Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609
DOI 10.1617/s11527-015-0522-9
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Influence of aggregate characteristics on workability
of superworkable concrete
Baudouin M. Aı̈ssoun • Soo-Duck Hwang •
Kamal H. Khayat
Received: 7 April 2014 / Accepted: 3 January 2015 / Published online: 11 January 2015
Ó RILEM 2015
Abstract Physical characteristics of aggregates
have a significant influence on the performance of
concrete. Compared to conventional concrete, the mix
design of highly flowable concrete is more complex
and should ensure that the mixture can develop
adequate static and dynamic stability. The selection
of aggregate plays a major role for the mix design and
mixture optimization of flowable concrete. The study
seeks to understand the influence of physical charac-
teristics of coarse and fine aggregates, including
packing density, texture or roughness, fine particle
content, shape, and quantity of flat and elongated
particles on the workability, rheological properties,
and mechanical properties of superworkable concrete
(SWC). Three types of sands with different fineness
moduli of 2.5, 2.6, and 3.0 and different textures
(smooth and rough) were used. Seven types of coarse
aggregates with different texture characteristics, flat
and elongated particle contents, and different shapes
were investigated. Sand-to-total aggregate volume
ratio was varied between 0.45 and 0.60. Test results
indicated that the packing density, the quantity of
fines passing 315 lm sieve, and the shape of coarse
B. M. Aı̈ssoun
K. H. Khayat
Civil Engineering, Université de Sherbrooke,
Sherbrooke J1K 2R1, Canada
S.-D. Hwang
K. H. Khayat (&)
Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla,
MO 65409, USA
e-mail: khayatk@mst.edu
aggregate can have significant effect on rheology,
stability, and compressive strength of SWC. For the
crush aggregate with 5–14 mm particle sizes (CA14),
a 13 % increase in aggregate packing density from
0.69 to 0.79 by the use of optimum sand-to-aggregate
ratio and natural sand can lead to more than 50 %
reduction in surface settlement, i.e. 50 % increase in
static stability. For the CA14 coarse aggregate, a good
relationship was established between surface settle-
ment and quantity of fine particles with diameter
smaller than 315 lm. Mixtures with rounded coarse
aggregates had 22–42 % higher surface settlement
compared to those made with crushed aggregates of
the same maximum size aggregate.
Keywords Aggregate
Packing density
Rheology

Stability
Surface settlement
Superworkable
concrete
1 Introduction
The volume of aggregate often represents more than
60 % of concrete volume, including highly flowable
concrete. The physical characteristics of the coarse
aggregate significantly affect fresh and hardened
properties of the concrete. Several studies investigated
the influence of aggregate characteristics on the
superplasticizer (SP) demand, workability, and rheol-
ogy of conventional vibrated concrete (CVC) and
flowable concrete. The optimization of the aggregate
598
skeleton for CVC is reported by several researches [1–
3, 4]. These studies showed that the packing density of
the aggregate is an important parameter to optimize
the mixture composition for CVC.
Yurugi et al. [5] reported the volume of coarse
aggregate in concrete to be the most important factor
to control workability and filling capacity of highly
flowable concrete; both properties decrease with the
increase in coarse aggregate volume. Okamura and
Ozawa [6] found that the volume of coarse aggregate
in self-consolidating concrete (SCC) should be limited
to increase the resistance to segregation. Khayat et al.
[7] investigated the optimal content of coarse aggre-
gate and sand needed to improve fluidity of flowable
concrete made with viscosity-modifying admixture
(VMA). The optimized mixtures included concrete
with sand-to-paste volume ratio of 0.6 and 300 L/m3
of crushed coarse aggregate made of 70 % of coarse
aggregate with 14-mm maximum-size aggregate
(MSA) and 30 % aggregate with 20-mm MSA by
volume. Khayat et al. [7] found that increase in
packing density of coarse aggregate can reduce plastic
viscosity and SP demand in SCC, especially in
mixtures with relatively low water-to-cementitious
materials (w/cm). Koehler and Fowler [8] also
reported that the plastic viscosity of SCC can decrease
with the increase in packing density of the aggregate.
The fineness modulus (FM) of aggregates was
shown to have a significant effect on the rheology of
concrete. Aı̈tcin [9] recommended using coarse sand
with a FM of 2.7–3.0 to reduce water demand for high-
performance concrete (HPC). Bager et al. [10] reported
that the increase in fineness modulus of sand decreases
plastic viscosity of self-consolidating mortar.
The workability of concrete can vary with the
shape, texture, and quantity of flat and elongated
particles of coarse aggregates. The coefficient of
flatness and modulus of elongation are often defined to
characterize the shape of coarse aggregate [11].
ASTM D 3398 proposes an index to characterize the
shape and texture of fine and coarse aggregates
designated for asphalt mixtures. Jamkar and Rao
[12] successfully used the Index of Aggregate Particle
Shape and Texture (IAPST) to characterize the shape
and texture of aggregate for concrete. In general,
IAPST values of crushed aggregates are higher than
those of round aggregates. The IAPST values ranged
between 7 and 10 for gravel and 13 and 17 for crushed
granite. For a given slump consistency, water demand
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609
was shown to increase with the increase in IAPST
[12]. As in the case of CVC, Koehler and Fowler [8]
reported that plastic viscosity of SCC can be reduced
by the use of rounded coarse aggregate.
The packing density of aggregate is a function of
several characteristics of the aggregate, including
particle-size distribution, shape, and sand-to-total
aggregate volume ratio (S/A). Limited information is
available regarding the relationship between packing
density and static stability. Khayat et al. [7] reported
that the increase in packing density of the aggregate
skeleton can lead to greater static stability of SCC
determined with the surface settlement test.
Direct and indirect relations may exist between
characteristics of aggregate, including packing den-
sity, and rheology properties in our study. Some of the
studies [9, 3, 8] considered fine particles as those with
apparent diameters less than 80 lm, which include the
cementitious materials and fines in the aggregate.
These studies do not typically take into account the
effect of coarser fines ranging between 80 and 315 lm
that could have a considerable effect on concrete
workability.
Properly designed superworkable concrete (SWC)
can have a lower admixture demand, greater robustness,
and higher stability than typical SCC. In general, SWC
has slump flow consistency of 450–600 mm. Such
concrete can be used for infrastructure and building
construction. This study investigates the effect of the
physical characteristics of fine and coarse aggregates on
the rheological properties, static stability, and compres-
sive strength of SWC. The aggregate characteristics that
are investigated include packing density, fineness
modulus, texture, shape, content of fines, and content
of flat/elongated particles. This study aims to under-
stand the interactions between these physical charac-
teristics of the aggregates and key properties of fresh
and hardened SWC. Knowledge gained in this research
can be used to develop guidelines for aggregate
selection for SWC mixtures that can help ensure high
performance of this novel construction material.
2 Experimental program
2.1 Scope of work
Mixture compositions and test parameters investigated
in the program are presented in Table 1. In total, 18
Table 1 Mixture compositions and parameters of experimental program
Objective Effect of packing density and fineness modulus (FM) of sand Effect of surface texture Effect of flat and
of coarse aggregate elongated particles
Mixture no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Specific parameter Type and FM Type and FM Type and FM Type and FM Surface texture of coarse Shape of coarse
of sand of sand of sand of sand aggregate aggregate
Parameter S/A and packing density Type of coarse aggregate
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609

