Overview of Nonlinear Problems, Modeling and Analysis PDF

Hands out
Seismic Evaluation and Retrofitting

Design of Masonry and RC structures
+ Overview of Nonlinear Modeling, Nonlinear Pushover Analysis, and
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis
+ Overview of Nonlinear Problems, modeling, and Analysis
+ Pushover Analysis: Concepts, Methods and Tools
+ Nonlinear Modeling of RC and Masonry Structures
ACECOMS, AIT
Seismic Evaluation and Retrofitting Design of Masonry and RC structures
Specialized Course on Nonlinear Analysis of RC and Masonry Structures AIT, Thailand
Objectives
• To provide background knowledge on finite element
modeling, nonlinear analysis and design of reinforced
concrete and masonry structures
• Review the seismic analysis, evaluation and retrofitting

methodologies, with specific focus on nonlinear Pushover
Analysis
• Provide hands on training on the use various software for

static, dynamic and nonlinear modeling and analysis
ACECOMS :: Asian Center for Engineering Computations and Software

1
Overview of Nonlinear Modeling

Modeling,,
Nonlinear Pushover Analysis,
and Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis
Structural System – Analysis

Model
STRUCTURE
EXCITATION RESPONSES
Loads Displacements
Vibrations Strains
Settlements Stress
Thermal Changes pv Stress Resultants
Structural
Model

2
Analysis of Structures
∂σxx ∂σyy ∂σzz

+ + + pvx = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
pv
Real Structure is governed by
“Partial Differential Equations”
of various order
Di
Directt solution
l ti isi only
l possible
ibl
for:
• Simple geometry
• Simple Boundary
• Simple Loading.
The Need for Modeling

A - Real Structure cannot be Analyzed:
It can only
l be
b “Load
“L d Tested”
T t d” to
t determine
d t i
response
B - We can only analyze a “Model” of the
Structure
C - We therefore need tools to Model the
Structure and to Analyze the Model

3
Finite Element Method: The Analysis Tool
• Finite Element Analysis

(FEA)
– “A discretized solution to a
continuum problem using FEM”
• Finite Element Method

(FEM)
– “A numerical procedure for solving
(partial) differential equations
associated with field problems, with
an accuracy acceptable to
engineers”
Continuum to Discrete Model
pv
3D-CONTINUM CONTINUOUS MODEL DISCRETE MODEL

MODEL OF STRUCTURE OF STRUCTURE
(Governed by (Governed by either (Governed by algebraic
partial partial or total equations)
differential differential equations)
equations)

4
From Classical to FEM Solution

Classical Assumptions FEM
E ilib i
Equilibrium
Actual Structure Structural Model
∂σxx ∂σyy ∂σzz

+ +
∂x ∂y ∂z vx
+ p =0
Stress-Strain Law
Kr = R
Compatibility “Algebraic
“Partial
Equations”
q
Diff
Differential
ti l _ _ _
Equations” ∫σ t
ε dV = ∫ pvt udV + ∫ pst uds
v K = Stiffness
r = Response
(Principle of Virtual Work) R = Loads
Simplified Structural System
Loads (F) Deformations (D)
Fv
D K
F
F=KD

5
The Analysis System

STRUCTURE
EXCITATION RESPONSES
pv
• Static • Elastic • Linear

• Dynamic • Inelastic • Nonlinear
Eight types of equilibrium equations are possible!
The Equilibrium Equations

1. Linear-Static Elastic
Ku = F
2. Linear-Dynamic Elastic
Mu&&(t ) + Cu& (t ) + Ku (t ) = F (t )
3. Nonlinear - Static Elastic OR Inelastic

K + FNL = F
Ku
4. Nonlinear-Dynamic Elastic OR
Inelastic
Mu&&(t ) + Cu& (t ) + Ku(t ) + F (t ) NL = F (t )

6
Comprehensive Equilibrium Equation
Mu&&(t ) + Cu&(t ) + Ku(t ) + F (t ) NL = F (t )

• Cover all Static, Dynamic, Elastic, Non
Elastic, Damped, Un-
damped, Linear, Non-Linear cases and
their combinations
• Handles response for
– Basic Dead and Live Loads
– Seismic, Wind, Vibration and Fire analysis
Comprehensive Equilibrium Equation
Mass-Acceleration Stiffness-Displacement External Force
Mu&& + Cu& + Ku + FNL = F

