Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 4 (1990) 189-196 189

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Effects of divalent ions in surfactant flooding

N. Agharazi-Dormani, V. Hornof and G.H. Neale

Department of Chemical Engineering, Universityof Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont. KIN 6N5 (Canada)
(Received January 1, 1989; revised and accepted April 16, 1989)

ABSTRACT

Agharazi-Dormani, N., Hornof, V. and Neale, G.H., 1990. Effects of divalent ions in surfactant flooding. J. Pet. Sci. Eng.,
4: 189-196.

The effect of divalent ions on the oil recovery efficacy of petroleum sulfonate surfactants was investigated. The oil
recovery tests were conducted in unconsolidated model porous media composed of fine glass particles. It was found that
tertiary recoveries effected by surfactant injection were consistently higher when the brine in the porous medium con-
tained divalent ions. The results are explained by complete or partial pore blockage by precipitates formed when the
petroleum sulfonate encounters divalent ions, which results in increased sweep efficiency. This conclusion is corroborated
by the results of experiments in which a non-surfactant precipitate was formed in the porous medium during the flood.

Introduction tion, oil droplet coalescence, etc., add to the

Surfactant flooding has been widely ac-
claimed as a method of producing additional
oil from partially depleted petroleum reser-
voirs. The mechanism of the surfactant action
in a porous medium partially filled with oil and
brine is, however, only poorly understood. In
water-wet systems, for example, the oil left be-
hind after a waterflood is discontinuous and it
consists mainly of isolated oil droplets and
ganglia trapped in the pores. In order to facili-
tate a substantial mobilization of this residual
oil at fluid velocities attainable in the field, it
is necessary to reduce the interfacial tension
(IFT) at the oil-water interface to less than
10 -2 mN m -~ (Reed and Healy, 1977) from
the normal 20-30 mN m - ~ range prevalent in
water-flooding. Furthermore, it is important
that such low IFT's be sustained for a consid-
erable period of time. Effects of other factors
such as rock heterogeneity, surfactant interac-
tion with reservoir fluids, surfactant adsorp-
complexity of the system.
Among the various types of surfactants pro-
posed, petroleum sulfonates have shown much
promise because of their relatively low cost and
their dramatic effect on IFT. Their sensitivity
to the reservoir environment however is a ma-
jor drawback. Of particular concern is their
poor salt tolerance and, especially, their sensi-
tivity to the presence of divalent ions. Such in-
teractions have been investigated by Shah and
coworkers (Bansal and Shah, 1978a,b). In
particular, Bansal and Shah (1978a) reported
an increase in IFT with increasing CaC12 (or
MgC12) concentration in connate water. They
also noted that the optimum salinity (in terms
of NaC1 concentration) dropped as they in-
creased the concentration of divalent ions, this
effect being more dramatic in the case of cal-
cium. Hirasaki and Lawson ( 1982 ) studied the
association of surfactant micelles with sodium
and calcium ions using electrostatic and equi-
librium models. Glover et al. ( 1979 ) reported