Cement (kg/m3) 300

Class F fly ash (kg/m3) 100
Water (kg/m3) 164
w/cm 0.41
Codification of sand NS CS CS NS CS CS NS CS CS NS CS CS NS2.6
2.6 2.5 3.0 2.6 2.5 3.0 2.6 2.5 3.0 2.6 2.5 3.0
Sand (kg/m3) 803 787 778 892 875 865 981 962 951 1,070 1,050 1,037
892
Codification of coarse agg. CA14 CA RA CA RA CA CA
14 14 20 20 14-F22 14-F31
MSA (mm) 14 14 12 20 20 14 14
Specific gravity in SSD 2.71 2.63 2.73 2.63 2.76 2.77
Absorption (%) 0.47 0.63 0.34 0.53 0.48 0.48
Coarse agg. (kg/m3) 1,011 919 827 735 919 892 926 892 919
S/A 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
0.5
Codification of sand type of sand (natural sand or combined sand) FM of sand, NS natural sand, CS combined sand, Codification of coarse aggregate type of coarse aggregate-
MSA-% of flat and elongated particle in coarse aggregate (if applicable), CA crushed aggregate, RA rounded aggregate, SSD saturated-surface dry
599
600
SWC mixtures were prepared to evaluate the effect of
aggregate characteristics on workability, rheological
properties, and compressive strength. As presented in
Table 1, the first part of the study aimed at investi-
gating the effect of packing density and fineness
modulus of the sand on rheology and compressive
strength of the concrete. Mixtures No. 1–12 were
prepared with different S/A values of 0.45, 0.50, 0.55,
and 0.60, by volume, to vary the packing density of the
concrete. In addition, for each S/A, three SWC
mixtures were prepared with sands of different
textures [natural sand (NS) vs. combined sand (CS)]
and FM of 2.5, 2.6, and 3.0. The spreads in S/A and
sand type were employed to evaluate the influence of
packing density and quantity of fine particles in the
aggregate on the performance of SWC. The aggregates
used in mixtures No. 1–12 have different particle-size
distributions and packing density values.
For a given S/A value of 0.5 and sand type (NS2.6),
four coarse aggregate types were used to investigate
the influence of surface texture of the aggregate on
concrete performance in the second part of this
investigation. Mixtures No. 13–16 were prepared with
MSA values of 14 and 20 mm. For a given MSA,
crushed aggregate (CA) or rounded aggregate (RA)
were used, as presented in Table 1. The third part of
the work seeked to evaluate the effect of the content of
flat and elongated particles in coarse aggregate on the
performance of SWC. Both mixtures No. 17 and 18
were prepared with S/A of 0.5 and crushed aggregate
of 14 mm MSA. The contents of flat and elongated
particles in the coarse aggregate were 22 and 31 % for
mixture No. 17 and 18, respectively.
2.2 Materials
The CSA Type GU cement, which is similar to ASTM
Type I cement, Class F fly ash of 100 kg/m3 was
employed in all mixtures. Polycarboxylate-based SP
(PC) and welan gum-based VMA were used. The PC
and VMA admixtures have specific gravities of 1.2
and 1.21 and solid contents of 41 and 42.5 %,
respectively.
Three sands of different textures (NS vs. CS) and
different FM were used: NS2.6, CS2.5, and CS3.0
with FM of 2.6, 2.5, and 3.0, specific gravities of 2.69,
2.64, and 2.61, and absorption values of 1.29, 1.44,
and 1.66 %, respectively. The NS2.6 sand is natural
siliceous sand that has round shape particles and a
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609
relatively smooth surface texture. The CS2.5 and
CS3.0 sands were made with combinations of coarse
manufactured sand with FM of 3.4 and natural fine
sand with FM of 1.8. CSA A23.1 stipulates that the FM
of the sand used in concrete mixture shall be between
2.3 and 3.1. Therefore, the CS2.5 sand was mixed with
65 % of the natural fine sand with a FM of 1.8 and
35 % of the manufactured sand with a FM of 3.4, by
mass of total sand, to secure a FM value similar to that
of the NS2.6. For similar sand FM values, the NS2.6
and CS2.5 were used to study the influence of surface
texture on workability, rheology, and compressive
strength. On the other hand, the CS3.0 sand was
combined with 40 % fine sand and 60 % manufac-
tured sand in order to compare the performance of
SWC made with different sand FM values (CS2.5 vs.
CS3.0).
As presented in Fig. 1, the NS2.6 natural sand has a
more continuous particle-size distribution compared
to the CS2.5 and CS3.0 sands. The particle-size
distributions of the two combined sands are discon-