Damping-Velocity
Nonlinearityy
Mu&& + C u& + Ku
The basic variable is displacement and its derivatives

7
Static and Dynamic
Mu&& + Cu& + Ku
K + FNL = F
Mu&& + Cu& + Ku
Dynamic Part
Static Part
Linear and Non-Linear
Mu&& + Cu& + Ku
K + FNL = F
M u&& + C u& + Ku
Linear Part
Non-Linear Part

8
Seismic Analysis
Acceleration Records
Mu&& + Cu& + Ku = Mu&&g Time History Analysis
M u&& + C u& + Ku + FNL = F

Free Vibration Equivalent
Ku = FEQ
M u&& + Ku = 0 Static Analysis
Pushover
Ku + FNL = FEQ Analysis
Ku = FEQ Response Spectrum

Analysis
Response Spectrums
Wind Analysis
Wind-Time Records
Mu&& + Cu& + Ku = F (t ) Full Dynamic Analysis
M u&& + C u& + Ku + FNL = F

Free Vibration
Equivalent
Ku = FW
M u&& + Ku = 0 Static Analysis
Ku = FW Equivalent Static
Ku + FNL = F Nonlinear Analysis
Matched Analysis

9
Vibration Analysis
Load-Time Function
Mu&& + Cu& + Ku = F (t ) Full Dynamic Analysis
M u&& + C u& + Ku + FNL = F
Equivalent
Ku = F Static Analysis
Ku + FNL = F Equivalent Static

Nonlinear Analysis
Linear and Nonlinear
Linear Static and Dynamic

Linear,
Ku = F
Ku = F
F M u&&( t ) + C u& ( t ) + Ku ( t ) = F ( t )
FNL
Ku - FNL = F
Nonlinear,, Static and Dynamic

y
u Ku + FNL = F
&&(t) + Cu&(t) + Ku(t) + F(t)NL = F(t)
Non Linear Equilibrium Mu

10
Basic Analysis Types

Excitation Structure Response Basic Analysis Type
Static Elastic Linear Linear-Elastic-Static Analysis
Static Elastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Elastic-Static Analysis
Static Inelastic Linear Linear-Inelastic-Static Analysis
Static Inelastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Inelastic-Static Analysis
Dynamic Elastic Linear Linear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic Elastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic Inelastic Linear Linear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic Inelastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis
Some More Solution Types

• Non-linear Analysis
– P-Delta Analysis
– Buckling Analysis
– Static Pushover Analysis
– Fast Non-Linear Analysis (FNA)
– Large Displacement Analysis
• Dynamic Analysis
– Free Vibration and Modal Analysis
– Response
Specialized Course Spectrum
on Nonlinear Analysis of Analysis
RC and Masonry Structures AIT, Thailand

11
Static Vs Dynamic
• Static Excitation
– When the Excitation (Load) does not vary rapidly with
Time
– When the Load can be assumed to be applied “Slowly”
• Dynamic Excitation
– When the Excitation varies rapidly with Time
– When the “Inertial Force” becomes significant
• Most Real Excitation are Dynamic but are

considered“Quasi Static”
• Most Dynamic Excitation can be converted to
“Equivalent Static Loads”
Elastic Vs Inelastic
• Elastic Material
– Follows the same path during loading and unloading and
returns to initial state of deformation, stress, strain etc.
after removal of load/ excitation
• Inelastic Material
– Does not follow the same path during loading and
unloading and may not returns to initial state of
deformation, stress, strain etc. after removal of load/
excitation
• Most materials exhibit both, elastic and inelastic behavior

depending upon level of loading.

12
Linear Vs Nonlinear
• Linearity
– The response is directly proportional to
excitation
– (Deflection doubles if load is doubled)
• Non-Linearity
– The response is not directly proportional to
excitation
– (deflection may become 4 times if load is
doubled)
• Non-linear response may be produced by: AIT, Thailand
Specialized Course on Nonlinear Analysis of RC and Masonry Structures
G t i Eff t (G ti li it )
Elasticity and Linearity

Acction
Acction
Linear-Elastic Linear-Inelastic
Deformation Deformation
Acttion
Action
Nonlinear-Elastic Nonlinear-Inelastic
Deformation Deformation

13
Analysis Case
• Static
– Linear Static
– Nonlinear Static (Included Push Over)
– Staged Construction
• Multi-Step Static
• Response Spectrum
• Time History
– Linear Time History
– Nonlinear Time History
• Moving Load
• Buckling
• Steady State
• Power Spectral Density
Analysis Case
• Static:
– Linear: The most common type of analysis.
Loads are applied without dynamical effects.
– Nonlinear: Loads are applied without
dynamical effects. May be used for cable
analysis, pushover analysis, and other types
off nonlinear
li problems.
bl (P h
(Pushover +PP-Delta)
D lt )
– Nonlinear Staged Construction: The definition
of a nonlinear direct-integration time-history
analysis case for staged construction.