0920-4105/90/$03.50 © 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

190
that divalent ions form sulfonate species which
can strongly influence the microemulsion
phase behavior. This effect has been studied in
detail by Celik et al. (1982). They reported
that the interaction between divalent ions and
petroleum sulfonates initially involved precip-
itation, followed by redissolution at higher
surfactant concentrations.
Recent work carried out in this laboratory
has shown that the IFT of dilute petroleum
sulfonate solutions against oil increased dra-
matically upon additions of calcium or mag-
nesium salts ( K u m a r et al., 1984). The aggre-
gates formed had a high viscosity and
precipitation occurred above a given salt con-
centration. Such p h e n o m e n a would undoubt-
edly have an effect on oil mobilization and ul-
timate recovery, in addition to the already
described effects exerted by the interfacial ten-
sion. In the present work, surfactant flooding
tests have been conducted under different
conditions of connate or after-waterflood water
salinity and cation type. It should be noted that
the objective has not been to optimize the re-
covery process itself, but rather to elucidate the
effect of surfactant/salt interaction on oil re-
covery in a model porous medium.
Experimental
Equipment and materials
The oil used in the present study was a light
crude from the Gosfield South field in
Chatham, Ontario. Its physical and chemical
properties are shown in Table 1.
Unconsolidated glass beads packs provided
the porous medium. The beads were pre-sieved
to reduce their size distribution range. The
particles had a predominantly spherical shape
with a diameter of 6 3 - 1 4 9 / t m and an absolute
density of 2.50 g c m - 3. A wet-packing m e t h o d
similar to that recently published by Polikar et
al. (1988) was employed to pack beads in a
cylindricalplexiglass holder 43 cm in length and
3.8 cm in diameter. When the packing process
N. AGHARAZI-DORMANIET AL.
TABLE 1
Properties of Chatham crude oil
Density at 25°C (g cm -3) 0.824
API Gravity at 60°F 39.4
Viscosity at 25°C (mPa s) 5.55
pH 5.8
Color Greenish black
Carbon (wt.%) 85.70
Hydrogen (wt.%) 13.39
Nitrogen (wt.%) 0.40
Sulfur (wt.%) 0.18
Ash (wt.%) 0.007
Water (wt.%) Nil
was completed, the displacement apparatus
was assembled and permeability measure-
ments were initiated. The porous m e d i u m had
a porosity of 0.34-0.36 and a permeability of
1-2/zm 2 (about 1-2 darcy ).
The surfactant used was a petroleum sulfo-
nate commercially known as Petrostep-420. Its
properties are summarized in Table 2. To pre-
pare the surfactant solution, first an aqueous
solution of 1.5 wt.% sodium chloride was made
and then the desired a m o u n t of surfactant was
added to it. The solution was stirred for a pe-
riod of 24 h until all of the surfactant had com-
pletely dissolved.
Reagent purity sodium, magnesium and cal-
cium chloride were used to prepare the brine
solutions. Hexadecyl trimethyl a m m o n i u m
bromide (HTAB) was used as an emulsion
breaking agent to facilitate the separation of
recovered oil from the water phase.
Measurements of physical properties
IFT measurements were carried out using a
University of Texas spinning drop tensiome-
ter. Measurements of pH were conducted us-
ing a Beckman Zeromatic pH-meter. Viscosity
was measured using a Brookfield viscometer
with a U.L. adapter at speeds of 30 and 60 rpm.
All the measurements were conducted at
2 4 + 1 °C.
EFFECTS OF DIVALENT IONS IN SURFACTANT FLOODING 191

R3 R2 ! R1

P2 ~~ Pl l~i~l'

+
Fig. 1. Oil displacementapparatus. PI, oil injectionpump; P2, brine/surfactant injectionpump; R1, crude oil reservoir;
R2, surfactant reservoir;R3, brine reservoir;B, burette filledwith water; C, core holder; G, upstream pressuregauge;M,
manometer.