tinuous due to the lack of particles between 0.63 and
1.25 mm. This is because the fine natural sand is
mostly composed of particles smaller than 0.63 mm,
whereas the majority of particles in the manufactured
sand are larger than 1.25 mm. It should be noted that
all of sands used in this investigation satisfy the
particle-size distribution requirements of CSA A23.2-
2A, as presented in Fig. 1.
In total, six types of coarse aggregates were
investigated. The aggregates vary with MSA, surface
texture, shape, and quantity of flat and elongated
particles. For a given MSA, different surface textures
and shapes of aggregates were investigated using
crushed aggregate (CA) and rounded aggregate (RA).
The crushed and rounded aggregates have different
MSA values of 14 and 20 mm, as presented in
Table 1. The CA14 and CA20 aggregates refer to
crushed aggregate with MSA of 14 and 20 mm,
respectively. For a given shape and MSA, the quantity
of flat and elongated particles of the CA14-F22 and
CA14-F31 aggregates was 22 and 31 %, by mass,
respectively. The CA14-F22 and CA14-F31 aggre-
gates were produced in the laboratory by mixing
5–10 mm aggregate and 10–14 mm size aggregate in
different proportions. The 5–10 mm size aggregate
has a content of flat and elongated particles of 53.5 %,
while the 10–14 mm size aggregate has 8.5 % flat and
elongated particles. The CA14-F22 was made by the
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609 601

100 100
90
Passing percent (%)

80
80

Passing percent (%)

70 RA14
60
NS2.6 RA20
60
CS2.5 CA14
40 50 CA20
CS3.0
40
CSA lower limit
20 30
CSA upper limit
20
0
0.08 0.8 8 10
Sieve opening (mm) 0
(a) Percent passing 0.08 0.8 8
Sieve opening (mm)
45 (a) Crushed vs. rounded aggregates
40

Retained percent (%)

35 100
NS2.6
CS2.5 30 90
CS3.0 25 80

Passing percent (%)

0.08 0.16 0.32 0.63 1.25
Sieve opening (mm)
(b) Percent retained
Fig. 1 Particle-size distributions of various sand types
combination of 30 % of the 5–10 mm aggregate and
70 % of the 10–14 mm aggregate. The content of
these two aggregates were 50 % each for the CA14-
F31 combination. On the other hand, the CA14 is
obtained from a quarry without any modification in the
laboratory. Particle-size distributions of the investi-
gated aggregates are presented in Fig. 2.
2.3 Test methods
The packing density of the sand and coarse aggregate
was determined using the intensive compaction tester
(ICT). In general, the ICT is employed for the research
and testing of compaction of granular materials such
as soil and concrete [13]. The normal pressure applied
to compact the aggregate was set at 20 kPa, which was
kept at a low values in order to prevent any crushing of
the aggregate during testing. Then, variations in
packing density values with respect to S/A were
determined using the ‘‘Optimization René LCPC’’
software. The software enables the calculation of the
packing density of binary aggregate combinations,
such as sand and coarse aggregate. As input data, the
CA14-F31
20 70
CA14-F22
15 60
10 50
5
40
0
30
2.50 5.00 10.00 14.00 20.00 28.00
20
10
0
0.08 0.8 8
Sieve opening (mm)
(b) Different contents of flat and elongated
particles (MSA of 14 mm)
Fig. 2 Particle-size distribution of various coarse aggregates
software requires the determination of the packing
density of each material (sand and coarse aggregate)
using the ICT. The packing density values corre-
sponding to different S/A values of 0.45–0.60 are
presented in Table 2 for the three sands types.
The content of flat and elongated particles in the
coarse aggregate was determined in accordance with
CSA A23.1-13A. Accordingly, a particle is considered
to be flat when its smallest dimension is less than 3/5 of
the average size. On the other hand, a particle is
considered to be elongated when its largest dimension
(length) is greater than 9/5 of the average size. An
aggregate particle is considered to be elongated when
it has a length which exceeds the gauge length
corresponding to its MSA. On the other hand, a
particle is considered to be flat when it passes the
gauge opening corresponding to its MSA. From the
aggregate sample representing each aggregate, the test
sample is taken for the purpose of CSA A23.1-13A
testing. The number of aggregate particles to be tested
602 Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609