14
Nonlinear Static Analysis

• Material nonlinearity
– Various type of nonlinear properties in
Link/Support elements.
– Tension and/or compression limits in Frame elements.
– Plastic hinges in Frame elements.
• Geometric nonlinearity (Pushover + P-Delta)
– P-delta effects
– Large displacement effects
• Staged construction
– Changes in the structure
– Aging, creep, and shrinkage
Nonlinear Time-History
– Various type of nonlinear properties in
Link/Support elements.
– Tension and/or compression limits in Frame
elements.
– Plastic hinges in Frame elements.
• Geometric nonlinearity (Pushover + P-Delta)

– P-Delta effects
– Large displacement effects

15
Comprehensive Equilibrium
Equation
Mass-Acceleration Stiffness-Displacement External Force
M u&& + C u& + Ku + FNL = F

Damping-Velocity
Nonlinearity
Mu&& + Cu& + Ku
The basic variable is displacement and its derivatives
Nonlinear Time-History
• For nonlinear direct-integration time-history
analysis all of the available nonlinearities may
analysis,
be considered.
• For nonlinear modal time-history analysis, only

the nonlinear behavior of the Link/Support
elements is included. If the modes used for this
analysis
l i were computed t d using
i ththe stiffness
tiff ffrom
the end of a nonlinear analysis, all other types of
nonlinearities are locked into the state that
existed at the end of that nonlinear analysis.

16
Nonlinear Analysis
Concepts
Loading
r (t ) = ∑ f i (t ) pi
i
Initial Conditions
• The initial conditions describe the state of the
g g of a time-history
structure at the beginning y case.
These in clude:
– Displacements and velocities
– Internal forces and stresses
– Internal state variables for nonlinear elements
– Energy values for the structure
– External loads
• The accelerations are not considered initial

conditions, but are computed from the
equilibrium equation.

17
Initial Conditions
For nonlinear analyses, there are two choices:
• Zero
Z initial
i iti l conditions
diti
– the structure has zero displacement and velocity, all
elements are unstressed, and there is no
history of nonlinear deforma tion.
• Continue from a previous nonlinear analysis

– the displacements, velocities, stresses, loads,
energies, and nonlinear state histories from the
end of a previous analysis are carried forward.
Response Diagrams
A general load-deflection response diagram

18
Response Diagrams
Fundamental (primary) and secondary equilibrium

paths. Identification of critical, turning, and
Specialized failure points
Course on Nonlinear Analysis of RC and Masonry Structures AIT, Thailand
Response Diagrams
Figure: Basic types of nonlinear response:

(a) Linear until brittle failure, (b) Stiffening or hardening
(c) Softening

19
Response Diagrams
(a) This response is characteristic for pure

crystals, glassy, and certain high strength composite
materials.
(b) This response is typical for cables, pneumatic
(inflatable) structures, which may be collectively called
tensile structures. The stiffening effect comes from
geometry "adaptation“ to the applied loads. Some flat-
plate assemblies also display this behavior initially
initially.
(c) This response is more common for structural materials
than the previous two. A linear response is followed by a
softening regime that may occur slowly or suddenly.
Response Diagrams
Examples on complex response patterns: (d) snap-

through, (e) snap back, (f) bifurcation, (g) bifurcation
combined with limit points and snap-back.
Here B and T denote bifurcation and turning
Specializedpoints, respectively.
Course on Nonlinear Analysis of RC and Masonry Structures AIT, Thailand

