Load Flow Analysis

Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
Introductions
Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
 Introduction

• The determination of the distribution of power and voltage in an integrated power

supply system consisting of generators, transmission and distribution circuits and
loads is an essential requirement in the design and operation of such systems.

• It enables the loading and utilization of circuits to be assessed for actual or predicted
generation and load conditions and 'provides knowledge of the associated voltage
levels throughout the system.

• The calculations required to obtain this information are known as LOAD FLOW (or
POWER FLOW studies) and essentially provide a steady state analysis of the
system.

• These studies are of the utmost importance and frequently precede, in most cases
provide the starting conditions for, transient stability and fault level calculations. Such
studies are nowadays carried out almost exclusively by digital computers and, the
equations defining the problem are solved by special numerical techniques, which
have been developed to suit the special structure of the problem.

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 Introduction

• The need for load flow analysis of a power system may be envisaged as occurring
under three conditions:
• Firstly, during the early design stages of a power system network, the routing of
circuits and the siting of generating and switching stations may be subject to
uncertainties and as a consequence a number of alternatives may require evaluation.
• Secondly, at later design stages, when firm data is available and for reinforcement and
operational studies, different operating modes of the system require evaluation and
assessment. In these circumstances reactive power distribution is of importance and a
more detailed and complex number representation of the system is essential.
(operational stage)
• Load-flow calculation is one of the most important solutions required in the analysis of
power-system transmission networks and is used extensively in system planning,
design and operation.

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 Introduction

• Load-flow calculation is one of the most important solutions required in the analysis
of power-system transmission networks and is used extensively in system planning,
design and operation.

• The object is to determine the nodal voltages and hence the branch power flow in a
transmission network for a given set of steady-state operating conditions.

• Such routine solutions are nowadays carried out almost exclusively by digital
computers and the equations defining the load-flow problem are solved by special
numerical techniques, which have been developed to suit the special structure of the
problem.

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 Introduction

• Load-flow calculations are being increasingly used to solve very large systems, with
automatic control features for off- and on-line application.

• They are extended for calculation of outage security assessment and with more
complicated calculations such as optimisation and stability, the basic load-flow
problem can be considered with the transmission network taken as linear, balanced
and represented as a lumped-parameter circuit.

• The settings of network regulating devices, such as transformer tapping, can be

omitted or assumed to be fixed.

• However, the overall problem even with the above assumptions is a non-linear one,
because of the conditions specified at the busbars, and therefore any numerical
solution must be iterative in nature. There are many alternative load-flow solution
methods and these can be broadly grouped into three categories:

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 Load Flow Analysis Solutions

• Y-matrix iterative methods. There were the first practical methods applied to
automatic digital solution. Although they perform satisfactorily on many problems,
requiring minimal computer storage, they converge relatively slowly and are sensitive
to system parameters and conditions.

• Z-matrix iterative methods. These methods are more reliable than the Y-matrix
methods but require very much more computer storage. Large systems can also take
considerable computer time for inversion and solution of resulting matrices.

• Newton-Raphson Method. This is the latest and most powerful method generally
accepted by much of industry as the most reliable method. Using sparsity, it
combines low storage with quadratic convergence characteristics of the Newton
method. It is easy to program and has wide application as a general-purpose method
which is easily extended for optimisation and on-line application.

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Basic Formulation
Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
 Main Symbols

B', B" approximate Jacobian matrix V V∠θ = e + jf = nodal voltage

E voltage behind synchronous reactance Y G + jB = nodal admittance matrix
G p.u. change in generation Z nodal impedance matrix
f frequency θ voltage angle
I injected net nodal current N number of nodes excluding reference
S P + jQ = net complex power Re real part
H, J, L, N Jacobian submatrices of partial Im imaginary part
derivative
1 : T = 1 : (t+jq) = transformer ratio in pu

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 Main Symbols

Subscripts Superscripts
E power exchange sp specified
d demand (load) r iteration number
g generation T transposition
i,j,k nodes min minimum
s synchronous values max maximum
t tap values * complex conjugate
(-) bar over a main symbol indicates a complex number
k∈i subset of nodes directly connected by branches to node - i
kµi subset of nodes directly connected by branches to a PQ-node i
kαi subset of nodes directly connected by branches to a PV-node i

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 Numerical Solution

For numerical solution it is most convenient to assume balanced three-phase

power system with the transmission network represented by its positive
phase-sequence impedances of linear lumped series and shunt branches.
Using matrix notation, the nodal voltage equation can be stated as
Y V = I (2.1)
where I represents the equivalent nodal injected currents and is calculated from
s*
Ii = S i / Vi * (2.2)
*
where S i net generation at busbar i
s*
S i = ( Pgi − Pdi ) − j (Qgi − Qdi ) = Pi s − jQis (2.3)