D \ 315 lm
depends on the mass percentage of the test sample to
the initial representing sample. A minimum of 200

8.60
9.26
9.92
10.71
15.85
particles shall be taken if the test sample is more than
15 % of the initial sample mass. On the other hand, a
minimum of 100 aggregate particles is needed in case
D \ 80 lm the mass of test sample is from 5 to 15 % of the initial
one. The percentage of flat and elongated particle is
2.42
2.40
2.39
2.37
2.25
considered as the ratio of the mass of particles
classified as either flat or elongated expressed in terms
of the mass of the test sample.
Calculated packing

The slump flow test (ASTM C 1611) was used to

evaluate the ability of SCC to deform under its own
weight. The time (T-50) needed for the concrete to
spread 500 mm in the slump flow test was noted. The
density
CS3.0

0.692
0.697
0.705
0.700
0.617
Table 2 Packing density and content of fines for various S/A values for the CA14 coarse aggregate and different sand types

J-Ring test (ASTM C 1621) was used to assess the

passing ability of concrete through closely spaced
D \ 315 lm

obstacles. Rheological properties were determined

using a modified Tattersall two-point workability
11.52
12.51
13.50
14.68
22.36

rheometer [14]. Yield stress and plastic viscosity were

determined at 10 min using the descending portion of
D \ 80 lm

the shear stress–shear rate curve.

The surface settlement test was used to assess static
2.30
2.27
2.25
2.21
1.99

stability. A rigid PVC column measuring 200 mm in

Packing density values of CA20, RA14, and RA20 are 0.553, 0.630, and 0.625, respectively

diameter and 700 mm in height was used [15]. The

settlement was monitored using a linear variable
differential transducer (LVDT). Settlement values are
Calculated packing

monitored at 5-min intervals until the hardening of the

concrete. The settlement values are good indication of
static stability of the SCC [16, 17].
density

Several 100 9 200 mm cylinders were cast in a

CS2.5

0.714
0.719
0.721
0.720
0.631

single layer with 5 strokes of consolidation using

10-mm diameter tempering rod. Compressive strength
D \ 315 lm

(ASTM C 39) was determined at 7, 28, and 56 days on

CA14 coarse aggregate (packing density = 0.564)a

the cylinders that were demolded at 24 h and moist-

13.45
14.65
15.85
17.29
26.64

cured at 100 % relative humidity at 23 ± 1 °C until

the age of testing.
D \ 80 lm

2.67
2.68
2.70
2.71
2.81

3 Test results and discusssion

3.1 Influence of packing density on static stability

Calculated packing

Slump flow, air content, rheological properties, sur-

face settlement, and compressive strength values of
the investigated mixtures are presented in Table 3.
density
NS2.6

0.776
0.782
0.785
0.780
0.721

The tested concretes were not air-entrained and had air

contents of 1.5–4 %. All mixtures had surface settle-
ment values lower than the 0.5 %, which is the upper
Sand

0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
1.00
S/A
CA

limit considered for stable SCC mixtures [18, 15]. It is

a
Table 3 Workability, rheological properties, and compressive strength values of investigated mixtures
Mix. no. Codification = S/A-sand Calculated SP (%, dry % Slump Air J-ring T50 Yield Plastic Surface 56-days
type-coarse agg. type-% of packing of cement ? flow content (mm) (s) stress viscosity settlement compressive
flat and elongated particles density fly ash) (mm) (%) (Pa) (Pa.s) (%) strength
(MPa)

