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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Objective: Develop mathematical models of physical systems often

encountered in practice.
Why? Mathematical models allow us to capture the main phenomena that take
place in the system, in order to analyze, simulate, and control it.
A physical model for control design purposes should be
Descriptive: Able to capture the main features of the system
Simple: The simpler the model, the simpler will be the synthesized control
algorithm.

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Electrical elements:
Current and voltage are the primary variables used to describe a circuit’s
behavior.
Current is the flow of electrons. It is the time rate of change of electrons
passing through a defined area, such as the cross-section of a wire. Because
electrons are negatively charged, the positive direction of current flow is
opposite to that of electron flow. The mathematical description of the
relationship between the number of electrons ( called charge q ) and current i
is

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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Electrical elements:
Energy is required to move a charge between two points in a circuit. The work
per unit charge required to do this is called voltage. The voltage difference
between two points in a circuit is a measure of the energy required to move
charge from one point to the other.
The unit of voltage is volt (V) (in recognition of the Italian physicist
Alessandro Volta, 1745-1827), which is defined as a charge of 1 joule of energy
per coulomb of charge.

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Active and Passive Elements:

Passive Element: an element that contains no energy sources (i.e. the element
needs power from another source to operate); these include resistors, capacitors
and inductors.
Active Element: an element that acts as an energy source; these include
batteries, generators, solar cells.

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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Current Source and Voltage Source
A voltage source is a device that causes a specified voltage to exist between
two points in a circuit. The voltage may be time varying or time invariant (for a
sufficiently long time). In figure (a) is a schematic diagram of a voltage source.
Figure (b) shows a voltage source that has a constant value for an indefinite
time. Often the voltage is denoted by E or V. A battery is an example of this
type of voltage.

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Current Source and Voltage Source

A current source causes a specified current to flow through a wire containing

this source. Figure (c) is a schematic diagram of a current source

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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:
𝑒𝑟
The resistance R of a linear resistor is given by 𝑅 = where 𝑒𝑟 is the voltage
𝑖
across the resistor and i is the current through the resistor. The unit of
resistance is the ohm (Ω) , where

Resistances do not store electric energy in any form, but instead dissipate it as
heat. Real resistors may not be linear and may also exhibit some capacitance
and inductance effects.

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:

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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:
Capacitance Elements: Two conductors separated by a nonconducting medium
form a capacitor, so two metallic plates separated by a very thin dielectric
material form a capacitor. The capacitance C is a measure of the quantity of
charge that can be stored for a given voltage across the plates. The capacitance
𝑞
C of a capacitor can thus be given by 𝐶 = 𝑒 where q is the quantity of charge
𝑐
stored and 𝑒𝑐 is the voltage across the capacitor. The unit of capacitance is the
farad (F), where

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:

𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑒𝑐
Notice that, since 𝑖 = and 𝑒𝑐 = we have 𝑖 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑡
1
𝑑𝑒𝑐 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 Terefore, 𝑒𝑐 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒𝑐 (0)
𝐶 𝐶 0

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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:
Inductance Elements: If a circuit lies in a time varying magnetic field, an
electromotive force is induced in the circuit. The inductive effects can be
classified as self inductance.
Self inductance, or simply inductance, L is the proportionality constant between
the induced voltage 𝑒𝐿 volts and the rate of change of current (or change in
current per second) 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡 amperes per second; that is,
𝑒𝐿 The unit of inductance is the henry (H). An electrical circuit has
𝐿=
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡 an inductance of 1 henry when a rate of change of 1 ampere per
second will induce an emf of 1 volt.

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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:

The voltage 𝑒𝐿 across the inductor L is given by

𝑑𝑖
𝑒𝐿 = 𝐿 Where 𝑖 is the current through the inductor. The current 𝑖 𝑡 ;
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
1
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(0)
𝐿 0

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:

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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Passive Elements:

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

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DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) (Node Law)
A node in an electrical circuit is a point where three or more wires are joined
together. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that

DYNAMICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) (Loop Law)
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that at any given instant of time

𝑒𝐴𝐵 + 𝑒𝐵𝐶 + 𝑒𝐶𝐷 = 0

or 𝐸
𝑖=
𝐸 − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝑖𝑟 = 0 𝑅+𝑟

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Mathematical Modeling of Electrical Systems

Electrical systems mathematical model may be obtained by applying one or

both of Kirchhoff’s laws to a given circuit. The variables of interest in the
circuit analysis are voltages and currents at various point along the circuit.
Consider the circuit in figure. Assume that the
switch S is open for t<0 and closed at t=0.
Obtain a model for the circuit and obtain an
equation for the current i.

Mathematical Modeling of Electrical Systems

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝐸−𝐿 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Laplace transformation of both side

𝐸 for t<0 S is open thus i(0)=0
𝐿 𝑠𝐼 𝑠 − 𝑖(0) + 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) =
𝑠

𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝐿𝑠𝐼(𝑠) + 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 = 𝐼(𝑠) =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅

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Mathematical Modeling of Electrical Systems

𝐸
𝐼(𝑠) =
𝑠 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅
Inverse Laplace transformation of last eq.

𝐸 𝐸 1 1
ℒ = −
𝑠 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + (𝑅 𝐿)

𝐸
𝑖 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −(𝑅 𝐿)𝑡
𝑅

Mathematical Modeling of Electrical Systems

Consider the circuit in figure. Obtain the transfer

function 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
Applying the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

1 11
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒𝑖 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) + 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐶 𝐶𝑠
1 11
𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒𝑜 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐶 𝐶𝑠

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Mathematical Modeling of Electrical Systems

11
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
= 𝐶 𝑠 𝐼(𝑠) =
1
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 11 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝑅+ 𝐼 𝑠 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐶𝑠

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