on long runs of piping supported on racks such as found in refinery piping.
Suspended hangers with considerable horizontal movement and low headroom will
require either single- or double direction trolleys or rollers. Where both
longitudinal and lateral movements are large, consideration may be given to the
use of a single-direction trolley oriented on the resultant movement vector.

OFTEN USED PIPE SUPPORTS

ANCHORS
A rigid support that restricts movement in all three orthogonal directions and all
three rotational directions. This usually is a welded stanchion that is welded or
bolted to steel or concrete. Two types of anchors exist: fixed and directional.
Fixed anchors are used in locations where all movement of a line must be
prevented. In piping terms this is called a fixed point. The most common way to
anchor a pipe is to weld the pipe directly to a support or structural member. If the
pipe to be anchored is insulated, first a pipe shoe is welded to the pipe and then the
shoe is welded to the steel structure. Directional anchors are used to force
movement to occur in one direction while preventing it from occuring in the
opposite direction. Directional anchors are used to direct a pipe's movement away
from buildings, structures, equipment etc. A vertical pipe support that incorporates
a rod. It may be a rigid, variable spring or constant support hanger. Hanger is a
term that often means quite different things to different people. Rod hangers or
pipe hangers attaches to the pipe by a U bolt, a clevis, a pipe clamp etc. to
structural steel above. The rod hanger provides support in the vertical direction and
allows limited motion in the horizontal direction. Adjustment in the vertical
direction can be accomplished by threads or a turnbuckle. See hanger rod image on
the right of this page.
GUIDES
When total restriction of pipe movement is not required, pipe guides are used. Pipe
guides confine movement along the pipe's lineal axis. In piping terms this is called
a sliding point. They are used primarily to maintain proper line spacing in a pipe
rack and they prevent lateral or side way movement. Unlike the pipe anchor which
is welded to the pipe and steel structure, the guide allows pipe to slide lengthwise
between two angle shapes. When the pipe is supported on shoes, the angle shapes
are positioned on either side of the shoe. For an image of guides see directional
anchor above.

HANGER

A specially engineered hanger that is designed to travel through many inches of

vertical travel with a minimal change in support load. There are different styles and
types depending on the manufacturers. Per MSS SP-58 a constant support hanger
can be within specification and still have a load variation of plus minus 6%
through the travel range. Some suppliers claim a tighter tolerance on the load
variation. Constant hangers and constant supports are used for piping and related
components where higher levels of vertical travel occur. Their job is to transfer the
working load over the whole travel area while maintaining constancy, i.e., without
any considerable deviations. The functional precision of the constant hanger is
decisive for the favorable long term behaviour of the components concerned.
Constant hangers compensate for vertical movement caused by thermal expansion.
Via constant hangers, the respective piping loads are constantly absorbed and
transferred with no significant deviation over the whole range of
movement. Significant deviations would act as harmful and uncontrolled extra
loads in the system.
VARIABLE SPRING HANGERS AND SUPPORTS

A helical coil that supports dead weight load. The support load changes as the
spring moves through its range at a specified spring rate. This support can be a
hanger above the pipe, or a floor support below the pipe. To prevent constraints in
the system, thermal expansion in the piping and other piping components must not
be hindered. The piping must therefore be supported in a correspondingly elastic
manner. To compensate for slight vertical displacements in the piping, spring
components are used as supports. The functioning of these components is based on
preset helical coil springs which exert a variable supporting load over the whole
range of movement corresponding to the given spring characteristics. Load
variations resulting from this are limited through corresponding specifications
based on stress calculations for the piping - this depends on the sensitivity of the
system.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

OPTIMIZE PIPE ROUTINGS

 REPORT
DISPLACEMENT
Power piping
STRESS VALUE
APPLICATION

APPLICATION
 Steam power plant used in this project

 accurate analysis of piping systems:

1. Weight
2. Pressure
3. Thermal
4. static and dynamic loads
5. Also, It can analyze piping systems of any size or complexity.
CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION

Analysis the piping stress through the variation of the pipe material with respect

to pressure and temperature was optimized. As per the piping layout taken from the

ASME journal Chapter stress analysis of piping systems, number of hanger and

guide support used to reduced load. The results are compared for different loading

conditions and a suitable material is selected for the research of stainless steel

material using load, time and material cost reduced.

REFERENCES

REFERENCES
 C. Basavaraju, Senior Engineering Specialist, Bechtel Power Corporation.

Maryland ASME journal, Chapter B4- Stress Analysis of Piping Systems,

Page (B.107–B.214).

 L. Di. Giacomo, Senior Engineering Specialist, Bechtel Power Corporation.

Maryland ASME Journal, Chapter B5; Piping Supports, Page (B.215-B240).

 Mat´as Alvarado, Decision-Making on Pipe Stress Analysis Enabled by

Knowledge- Based Systems/ Knowl Inf Syst (2007) 12(2): Page (255–278).

 Peter Smith Piping Materials Selection and Applications-by.

 Prabir K. Sen, Hojjat Adeli.International Journal of Pressure Vessels and

Piping 83 (2006), Page (447–463), Engineering and Piping Design uide,

NOV Fiber Glass Systems, Page (1-14.31,32,33)

 Dr.D.P. Vakharia, Mohamed. Farooq A Determination of maximum span

between pipe supports using maximum bending stress theory, recent trends

in engineering volume 1.No.6,May(2009) page 46-49

 Pipe Hanger & Support Recommended Specifications, Erico Private

Limited- Page (107- 118).

 Transactions, SMiRT 16, Washington DC, August 2001, Page (1117-1125).