1 0.45-NS2.6-CA14 0.776 0.25 550 2.5 465 3.5 92 31 0.23 65

Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609

2 0.45-CS2.5-CA14 0.714 0.28 550 4.1 480 2.8 89 27 0.38 53

3 0.45-CS3.0-CA14 0.692 0.28 550 2.4 515 2.2 90 15 0.47 40
4 0.50-NS2.6-CA14 0.782 0.25 540 2.4 485 2.4 79 25 0.23 64
5 0.50-CS2.5-CA14 0.719 0.29 550 3.5 500 3.4 96 24 0.33 57
6 0.50-CS3.0-CA14 0.697 0.27 550 2.3 470 5.1 103 21 0.44 49
7 0.55-NS2.6-CA14 0.785 0.23 570 2.4 525 2.8 54 35 0.23 62
8 0.55-CS2.5-CA14 0.721 0.29 550 2.6 540 2.3 73 28 0.33 55
9 0.55-CS3.0-CA14 0.705 0.27 550 2.0 450 4.4 94 19 0.41 45
10 0.60-NS2.6-CA14 0.780 0.23 560 2.9 540 3.6 73 39 0.14 61
11 0.60-CS2.5-CA14 0.720 0.30 545 3.7 485 3.7 75 37 0.30 53
12 0.60-CS3.0-CA14 0.700 0.29 550 3.1 480 3.2 88 35 0.39 43
13 0.50-NS2.6-CA14 0.782 0.25 540 2.4 485 2.4 79 25 0.23 64
14 0.50-NS2.6-RA14 0.803 0.24 545 1.7 535 3.4 77 17 0.40 49
15 0.50-NS2.6-CA20 0.804 0.33 550 2.7 475 2.8 85 25 0.35 57
16 0.50-NS2.6-RA20 0.816 0.24 535 1.9 515 2.3 81 21 0.45 51
17 0.50-NS2.6-CA14-F*22 0.776 0.29 570 2.9 555 3.0 18 37 0.33 62
18 0.50-NS2.6-CA14-F31 0.776 0.34 570 2.7 510 2.4 45 49 0.31 64
* Quantity of flat and elongated particles in coarse aggregate. F22 refer to 22 % of flat and elongated particles in the coarse aggregate
603
604 Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609

worthy to note that the settlement values varied with 0.5

the type of sand in use. Mixtures made with natural

0.4

Surface settlement (%)

sand with a FM of 2.6 (NS2.6) had lower settlement
values compared to those prepared with combined 0.3 R² = 0.84
sands with FM of 2.5 and 3.0 (CS2.5 and CS3.0), as Concrete with NS2.6
0.2 Concrete with CS2.5
presented in Table 3. Mixtures made with natural sand
Concrete with CS3.0
(NS2.6) are more homogenous than those prepared 0.1 w/cm = 0.41
SP = 2 to 4L/m3
with combined sands of the CS2.5 and CS3.0 due to
more continuous particles-size distribution of the 0
0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80
NS2.6. The use of the NS2.6 sand led to an increase Packing density
in packing density, which is attributed to its contin-
Fig. 3 Relationship between packing density of combined sand
uous gradation and less angular shape compared to the
and coarse aggregate and surface settlement for SWC mixtures
two crushed sands. The increase in the packing density No. 1–13 made with crushed coarse aggregate with MSA of
by the use of the NS2.6 may increase the lattice effect, 14 mm
which can lead to lower settlement. For the coarse
aggregate of the CA14, a good correlation was 70

Compressive strenght at 56 days

established between the surface settlement of the R² = 0.81
65
concrete and the packing density of the aggregate. As
60
presented in Fig. 3, an increase in the packing density

(MPa)
55
of the aggregate skeleton (combined coarse and fine
aggregate) from 0.692 to 0.785 led to nearly 50 % 50

reduction in surface settlement, indicating significant 45 Concrete with NS2.6

enhancement in static stability of the concrete. It is
important to note that the relationship between the
settlement and packing density presented in Fig. 3 is
valid for the CA14. The relationship trend line may vary
depending on the type of coarse aggregate. For a given
packing density, the surface settlement is expected to
increase with the increase in MSA. For example,
mixtures No. 13 and 15 made with the CA14 and
CA20, respectively, had packing densities of 0.78 and
0.80 but exhibited surface settlement values of 0.23 and
0.35 %, respectively. In other words, the former mixture
with the lower MSA, despite its slightly lower packing
density, still exhibited lower surface settlement. Similar
findings were reported in NCHRP Report 628 for mix
design of SCC for precast, prestressed elements where it
is shown that for a given viscosity level, SCC mixtures
with larger MSA (10, 14, or 20 mm) would exhibit
greater risk of segregation [15].
Variations of compressive strength at 56 days with
respect to packing density of the aggregate skeleton
are presented in Fig. 4 for mixtures made with the
CA14 and three types of sands. These mixtures
correspond to mixtures No. 1–13 in Table 1. Mixtures
No. 4 and 13 are duplicate points. For the CA14 coarse
aggregate, a good correlation is established between
packing density and compressive strength, as pre-
sented in Fig. 4. Compressive strength was shown to
Concrete with CS2.5
40
Concrete with CS3.0
35
0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80
Packing density of aggregate
Fig. 4 Influence of packing density on compressive strength of
concrete made with different types of sands and crushed coarse
aggregate with MSA of 14 mm (mixtures No. 1–13)
vary with the type of sand. Mixtures made with natural
sand with a FM of 2.6 (NS2.6) had higher packing
density and greater compressive strength compared to
those prepared with combined sands of CS2.5 and
CS3.0. SWC with higher packing density resulted
from sand type also exhibited greater compressive
strength. Mixtures made with the NS2.6 had lower SP
demand than those prepared with CS2.5 and CS3.0. As
presented in Table 3, for a given coarse aggregate,
mixtures containing the NS2.6 sand exhibited slightly
higher plastic viscosity than those made with the
combined sands.
As in the case of the surface settlement, it is
important to point out that the relationship between the
packing density and compressive strength varies with
coarse aggregate type. This can be in part attributed to
the quality of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ),
which varies with type of coarse aggregate (MSA and
shape in this case).
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609 605