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 Numerical Solution

• The load-flow equations can be stated in any number of different ways. For
example, in matrix form as equations (2.1) and (2.2). Equation (2.1) can also
be expressed in a summation form for node i as
∑ Y ik V k = I i (2.4)
k ∈i
Substituting from equation (2.2) for Ii results in
* *
∑ Y ik V k = S / Vi i
k ∈i
or as
* *
V ∑ Y ik V k = S
i i (2.5)
k ∈i
The same problem can be stated using the polar form as
*
S = Vi ∠ − θ i ∑ Y ik Vk ∠θ k
i
k∈i
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 Numerical Solution

*
or as S i = Vi ∑ Y ik Vk ∠θ k − θ i (2.6)
k∈i
• Equating real and imaginary parts:
Pi sp = Vi ∑ (Gik cosθ ik + Bik sin θ ik )Vk (2.7)
k∈i

= +V G + Vi ∑ (Gik cosθ ik + Bik sin θ ik )Vk

i
2
ii
k ≠i

= +Vi 2 Gii + Vi ∑ (Gik cosθ ik + Bik sin θ ik )Vk

k ≠i

Qisp = Vi ∑(Gik sin θ ik − Bik cosθ ik )Vk (2.8)

kεi

= −Vi 2 Bii + Vi ∑ (Gik sin θ ik − Bik cosθ ik )Vk

k ≠i
• where Yik = Gik + jBik is the (i,j)th element of nodal admittance matrix, θik = θi - θk
• Note that cos θik = cos θki and -sin θik = sin θki
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 Types of Nodes

• With each node four variables are associated, Pi, Qi, Vi, qi of which two are
specified and the other two must be found. Depending upon which variables
are specified, the nodes can be divided into 3 basic types:
Node Specified variable Unknown variable
PQ Pi sp , Qisp Vi ,θ i
PV Pi sp ,Vi sp Q i ,θ i
Slack θ isp = 0, Vi sp Pi , Qi

• For a PQ-node
∗
S = ( P − P ) + j (Q − Q ) = V i I
i
sp sp
gi
sp
di
sp
gi
sp
di i (2.9)
• For a PV-node
∗
Pi = ( Pgi − Pdi ) = Re(V i I i )
sp sp sp
(2.10)

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Vi sp = ei2 + f i 2
 Types of Nodes

• Besides the above equations, load flow also can be constrained by power balance,
i.e. input power system must be equal to the output power. In other word, total
generation system must be equal to the total load system and circuit losses.
nb nb nb − −

∑ Pgi = ∑ Pdi + Plosses = ∑ Pdi + f p (v,θ )

i i i
(2.11)

nb nb nb − −

∑Q = ∑Q
i
gi
i
di
+ Qabsorb = ∑ Qdi + f q (v,θ )
i
(2.12)
• A circuit loss as a result of current flowing on the line is I2R. The current can be found
from node voltage when the load flow has converged. Therefore we must reduce the
constraint by choosing one generator bus, because the generating bus can be
changed so that fit power balancing constraint.
• P and Q at the slack bus is unknown while the V and Q is fixed. The reference bus is
a slack bus where the angle phase is equal to zero.
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 Power Mismatch

• Since the numerical solution of the load flow problem is iterative in nature it is
necessary to have some criteria for convergence. It is usual to use the power
mismatch as an accurate test. The complex power mismatch at a node i is
sp r *
the difference between the specified power S i and the calculated power V i I i
r
where V i is the voltage evaluated at iteration r.
sp * * *
∆S i = S i − Vi I = Pi + jQ − Vi ∑ Y (V )
r
i
sp
i
sp r
ki k
k∈i

• Equation (2.14) can be separated into real and imaginary parts and
expressed in polar form or rectangular form as:
∆Pi sp = Pi sp − Vi ∑ (Gik cos θ ik + Bik sinθ ik )Vk
k∈i

∆Qisp = Qisp − Vi ∑ (Gik sin θ ik − Bik cos θ ik )Vk

k ∈i

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 Power Mismatch

• It is assumed in the above equations that Vi is the voltage evaluated at

iteration r. The most common convergence criterion used in practice is

• ∆Pi ≤ ε for all PQ and PV-nodes

• ∆Qi ≤ ε for all PQ-nodes

where ε is a tolerance typically of 0.01 MW and MVAR.