TABLE 2 ously into the porous medium. The additional

Specificationsof Petrostep-420 petroleum sulfonate
Approximate equivalentweight 420
Active sulfonate content (wt.%) 59.1
Free oil (wt.%) 17.3
Water (wt.%) 19.5
InorganicSalts (wt.%) 4.1
Displacements
The initial oil saturation, So~, was obtained
by flooding the brine-saturated bead pack with
crude oil until constant oil saturation was ob-
tained. The average initial oil saturation was
90.1% with a standard deviation of 1.6. This
corresponds closely to the results reported by
Polikar et al. ( 1988 ).
The displacement tests normally consisted of
two consecutive operations (see Fig. 1 ):
(1) Secondary recovery: The porous me-
dium was flooded with brine until the oil re-
covery had virtually stopped (about 5-6 PV).
An after-waterflood residual oil saturation,
SOR, was thus established.
(2) Tertiary recovery: In this step, 3-4 PV
of surfactant solution were injected continu-
recovery of oil was measured.
After secondary recovery, most of the pore
volume (60-70%) was filled with the brine
used for flooding. In the case of divalent-ion-
containing brines, this situation is rather arti-
ficial as in reality waterflooding does not em-
ploy water of the same (high) salinity as the
connate water originally present in the reser-
voir. In the context of the present work, how-
ever, such exaggerated conditions were con-
sidered useful with a view of better discerning
the effects of surfactant-brine interactions.
The injection rate for all displacement runs
was 4 cm 3 min -1 (corresponding to a linear
displacement velocity of about 5 m d a y - l ). A
small amount of an emulsion breaking agent
(HTAB) was added to the effluent fluids, and
the oil and water contents were then measured
volumetrically. During the experiments the
temperature was maintained at 24 ___1 °C.
Resultsanddiscussion
Brine selection and characterization
The salt concentration ranges were the same
as those employed by Kumar et al. (1984) in
192
TABLE 3
Brine composition and properties
Brine IFT (mN m - i ) Contact Viscosity
angle
no with 0.2% (°)
surfactant Petrostep-420
A: 1.5%NaC1 5.1 0.09 6.3
B: 1.5%NaCI
4.8% CaC12 4.2 0.36 9.5
1.6% MgCI2
C: 1.6% MgCI2 0.8 0.15
D: 4.8%CAC12 1.8 0.45
a previous study. They were based on the basis
of a survey of connate water compositions in
both U.S. and Canadian reservoirs (McCain,
1973; Watkins, 1962).
The salt concentrations were selected so as
to ensure that no surfactant precipitation
would occur in the presence of the sodium
chloride brine (Son et al., 1982 ) while all three
divalent-ion containing brines would produce
a precipitate ( K u m a r et al., 1984).
The concentrations and properties of the
brines are summarized in Table 3. Interfacial
tensions against crude oil are shown both in
the absence and in the presence of surfactant.
In the absence of surfactant, the highest I F T
was observed with brine A ( 1.5% NaC1) and
the lowest with brine C ( 1.6% MgC12). These
tensions are quite low and they are in agree-
ment with I F T values determined previously
against another batch of the same crude oil
(Chiwetelu et al., 1980 ). Addition of 0.2% Pe-
trostep-420 decreased the I F T by one to two
orders of magnitude.
The contact angles were measured on pol-
ished quartz surfaces. The wet-packed beads
constituting the porous m e d i u m were charac-
terized as strongly water-wet.
Oil displacement tests
The initial experiments were carried out with
the core holder positioned horizontally. In
some cases, upward shift of oil was observed
due to the density difference between the oil
N. AGHARAZI-DORMAN1ETAL.
and the aqueous phase, resulting in higher oil
saturation in the top of the core holder. The
importance of gravity forces in displacements,
(mPa s)
especially those conducted at low I F T ' s has
been recently demonstrated by Hornof and
Morrow (1987).
1.06 All experiments discussed in this paper have
1.26
been conducted with the core holder in a ver-
tical position and the fluids moving upwards.
- 1.07 These experiments yielded somewhat higher
- 1.16
recoveries but their reproducibility was better
(relative error in the range of 1-2%). A sum-
mary of the oil displacement experiments is
given in Table 4.
In Run 1, the connate water contained 1.5%
NaC1 only and the same brine was used for wa-
ter flooding. The waterflood was terminated
after 6 PV injected at which point 72.49% of
OOIP had been recovered. The subsequent
surfactant flooding with 0.2% Petrostep-420
produced very little additional oil.
In Run 2, the connate water contained 1.6%
MgC12 and 4.8% CaC12 in addition to 1.5%
NaC1 and the same brine was used for water-
flooding. The subsequent surfactant flood
however produced considerably more oil than
in Run 1 (21.2% SOR versus 4.4% SOR in Run
1 ). This almost five-fold increase cannot be
explained on the basis of capillary number; in
fact, the capillary number for tertiary flooding
in Run 2 was substantially lower than in Run
1 due to higher IFT.
High tertiary recoveries were also obtained
in Runs 3 and 4 which used brines containing
only M f + and Ca 2+ cations, respectively. In
Run 4, over one third of the residual oil was
recovered despite the low capillary number
(Nca= 1.4× 10 - 4 ) which was insufficient to
mobilize trapped oil. It thus became apparent
that some other mechanism must have been
responsible for the increased recoveries in the
presence of divalent ions.
Salt tolerance studies (Manasrah et al., 1983;
Kumar et al., 1984) provided evidence that the
surfactant solution was not stable in the pres-
ence of divalent ion-containing brines B, C and
EFFECTSOF DIVALENTIONSIN SURFACTANTFLOODING 193

TABLE 4

Summary of oil displacement experiments involving surfactants

Run Brine • K Sol Secondary flooding Tertiary flooding

(%) (#m 2) (%)
connate secondary IFT Nca recovery IFT Nca recovery(4
flooding (mN m- ' ) ( × 103 ) (%Sol) (mNm -~) (X103) PV)