Compressive strength of concrete also depends on

the w/cm and ITZ between aggregate and paste. Given
the fact that w/cm was fixed, the spread in the
compressive strength can be attributed to different
textures of sand that affect the quality of ITZ. Mixtures
made with natural sand of NS2.6 had higher compres-
sive strength than those prepared with the combined
sands of CS2.5 and CS3.0. Similarly, concretes with
coarser sand of CS3.0 developed lower strength than
similar mixtures containing the CS2.5 sand.
For a given S/A value, SWC mixtures containing
natural sand of NS2.6 necessitated lower SP demand
to secure a target slump flow. Cement paste with lower
SP content can be more viscous. The improved quality Fig. 5 Influence of content of fines with diameter less than
of the paste by the use of natural sand resulted in 315 lm in the CA14 coarse aggregate and different types of
sands on plastic viscosity of SWC
denser ITZ that can enhance mechanical strength of
the concrete. In addition, the aggregate skeleton
formed with natural sand have greater packing density
than the skeleton made with combined sands due to
smooth texture and regular shape of the natural sand
particles, thus contributing the increase in the strength
[19].

3.2 Influence of content of fine particles

on performance of SWC

The content of fines contained in coarse aggregate of

14-mm MSA and the three sand types were deter-
mined for various S/A values in order to evaluate the
influence of fine particles on rheology and stability of
concrete. The contents of fines passing 315 lm sieves
are presented in Table 2. The 12 sand-aggregate
combinations corresponding to mixtures No. 1–12
are presented in Tables 1 and 3.
Variations in plastic viscosity and surface settle-
ment are presented in Figs. 5 and 6 with respect to the
quantity of fines with an apparent diameter smaller
than 315 lm. The quantity of fines varied between 8
and 18 % in mixtures with S/A values ranging
between 0.45 and 0.60. In general, an increase in the
quantity of fines with a diameter smaller than 315 lm
led to an increase in plastic viscosity of the concrete,
thus leading to a decrease in settlement. As presented
in Figs. 5 and 6, the increase in fine content from 8 to
18 % led to a significant increase in plastic viscosity
(15–40 Pa.s) and considerable decrease in surface
settlement (0.47–0.14 %). For a given w/cm, the
increase in fine particle content in the sand-aggregate
Fig. 6 Influence of content of fines with diameter less than
315 lm in the CA14 coarse aggregate and different types of
sands on surface settlement of SWC
combinations increases the specific surface, and
consequently leads to an increase in the resistance to
flow of the concrete, which corresponds to an increase
in plastic viscosity. It is interesting to note that in
particular, a good linear correlation (R2 = 0.91) was
established between the quantity of fines with diam-
eter lower than 315 lm in sand and coarse aggregate
and the surface settlement of the concrete. Such fine
particles contribute to an increase in cohesion of the
paste and bond between the paste and aggregate
skeleton. Consequently, the risk of bleeding is
reduced, and the aggregates can remain in more
uniform suspension, thus leading to an enhancement in
static stability. The increase in fines content also
resulted in an increase in the packing density, which
606
Fig. 7 Influence of fines with diameter smaller than 315 lm on
yield stress of SWC made with the CA14 aggregate and different
types of sand
contributes to the enhancement of static stability of the
concrete. In the mix design of SCC and SWC,
adequate quantity of the fine materials can be assured
by using supplementary cementitious materials, fillers,
and fine sand.
Variations of yield stress values are presented in
Fig. 7 with respect to the quantity of fine particles with
diameter smaller than 315 lm. In general, mixtures
made with combined sands (lower packing density)
(CS2.5 and CS3.0) had higher yield stress values
compared to those prepared with the natural NS2.6
sand (higher packing density). The shape irregularity
of the combined sands can increase inter-particle
friction, thus leading to an increase in yield stress of
the concrete. On the other hand, the uniformly rounded
shape of the natural sand contributes to a decrease in
the inter-particle friction and yield stress.
For a given volume of total aggregate (sand and
coarse aggregates), an increase in S/A corresponds to a
decrease in coarse aggregate volume, which reduces
the inter-particle friction and yield stress. This is due
to the reduction of inter-particle friction with the
decrease in particle diameter and coarse aggregate
volume [20].
3.3 Influence of type of coarse aggregate
on performance of SWC
Two types of coarse aggregates were used for each
MSA: rounded and crushed. The crushed aggregate
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609
35
CA14 & NS2.6
2.5≤D≤10 30
RA14 & NS2.6
Retained percent (%)
CA20 & NS2.6 25
RA20 & NS2.6
20
15
10
0
0.08 0.16 0.315 0.63 1.25 2.5 5 10 14 20 28
Sieve opening (mm)
Fig. 8 Comparison of percent retained values on each sieve for
different types and sizes of coarse aggregate
CA14 (MSA = 14 mm) and rounded aggregate RA14
(MSA = 14 mm) have similar particle-size distribu-
tions but different surface textures and shapes. This is
the same case for the CA20 and RA20 aggregates.
Rheological properties, static stability, and compres-