20
Response Diagrams
d) This snap-through response combines softening with hardening following the
second limit point. The response branch between the two limit points has a
negative
g stiffness and is therefore unstable. If the structure is subject
j to a
prescribed constant load, the structure "takes off” dynamically when the first
limit point is reached. A response of this type is typical for slightly curved
structures such as shallow arches.
e) This snap-back response is an exaggerated snap-through, in which the

response curve "turns back“ in itself with the consequent appearance of
turning points. The equilibrium between the two turning points may be
stable and consequently physically realizable. This type of response is
exhibited by trussed-dome, folded and thin-shell structures in which "moving
g the first limit p
arch“ effects occur following point;; for example
p cylindrical
y
shells with free edges and supported by end diaphragms.
Response Diagrams
• The presence of bifurcation/ buckling points as in f) and
g) introduces more features
• At such points more than one response path is possible.
The structure takes the path that is dynamically
preferred, i.e. having a lower energy, over the others.
• Bifurcation points may occur in any sufficiently thin
structure that experiences compressive stresses.
• An example of such a complicated response is provided
b thi
by thin cylindrical
li d i l shells
h ll under
d axial
i l compression.
i

21
MEMBER BEHAVIOUR
1 Linear Curve 1 : linear response
Load
4 Buckling until reach yield stress.
3 Geometric non-linearityy Residual stress and stress
6 Fully plastic concentration which cause
2 Material non-linearity early non-linearity can
5 Material and geometric non-linearity encounter by ductility until
x
7 Local buckling general yielding occur. →
8 Brittle fracture Member become non linear
deformation (Curve 2) and reach fully
plasticity (Curve 6).
Geometric non-linearity caused by bending moment and torque due to
deformation and applied load → deformation >> (Curve 3) as elastic
buckling is approach (Curve 4). If this is modified by material non-
linearity then become Curve 5.
Tension member, laterally supported beam, torsion member → 2, 6
Compression member → 3 ; Beam column → 5.
Structural Behavior
1 Linear
Load
4 Buckling
3 Geometric non-linearity
Depends on the load
transferring action of its
2 Material non-linearity
members and connection :
5 Material and geometric non-linearity
axial tension/compression
(truss structure), bending and
shear (beam/ frame), shear
deformation (plate)
(plate).

22
Methods of Seismic Analysis
Nonlinear Static Pushover (NSP)

Vs
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis (NDA)
Various Procedures
ASCE Standards: Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings (ASCE/SEI 31-03)
• Tier-1
–S
Simplified
p ed Pseudo
seudo Stat
Static
c Analysis
a ys s ((PSA)
S )
• Tier-2
– Linear Static Procedures (LSP)
– Linear Dynamic Procedure (LDP)
– Spectral Procedure
• Tier-3
– Nonlinear Static Pushover (NSP)
– Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis (NDA)
– Judgment of Designer/ Analyst

23
Screening Phase (Tier 1)

Pseudo Lateral Force: Single Step
- V = C Sa W
- where:
- V = Pseudo lateral force
- C = Modification factor to relate expected maximum
inelastic displacements to displacements calculated for
linear elastic response.
- Sa = Response spectral acceleration at the fundamental
period
i d off th
the b
building
ildi iin th
the di
direction
ti under
d consideration.
id ti
- W = Effective seismic weight of the building including the
total dead load and applicable portions of other gravity
loads.
Evaluation Phase (Tier 2)

• Linear Static Procedure (LSP)
– The Linear Static Procedure shall performed as
follows:
• Develop a mathematical building model
• Calculate the pseudo lateral force
• Calculate the lateral forces to be distributed vertically
• Calculate the building or component forces and displacement
using linear, elastic analysis methods
• Calculate diaphragm forces
• Compare the component actions

24
Evaluation Phase (Tier 2)

• Linear Dynamic Procedure (LDP)
– The Linear Dynamic Procedure shall
performed as follows:
• Develop a mathematical building model
• Calculate a response spectrum for the site
• Perform a response spectrum analysis of the
building
• Modify the actions and deformations
• Compute diaphragm forces
• Compute the component actions
• Compare the component actions
Seismic Evaluation - Overview
Inelastic analysis
Building procedure
Nonlinear model for

seismic analysis
Engineering Demand
Parameters
Future ground shaking • Force demand

• Displacement
p demand
Characterization of
earthquake ground
motion

25
Nonlinear Model for Seismic Analysis
Higher
Levvel of Refinement
Lower
Characterization of Ground Motion

26
Seismic Evaluation – Analysis Procedures
Nonlinear Static Procedure - Summary

27
Construction of Stiffness Model

assuming buildings components are subjected to
prescribed displacement history.
select appropriate mechanical model compose component models to obtain

for building components representative of the structure
Conduct Push-Over Analysis
Assuming that the building Push-Over Analysis

is primarily deformed in
fundamental mode
Capacity Curve

28
Define Equivalent SDOF System
DOF
Assumed Hysteretic Rule Fundamental
M
Mass
M
1 Damping 5%
Assumed
K C
1 1
Capacity Curve
governing equation
MA + CV + KD = Peq
Analyze SDOF subjected to Ground Motions
DOF Elastic Demand Curve obtained

from series of EQ ground motions
Capacity Curve
M
spectral acceleration
K C1 Inelastic Demand Curve
spectral displacement
Equivalent SDOF System Performance point