1 PV 6 PV %SOl %SOR
1 A A 35.6 1.87 87.0 5.1 0.012 61.5 72.5 0.086 0.72 73.7 4.4
2 B B 35.0 1.83 89.7 4.2 0.017 62.4 75.9 0.36 0.17 81.0 21.2
3 C C 35.0 1.79 89.5 0.84 0.073 57.2 67.5 0.15 0.41 76.7 28.3
4 D D 35.4 2.76 89.7 1.8 0.037 61.0 74.9 0.45 0.14 83.8 35.4
5 B A 34.9 1.85 90.7 5.1 0.012 60.8 76.7 0.086 0.72 79.5 12.0
6 A B 34.6 1.77 87.2 4.2 0.017 65.3 78.3 0.36 0.17 85.0 30.9
7" A A 34.3 1.58 92.2 5..1 0.011 60.9 78.4 0.086 0.67 79.3 4.2
8c A A 34.3 1.64 90.4 5.1 0.011 60.5 79.0 0.086 1.33 80.5 7.1
9b A A 34.3 1.75 92.1 5.1 0.011 61.0 75.4 0.086 0.89 77.5 8.5
l0b B B 34.2 1.74 91.2 4.2 0.017 63.0 75.5 0.36 0.22 80.1 18.8
11c B B 34.2 1.54 90.6 4.2 0.017 62.1 75.2 0.36 0.32 79.0 15.3
~0.03% of surfactant.
b1%of surfactant.
c3% of surfactant.