sive strength values of mixture No. 13–16 in Table 1
are discussed in this section. Figure 8 presents the
percent retained values on each sieve for different
aggregate types and MSA. For all coarse aggregate
types, natural sand (NS2.6) with FM of 2.6 was used.
Plastic viscosity and surface settlement values of
the four mixtures are compared in Fig. 9. The 0.50-
NS2.6-CA14 and 0.50-NS2.6-CA20 mixtures made
with crushed aggregate had 48 and 16 % higher plastic
viscosity, respectively, compared to similar concrete
prepared with rounded aggregate with the same MSA.
As presented in Fig. 8, crushed aggregates of CA14
and CA20 had 2–6 % higher percent retained values
on particle sizes between 2.5 and 10 mm than the
rounded RA14 and RA20 aggregates. The absence or
excess of the intermediate particles in the aggregate
have considerable effect on workability [21]. There-
fore, the relatively low plastic viscosity of concrete
made with rounded aggregate is attributed to the
coupled effect of the quantity of intermediate particles
(2.5–10 mm) and shape of the aggregate.
SWC mixtures with rounded aggregate had
22–42 % higher surface settlement values compared
to those made with crushed aggregate of the same
MSA, as shown in Fig. 9. The smooth surface of
rounded aggregate reduces adherence between the
cement paste and coarse aggregate particles, thus
hindering retention of the aggregate in the suspension.
De Larrard [3] also reported that rounded aggregate
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609
0.50-NS2.6-CA14 Slump = 550±20 mm
SS = 0.23% Surface settlement = SS
35
0.50-NS2.6-CA20
Plastic vicosity (Pa.s)
30
SS = 0.35%
25
0.50-NS2.6-RA14
20 SS = 0.40%
15
10
5
0
14 mm
MSA
Fig. 9 Comparison of plastic viscosity and surface settlement
of mixtures made with different shapes of coarse aggregate
has a good shape and good intrinsic resistance but
developed relatively weaker bond to the hydrated
cement paste. On the other hand, crushed aggregate
presents less satisfactory characteristics in terms of
shape and intrinsic resistance, but it contributes to
greater bond with the hydrated cement matrix [3]. In
addition, rounded coarse aggregate has lower specific
surface area and necessitates lower volume of paste
required for a given fluidity than crushed coarse
aggregate. For a given paste volume, mixtures made
with rounded coarse aggregate can have higher
fluidity and greater deformability. For a given packing
density, mixtures containing rounded coarse aggre-
gate can have lower viscosity and higher surface
settlement than those prepared with crushed coarse
aggregate.
As in the case of plastic viscosity, mixtures made
with crushed aggregates exhibited 6 % higher yield
stress compared to those prepared with rounded
aggregate, as presented in Table 3. An irregular shape
and rough surface texture of the crushed aggregate
could be the main cause of several inter-particle forces
and correspondingly slight increase in yield stress and
plastic viscosity of the concrete made with such
aggregate.
On average, mixtures made with crushed aggregate
had 10 % higher compressive strength at 56 days than
those with rounded aggregate. As presented in
Table 1, mixtures No. 13–16 were made with the
same mixture compositions except for the type of
coarse aggregate. In general, mixtures made with
crushed aggregate have greater bond between the
aggregate particles and hydrated cement paste than
those prepared with rounded aggregate due to the
rougher texture of the former type.
607
0.50-NS2.6-RA20
SS = 0.45 %
20 mm
Fig. 10 Percent retained values on each sieve for aggregates
with different contents of flat and elongated particles
3.4 Influence of content of flat and elongated
particles on performance of SWC
For a given MSA of 14 mm, mixtures No. 17 and 18
were made with crushed coarse aggregate that
includes different contents of flat and elongated
particles of 22 and 31 %, by mass, respectively.
Except the content of flat and elongated particles,
these two mixtures were proportioned with the same
mixture composition. Figure 10 presents the percent
retained values on each sieve for the combined sand
and coarse aggregate skeletons that include different
contents of flat and elongated particles. For all the
coarse aggregates, natural sand (NS2.6) with a FM of
2.6 was used.
Rheological properties and compressive strength at
56 days for mixtures No. 17 and 18 are given in
Table 3. As expected, an increase in the content of flat
and elongated particles led to an increase in plastic
viscosity. As presented in Table 3, the 0.50-NS2.6-
CA14-F31 made with aggregate containing 31 % of
flat and elongated particles exhibited approximately
30 % higher plastic viscosity compared to the 0.50-
NS2.6-CA14-F22 prepared with aggregate having
22 % of such particles. It should be noted that the
CA14-F31 aggregate has less particles with 14 mm
diameter compared to the CA14-F22, as illustrated in
Fig. 10. In addition, the CA14-F31 aggregate has
higher percent passing on the 14 mm sieve size than
the CA14-22 (100 vs. 85 %). This indicates finer
gradation of the CA14-F31 aggregate, despite of the
higher content of flat and elongated particles. There-
fore, the higher plastic viscosity of the 0.50-NS2.6-
CA14-F31 mixture are attributed to higher content of
608
flat and elongated particles as well as greater inter-
particle friction due to finer particle gradation of the
CA14-F31 aggregate. As presented in Table 3, the
increase in flat and elongated particle content of