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Newton-Raphson Method
Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
 Newton-Raphson Method

• An outstanding technique of determining real roots of polynomials,

trigonometric and other equations is known as the Newton or Newton-
Raphson method. If an approximate root xr of a simple algebraic non-linear
equation is known, then a better approximation can be obtained from

f ( x r +1 + ∆x) = f ( x r ) + ∆xf ' ( x r ) +

(∆x )2
f ' ' ( x r ) + ...... +
(∆x )n
d nx
2! n ! dx n x r
• If an approximation function on the left side is equal zero and all series after
the second order are neglected, we can rewrite the above equation as
0 = f ( x r ) + ∆xf ' ( x r )
• the above equation can be rearranged as ∆x = − f ( x r ) f ' ( x r )

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 Newton-Raphson Method

• Hence the Newton-Raphson approximation is defined as

f (xr )
x r +1 = x r + ∆x
r +1
x =x −
r
or
f ' (xr )
• The method can be extended to a set of simultaneous non-linear equations in
an equal number of unknowns of the form
f1 (x1,x2, - - - - - - ,xn) = 0
f2 (x1,x2, - - - - - - ,xn) = 0

. . (3.4)
fn (x1,x2, - - - - - - ,xn) = 0

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 Newton-Raphson Method

• If a set xr of approximate values of the variables (x1,x2,...,xn) is known, then a

better approximation can be obtained from:
∂f1 r ∂f1
0 = f1 (x , x ) + ∆x
r r
r + ∆x2
r
+ ⋅⋅⋅
∂x1 ∂x2 r
1 2 1

∂f 2 r ∂f 2
0 = f 2 (x1r , x 2r ) + ∆x1r + ∆x + ⋅⋅⋅
∂x1 ∂x 2 r
r 2

• If an approximation function on the left side is equal zero and all series after
second order are neglected, the above equations can be rearranged as:
 ∂f1 ∂f1 
(
 − f1 x ,, x
r
1
r
n )  ∂x 
∂xn   ∆x1
r

   1  
   =      
(
− f n x1r ,, xnr )
  ∂f n 
∂f n   r 
∆xn  r
Department of Electrical Engineering
   ∂x1 ∂xn   (x 1 ,, x nr )
21
Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia 
 Newton-Raphson Method

−1
or − f1(r ) 
 
∆x1(r ) 
(r )  
where ∆x = J r
f (x )
   = J   
− f n(r )  ∆xn(r ) 
   
• The square matrix J is the Jacobian matrix of f(x), whose (i,k)-th element is
defined as ∂fi/∂xk.

• To use the above algorithm to solve load-flow, it is necessary to write the

equations defining the load flow problem as a set F(x) = O equations. The
most convenient and most widely used form is the polar power-mismatch
formulation, equations (2.17) and (2.18). The equations become as follows:

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 Newton-Raphson Method

• For a PQ-node

∆Pi = Pi sp − Vi ∑ (Gik cosθ ik + Bik sinθ ik )Vk = 0

k∈i

∆Qi = Qisp − Vi ∑ (Gik sin θ ik − Bik cos θ ik )Vk = 0

k ∈i

• For a PV-node only

∆Pi = Pi sp − Vi ∑ (Gik cosθ ik + Bik sin θ ik ) = Vk = 0
k∂ i
• For a slack-node

nb nb − − nb nb − −
Pgr + ∑ Pgi − ∑ Pdi − f p ( v, θ ) = 0 Q gr + ∑ Q gi − ∑ Q di − f q ( v, θ ) = 0
i ≠r i i≠r i

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 Newton-Raphson Method

• The general Newton-Raphson equation (3.8) can be written in terms of the

load-flow variables as

 ∆P   ∆θ   ∆θ   − 1   ∆P 
∆Q  = [J ] • ∆V 
or as
∆V  =  J  • ∆Q 
       

where ∆θi and are ∆Vi the corrections for angle and voltage magnitude at node
I. The Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives can be divided into 4 parts as
 ∂∆P ∂∆P 
 ∆P   H N   ∆θ  or as  ∆P   ∂θ ∂   ∆θ 
=
∆Q   J ′ L ′ ∆V  V
∆Q  =  ∂∆Q ∂∆Q  ∆V 
     V      
 ∂θ ∂V 

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 Newton-Raphson Method

• The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be obtained by differentiating

equations (3.9) and (3.10) and noting that
∂cos θik /∂θ = - sin θik ∂sin θik/∂θi = cos θik
∂cos θik /∂θk = sin θik ∂sin θik/∂θk = - cos θik

gives equations (3.14) as follows:

H ii = ∂∆Pi / ∂θ i = Vi ∑ (G ik sin θ ik − Bik cos θ ik )V k = Qisp + Vi 2 Bii N ii = Vi ∂∆Pi / ∂Vi = − Pi sp − Vi 2 Gii
k ∈i ; k ≠ i

H ik = ∂∆Pi / ∂θ k = −Vi (G ik sin θ ik − Bik cos θ ik )V k N ik = Vk ∂∆ i / ∂Vk = − J ik

J ii = ∂∆Qi / ∂θ i = −Vi ∑ (G ik cos θ ik + Bik sin θ ik )V k = − Pi sp + Vi 2 G ii Lii = Vi ∂∆Qi / ∂Vi = −Qisp + Vi 2 Bii
k ∈i ; k ≠ i

J ik = ∂∆Qi / ∂θ k = Vi (Gik cosθ ik + Bik sin θ ik )Vk Lik = V k ∂Qi / ∂V k = H ik

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 Flowchart NR

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 Characteristic of Newton-Raphson Method

• The iterative process of the Newton-Raphson method, as applied to the

load-flow solution, can be summarised as shown in the flow diagram.

• The main advantage of the Newton-Raphson method is its quadratic rate of

convergence, which is faster than that of any other method. It is very reliable
and least sensitive to factors causing poor convergence, such as choice of
slack node or series capacitors.

• Both polar or rectangular formulation can be used, but in order to use the
Newton method the equations must be separated into real and imaginary set.

• Generally a satisfactorily accurate solution may be obtained in 5 to 6

iterations

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 Characteristic of Newton-Raphson Method

• The main disadvantage of the method is the necessity to formulate and invert
the Jacobian matrix at each iteration.

• However, since the structure of the Jacobian matrix has identical sparsity
content as the Y-matrix, sparsity techniques can be used instead of
inversions.

• This has the advantage of requiring only one ordering sequence and since
the actual elimination and solution is relatively less time consuming, the
method presents no problem in solution time or storage space.

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 Characteristic of Newton-Raphson Method

• Another disadvantage of the Newton method is that it is applicable only to

convex functions and will converge to the nearest solution from the initial
value.

• It is a well-known fact that the load-flow problem has theoretically twice as

many possible solutions as there are number of nodes.

• In practice the correct engineering solution is well separated from the others
and the right solution is always obtained or the solution diverges.

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Fast-Decoupled
Newton-Raphson Method
Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
 Introduction

• Since the Newton method is an approximate method, alternative approxi-

mations are possible to even further decrease the time and storage.

• The basic equations of the Newton method are derived from Taylor's series
expansion and omitting second and higher order terms.

• The corrections at each iteration are therefore approximations but the value
of the function is calculated exactly at each iteration, therefore the final
solution can be obtained to any desired accuracy by continuing the iterative
process and is not dependent on the accuracy of the correction itself.

• This simple fact implies alternative approximation to the derivative terms of

the Jacobian matrix.

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 Introduction

• A simple test of solving, say a quadratic equation by the Newton method, can
soon show that a good convergence can still be obtained, even is the
derivative is substituted by an arbitrary constant number.

• Of course the number must be so chosen that the resulting equations retain
the convergence property.

• Since the load-flow problem is only mildly non-linear and well understood by
engineers, the physical property of the problem can be exploited to great
advantage.

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 Decoupling Characteristics

• An inherent characteristic of any practical power system is the close

dependence of active power flows on bus voltage angle and the reactive
power flow on bus voltage magnitude. This characteristic may be shown from
the following consideration of a two-node system.
− X (Q + ∆Q )
V1
-XQ
V2
-jxP
V1 V2 ∆θ ≈ 0 ∆V
− jx( P + ∆P )
P+jQ ∆θ ∆V ≈ 0
I
(a) Two node system (b) Vector diagram

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 Decoupling Characteristics

• Assuming V1 as reference (1 p.u. and θ1 = 0) and Z = jx , since R << x , then

V2 = V 1 − I Z
But
( P − jQ )
I= = P − jQ
V1 *
jx( P − jQ)
therefore V2 = V 1 − = 1 − xQ − jxP
V1 *
• It can be seen from the phasor diagram that
• Change of ∆P in P changes the angle by ∆θ and has a small effect on change in
voltage magnitude (∆V ≈ O)
• Change of ∆Q in Q changes the voltage magnitude by ∆V and has a small effect on
change in angle (∆θ ≈ O)
34 Department of Electrical Engineering
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 Decoupling Characteristics

• Algebraically the above approximate relation may be stated as:

∆P = H∆θ (4.1)
∆Q = L∆V (4.2)
• Generalising the decoupling phenomena to a multi-busbar system, the sub-
matrices N and J in equation (5.11) can be neglected resulting in
 ∆P   H   ∆θ 
 ∆Q  = 
(4.3)
   L  ∆V 
• The obvious procedure is to perform alternate iterations of the two equations,
that is solving separately the P-θ and Q-V problems with 4:1 saving on
storage of the Jacobian matrix. Such an approximation results in more
iterations, but in practice is more than compensated for by saving in inversion
time and slightly shorter individual iteration time.
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 Further Approximations

• Based on similar assumptions as before, further approximations in the

decoupled Jacobian matrix (4.3) can be made:
cosθ ik ≈1
θ i 〈〈 BiiVi 2 (4.4)
Gik sin θ ik 〈〈 Bik cosθ ik
from which the elements of the Jacobian matrix of equation (3.14) reduces to
H ii = ∂∆Pi / ∂θ i = Vi BiiVi Lii = Vi BiiVi
(4.5)
H ik = ∂∆Pi / ∂θ k = Vi BikVk Lik = Vi BikVk
or as
∆Pi / Vi = Vi Bii ∆θ i + ∑ BikVk ∆θ k
k ∈i , k ≠ i
(4.6)
∆Qi / Vi = Bii ∆Vi + ∑ Bik ∆Vk
k ∈i , k ≠ i

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 Further Approximations

• The first equation relates ∆P to ∆θ, therefore any terms which predominately
affect changes in ∆Q can also be omitted. For example, by setting the
voltages on the right-hand side to unity results in
∆P / V = B , ∆θ
(4.7)
∆Q / V = B ∆V ,,

• The matrix B' and B" is the negative of the imaginary part of the nodal
admittance matrix Y, without the column and row corresponding to the slack
node. Faster convergence can be obtained by neglecting the resistance
when calculating the terms of B', hence
xik
B = 1 / xik B = 2
' ''

Rik + X ik2
ik ik
(4.8)
Bii' = − ∑ 1 / xik Bii'' = − ∑ Bik
k∈i k∈i
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 Further Approximations

• Further improvements in convergence can be obtained by making the

following simplification:
• Omit from B' elements, which affect changes in ∆Q, for example shunt reactors,
shunt capacitors and off-nominal in-phase transformer taps.
• Omit from B" phase-shifters which affect changes in ∆P

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 Iterative Scheme

• With the assumptions made, the B' and B" matrices result in being real,
symmetrical, sparse and constant since they contain only network
admittances.

• They represent constant approximation to the variable Jacobian matrix and

therefore need to be inverted, or factorised if sparsity techniques are used,
once only for the whole solution process.

• There are many ways of further approximating the B' and B" matrices and
solving the resulting equations. From practical experience the best way is as
summarised in the flow diagram.

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 Flowchart FD-NR

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 Iterative Scheme

• Although approximate Jacobian equation has been used, the mismatch

equations are exact. Therefore the solution obtained is as accurate as that
given by the Newton-Raphson method.

• The only difference is that in the decoupled load-flow the gradient is constant.

• The constant slope has a geometric convergence rate which is slower than
the quadratic rate of the Newton-Raphson method.

• Typically convergence can be obtained in 6 to 8 iterations. The slower

convergence rate is more than compensated for by the speed of calculations.
The solution time is approximately linear with the system size.

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 Result of Load Flow Analysis (5 Bus System)
20 22.96 45 15 40 5

50.78 2.34

1.0 V∠0.0° 1.043V∠ − 2.96° 1.039V∠ − 3.25°

(1) SLACK (3) PQ (4) PQ

3.55 26.96 1.2 23.82 23.42 0.34 20.99 6.77 20.95 7.72
7.17 2.35
22.3 1.52
25.7 0.44

26.06 1.52
6.49 26.82
53.29 6.66 52.24 5.14 7.12 4.87
22.58 2.88
(2) PQ (5) PQ
1.052V∠ − 0.78° 1.025V∠ − 4.02°

5.72 95
20 10 60 10

42 Department of Electrical Engineering Dimana MW

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Example case of Load Flow
Three bus case
 Example Three Bus Case

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 Example Three Bus Case

• Figure single line diagram above shows three bus system with generators at
bus 1 and 3. Magnitude bus voltage for bus 1 set at 1.05 pu, whereas bus 3
set at 1.04 with the active power of 200 MW. Load of 400 MW and 250 MVAR
was installed at bus 2. Reactance of the transmission line is in pu with a 100
MVA base, while the suseptansi was ignored. By using the Newton Raphson
solve the load flow to get all the system voltages.

45 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
Question and Answer
Discussion stage