D. U p o n addition o f such brines, sticky pre-
cipitates were formed. The consistency o f the
precipitates formed depended on the a m o u n t
o f brine added, and ranged from viscous liq-
uid to almost solid.
W h e n the surfactant solution is introduced
into a porous m e d i u m which has been injected
with brines, B, C or D, formation o f a precipi-
tate will ensue which might result in pore
blockage. To check this further, Runs 5 and 6
were conducted. The connate water in R u n 5
originally contained divalent ions, but during
waterflooding it was flooded with 6 PV o f brine
A. This procedure resulted in relatively low
tertiary recovery (12% SOR). Conversely, in
R u n 6 the connate water was brine A but brine
B was used for waterflooding. A very high re-
covery (30.0% SOR) was observed in this case.
It would thus appear that in R u n 5, most o f the
divalent ions originally present were removed
by waterflooding and the subsequent tertiary
flood resembled R u n 1. In R u n 6 on the other
hand, waterflooding introduced a large a m o u n t
o f divalent ions so the tertiary flooding behav-
ior was similar to that observed in Runs 2, 3
and 4.
Runs 7, 8 and 9 were carried out under the
same conditions except for using different sur-
factant concentrations. In all three cases, low
tertiary recoveries are observed similar to that
obtained in R u n 1. Runs 10 and 1 1 were con-
ducted using brine B similar to R u n 2. It is ev-
ident that regardless of the concentration of
surfactant, the presence o f divalent ions is re-
flected in higher tertiary recovery.
Pore blockage and volumetric sweep efficiency
Reservoir rocks contain heterogeneities
which result in permeability variations. In-
jected fluids normally tend to flow through the
zones of highest permeability and this has a
negative effect on the volumetric sweep effi-
ciency. Various methods have been proposed
to plug the high permeability zones, including
the use of polymer gellants (Navratil et al.,
1982 ), microorganisms (Raiders et al., 1985 )
194
and even of a sequentially injected pair of sur-
factants (Arshad and Harwell, 1985 ).
Phase behavior studies involving Petrostep-
420 and divalent ions have revealed the for-
mation of a sticky precipitate which adhered
to the glass beads quite strongly. Microscopic
examination of this high-viscosity material did
not indicate the presence of any solid parti-
cles. For NaC1 the precipitation occurred as
well but at much higher salt concentration ( 3%
NaC1). At 1.5% NaC1 concentration, precipi-
tates were not formed with Petrostep-420 even
at high surfactant concentration.
Taking into account the phase behavior dis-
cussed above, the higher tertiary recoveries
observed in the case of divalent-ion-contain-
ing brines could be explained by a pore-block-
ing process involving the surfactant and the
brine. After water flooding, brine-filled chan-
nels will have been established throughout the
porous medium due to viscous fingering of the
brine through the oil. The injected surfactant
solution is expected to follow the path of least
resistance and flow primarily through the
brine-filled channels resulting in low volumet-
ric sweep efficiency. If there are metal ions
present in the brine in sufficient concentra-
tion, a precipitate will be formed in the chan-
nels. Depending on the physical characteris-
tics of this precipitate, an increased tertiary
recovery can be accounted for by one of the
three mechanisms below:
( 1 ) The larger pores are totally blocked with
precipitate (i.e. no flow). As a consequence,
flow will be diverted into previously unswept
TABLE5
Displacements involving inorganic precipitates
Run Brine q~ K So~
(%) (tim 2) (%)
connate secondary
flooding
12 B B 34.4 1.70 90.3 4.2
13 B B 34.1 1.64 90.9 4.2
N. AGHARAZI-DORMANIET AL.
finer pores resulting in additional oil recovery;
(2) The precipitate forms a rigid stationary
structure through which some (reduced) flow
can still occur. Additional oil can then be re-
covered from the previously unswept finer po-
res as in ( 1 ) above;
(3) The precipitate creates a solution
(slurry) of reduced mobility, which moves
through the larger pores slower than before.
Again, this will promote increased flow
through the previously unswept finer pores,
with a consequent increase in oil recovery.
The overall process is probably a combina-
tion of the three mechanisms above. To inves-
tigate further the pore blockage phenomenon,
experiments were performed in which the ter-
tiary recovery stage involved flooding by so-
lutions of inorganic salts (instead of surfac-
tants) known to form insoluble precipitates
with divalent ions. The particular salt chosen
was sodium carbonate which reacts with cal-
cium or magnesium ions to form insoluble
CaCO3 and MgCO3 precipitates. These salts
are not expected to have any significant effect
on I F T and thus any tertiary recovery ob-
served would correspond to pore blockage.
Run 13, carried out with 1% Na2CO3, showed
only slight tertiary recovery similar to Run No.
1 (Table 5). Increasing the Na2CO3 concen-
tration to 5% brought about a four-fold in-
crease in tertiary recovery to 13.7%. The pre-
cipitate was a very fine powder and it was
eventually produced at the end of the pack.
This would indicate that mechanism (3) was
responsible for the tertiary recovery in this case
Secondary flooding Tertiary flooding
IFT Nca recovery (% Soi) flooding recovery (4 PV)
(mN m -~ ) ( × 10 3) solution
1 PV 5 PV % Sol % SOR
0.17 61.0 74.5 5%Na2CO3 78.0 13.7
0.17 60.8 76.1 I%Na2CO3 76.9 3.2
EFFECTS OF DIVALENT IONS IN SURFACTANT FLOODING
and consequently the tertiary recovery was
lower than in the case of sticky petroleum sul-