22–31 % also resulted in a significant increase in the
yield stress from 18 to 45 Pa. However, it should be
noted that the surface settlement and 56-day compres-
sive strength values of mixtures No. 17 and 18 were
similar, regardless of the content of the flat and
elongated particles in the coarse aggregate. Both
mixtures were highly stable with surface settlement of
approximately 0.32 %. This indicates that the increase
in plastic viscosity does not contribute to an increase in
surface settlement and is mainly attributed to the
increase particle collision of flat and elongated
particles. In addition, the increase in the flat and
elongated particle content necessitated higher SP
demand. Therefore, the content of flat and elongated
particles can result in an increase in yield stress and
plastic viscosity of the SWC without positive effect on
static stability and compressive strength. The increase
in the flat and elongated particles also reduce the
passing ability of the SWC; the differences between
slump flow and J-Ring flow diameters were increased
from 15 to 60 mm due to the 9 % increase in the flat
and elongated particle content (22 vs. 31 %). In
general, highly flowable concrete should have differ-
ence between slump flow and J-Ring flow equal or
lower than 50 mm to secure adequate passing ability.
3.5 Sand and coarse aggregate optimization
for mix design of SWC
The influence of sand and coarse aggregate charac-
teristics on rheology and static stability of SWC was
elaborated in Sects. 3.1–3.4. Recommendations for
optimizing sand-aggregate combinations are dis-
cussed herein. As proven from the test results of this
study, the packing density appears to be the most
predominant parameter to secure adequate static
stability and mechanical properties of the SWC.
Therefore, for a given sand and coarse aggregate type,
the first step is to adjust or select a S/A value that leads
to the maximum packing density to achieve the
targeted stability. Once the optimum packing density
was achieved, particle-size distributions of sand and
aggregate should be verified to determine the content
of fine particles smaller than 315 lm which contrib-
utes to an increase in static stability and a decrease in
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609
yield stress by the reduction of inter-particle friction.
In this stage, different sand types should be considered
to compare the contents of such fines.
The form of coarse aggregate has a significant
effect on stability, rheology, and compressive strength
of SWC. In general, for a given sand type and S/A
value, crushed coarse aggregate results in greater static
stability (higher plastic viscosity) and compressive
strength than rounded aggregate. It is however,
important to verify the content of intermediate parti-
cles of 2.5–10 mm diameter in the selected aggregate
because the lack of such particles could lead to a
decrease in stability of SWC.
Even for a given type and MSA, a difference in the
content of flat and elongated particles still exists.
Therefore, special care should be taken to limit the
amount of flat and elongated particles in the coarse
aggregate. An increase in the content of such particles
can lead to a significant increase in the inter-particle
friction and flow resistance (viscosity), thus resulting
in a reduction in passing and filling capacity of the
SWC. In addition, it should be noted that the increase
in plastic viscosity of the concrete due to the flat and
elongated particles does not contribute to the stability
of SWC.
4 Conclusions
This study aimed at evaluating the influence of sand
and coarse aggregate characteristics on key perfor-
mance properties of SWC. The aggregate character-
istics includes the packing density of the combined
aggregate, content of fines, surface texture, shape of
particles, and content of flat and elongated particles.
Given the results reported in this study, the following
conclusions appear to be warranted:
1. For SWC mixtures with crushed coarse aggregate
with MSA of 14 mm, the increase in packing
density resulted in increase in stability and
compressive strength. The packing density can
be adjusted, in the order of importance, by varying
the S/A value, form of coarse aggregate, and sand
type. For a given coarse aggregate, an increase in
packing density results in an improvement in
static stability and compressive strength of the
SWC.
2. For a given S/A value, the increase in the content
of fine particles smaller than 315 lm in the sand
Materials and Structures (2016) 49:597–609
and coarse aggregate can contribute to the reduc-
tion of inter-particle friction, decrease in yield
stress, and increase in static stability of the SWC.
The increase in fine content smaller than 315 lm
from 8 to 18 % led to a considerable decrease in
surface settlement from 0.47 to 0.14 %.
3. The form of coarse aggregate has significant effect
on the stability, rheology, and compressive strength
of SWC. For a given MSA, SWC containing
crushed coarse aggregate exhibited 22–42 % lower
surface settlement compared to similar concrete
made with rounded coarse aggregate.
4. The content of flat and elongated particles in the
coarse aggregate should be reduced to enhance
rheological properties and reduce yield stress,
plastic viscosity, and SP demand. This can result
in higher passing ability (lower difference
between slump flow and J-Ring flow) of SWC.
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