fonate precipitates which are capable of com-
pletely (and irreversibly, under given experi-
mental conditions) blocking the channels
created during the waterflood.
It should be noted that significant wettabil-
ity changes occur when surfactant is intro-
duced into the porous medium (Reed and
Healy, 1984; Hornof and Morrow, 1988 ). In a
system which is initially water wet, a shift to
intermediate wettability takes place as the sys-
tem approaches optimum salinity. This shift is
an integral part of the displacement process
and it cannot be easily isolated from other ac-
companying parameters such as interfacial
tension, coalescence rate, sulfonate partioning
into residual oil etc. On the basis of the cir-
cumstantial evidence presented in this paper
and also on the basis of visual inspection of the
bead packs before and after the flood, we be-
lieve that the pore blockage effects discussed
above are responsible for the increased recov-
eries observed. A project is currently under way
in our laboratory which aims at elucidating the
effects of various flooding parameter and their
interactions via a factorial design of
experiments.
Conclusions
(1) Petroleum sulfonate interacts with di-
valent ions forming a high-viscosity, sticky
precipitate. This material is capable of par-
tially or completely blocking the pores of the
porous medium.
(2) Higher surfactant flooding recoveries
were obtained when the brine present in the
porous medium contained divalent ions. This
increased recovery was accounted for by the
pore blockage phenomenon, which diverted
the flood to previously unswept pores.
(3) The plausibility of the above mecha-
nism was further confirmed by conducting ex-
periments in which a precipitate forming in-
organic salt (Na2CO3) was injected instead of
195
a surfactant. Again, an increased oil recovery
was observed although the pore blockage did
not appear to be permanent.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Natural Sci-
ences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada for the financial support of this work.
References
Arshad, A. and Harwell, J.H., 1985. Enhanced oil recov-
ery by surfactant-enhanced volumetric sweep effi-
ciency. S.P.E. 14291, presented at 60th Annu. Tech-
nical Conf. S.P.E., Las Vegas, Nev.
Bansal, V.K. and Shah, D.O., 1978a. The effect of diva-
lent cations (Ca 2÷ and Mg 2÷ ) on the optimal salinity
and salt tolerance of petroleum sulfonate and ethoxy-
lated sulfonate mixtures in relation to improved oil re-
covery. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 55(3): 367-370.
Bansal, V.K. and Shah, D.O., 1978b. The effect of addi-
tion of ethoxylated sulfonate on salt tolerance, opti-
mal salinity, and impedence characteristics of petro-
leum sulfonate solutions. J. Colloid Interface Sci.,
65(3): 451-459.
Celik, M.S., Manev, E.D. and Somasundaran, P., 1982.
Sulfonate precipitation-redissolution-reprecipitation
in inorganic electrolytes. In: Interfacial Phenomena in
Enhanced Oil Recovery. AIChE Symp., Ser. 212, Vol.
78: 86-96.
Chiwetelu, C.I., Neale, G.H. and Hornof, V., 1980. Im-
proving the oil recovery efficacy of lignosulfate solu-
tions. J. Can. Pet. Technol., (Jul.-Sep.): 91-99.
Glover, C.J., Puerto, M.C., Maerker, J.M. and Sandvik,
E.L., 1979. Surfactant phase behavior and retention in
porous media. Soc. Pet. Eng. J., (Jun.): 183-193.
Hirasaki, G.J. and Lawson, J.B., 1982. An electrostatic
approach to the association of sodium and calcium
with surfactant micelles. S.P.E. 10921, presented at
57th Annu. Fall Technical Conf. S.P.E., New Orleans,
La.
Hornof, V. and Morrow, N.R., 1987. Flow visualization
of the effects of interfacial tension on displacement.
S.P.E. Res. Eng., (Feb.): 251-256.
Hornof, V. and Morrow, N.R., 1987. Gravity effects in
the displacement of oil by surfactant solutions. S.P.E.
Res. Eng., (Nov.): 627-633.
Kumar, A., Neale, G.H. and Hornof, V., 1984. Effects of
connate water composition on interfacial tension be-
havior of surfactant solutions. J. Can. Pet. Technol.,
(Jam-Feb.): 37-41.
196
Manasrah, K., Neale, G.H. and Hornof, V., 1983. Viscos-
ity of mixed surfactant solutions containing petro-
leum sulfonates and lignosulfonates. Chem. Eng.
Commun., 23: 63-75.
McCain, W.D., Jr., 1973. The properties of petroleum
fluids, petroleum Publ. Co., Tulsa, Okla., pp. 268-305.
Navratil, M., Mitchell, M. and Sovak, M., 1982, Blocking
and diverting agents for enhanced oil recovery. Pap.
82-33-54, presented at 33rd Annu. Meeting of Petro-
leum Society of C.I.M., Calgary, Alta.
Polikar, M., Puttagunta, V.R., Ferracuti, F. and Farouq
All, S.M., 1988. Preparation of synthetic oil sand co-
res. J. pet. Sci. Eng., 1(4): 263-270.
Raiders, R.A., Freeman, D.C., Jenneman, G.E., Knapp,
R.M., Mclnerney, M.J. and Menzie, D,E., 1985. The
use of microorganisms to increase the recovery of oil
from cores. S.P.E. 14336, presented at 60th Annu.
Technical Conf. S.P.E., Las Vegas, Nev.
N. AGHARAZI-DORMANI ET AL.
Reed, R. L. and Healy, R.N., 1977. Some physicochemi-
cal aspects of microemulsion flooding: A review. In:
D.O. Shah and R.S. Schechter (Editors), Improved Oil
Recovery by Surfactant and Polymer Flooding. Aca-
demic Press, Orlando, Fla., pp. 383-437.
Reed, R.L. and Healy, R.N., 1984. Contact angles for
equilibrated microemulsion systems. Soc. Pet. Eng.J.,
(Jun.): 342-350.
Son, J.E., Neale, G.H. and Hornof, V., 1982. Interracial
tension and phase behavior characteristics of petro-
leum sulfonate/lignosulfonatc mixtures. Can. J. Chem.
Eng., 60:684-69 I.
Watkins, J.W., 1962. Properties of produced waters. In:
T.C. Frick and R.W. Taylor (Editors), Petroleum
Production Handbook, Vol. 2, Ch. 21. S.P.E.-AIME,
Dallas, Tex.