29
Push-Over Analysis Assumption-1

Assuming structure primarily
responses in 1st Mode
Regular 1st mode

Building dominant
M A + CV + KD = Peq

Assuming structure primarily
responses in 1st Mode
M 1 A + C1V + K1 D = Peq1

30
Backbone
envelope curves
are drawn from
prescribed
displacement
history
Unrealistic Hysteretic Damping


31
Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure - Summary
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis (NDA)
Mass DOF
actual stiffness
contribution from
structural
components
Building
Governing
M A + CV + KD = Peq equation is solved

directly in NDA
Assumptions in push-over analysis are not required


32
Additional Information Required for NDA
Appropriate Hysteretic Response of either Material or

Structural Components has to be Provided (At
present, there is no clear recommendations)
Additional Information Required for NDA
An appropriate set of ground motions is required
0.4
0.3 Site Class (Soil Type)

Acceleration (g)
0.2 Source Mechanism

Near Fault Effect
0.1

0
-0.1 Design PGA or PGV

-0.2 etc
-0.3
-0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

33
Results from NDA
Time History Response Force-Deformation Relations
1200
800
4
2 400
EDP
Force
0 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-2 -400
-4
-800
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1200
Time
Deformation
Due to large amount of information obtained from NDA, much effort is

thus required to interpret the result
Specialized Course on*EDP = Engineering

Nonlinear Demand
Analysis of RC Parameters
and Masonry such as member force, joint displacement,
Structures AIT,and etc.
Thailand
NSP VS NDA
Item / Method NSP NDA

Accuracy Lower Higher
Analysis Effort Lower Higher
Applicability to Limited Unlimited
Buildings

34
Overview of Nonlinear Problems,

Modeling and Analysis
Overview of Nonlinear Problems

• Fundamentals of nonlinearity
• Geometric nonlinearity
• Nonlinear boundary conditions
• Nonlinear analysis concepts

35
Why Use Nonlinear Analysis?

• The moments predicted by an elastic analysis are
probably reasonably accurate, but the deflections
predicted
di t d by
b an elastic
l ti analysis
l i are probably
b bl ttoo small.
ll
• On the other hand, if the central support of the structure

settles by 4 in (100mm) for instance, a traditional elastic
analysis of this case would overestimate the moments
caused by the support settlement.
…Hence, the decision to use nonlinear analysis should be

based from a need that cannot be satisfied by merely
linear approximation.
Conditions of Linearity
• Stress-strain relationship must be linear and elastic.
Most materials exhibit a change g in stiffness or modulus
before inelastic or plastic behavior starts.
• Displacements and rotations must be small such that the

assumption “plane remain plane after deformation” is still
valid. Mathematically, it is being approximated as sin(θ)
= θ or tan(θ) = 0.
• The magnitude, orientation or direction and distribution

of loads must not change.

36
Symptoms of Nonlinear Behavior

• Stress levels approach the yield point.
– Most materials exhibit a significant
g rangeg of nonlinear elastic
behavior long before the yield stress is reached.
– When a material is strained beyond its proportional limit, the
stress-strain relationship is no longer linear.
– Yield stress value after 0.2% offsetting the linear slope of the
stress-strain curve may be higher or lower than the elastic limit.
• However, maximum stress approaching and/or
exceeding yield point may be highly localized, which can
be redistributed and dissipated to less stressed
geometry around it, thus nonlinear analysis may not be
necessary. It needs engineering judgment and expertise.
Symptoms of Nonlinear Behavior

• Large displacement.
– Excessive displacement is usually considered
a failure condition, regardless of the stress
levels.
• Coupled displacements are restrained.
– the degree of nonlinearity due to
displacements will be small in a lightly
constrained case and larger as the constraints
restrict the natural movement of the material.

37
Linear Vs. Nonlinear

Feature Linear problems Nonlinear problems
Load Displacements are linearly The load-displacement
displacement
p dependent
p on the applied
pp relationships
p are usually
y
relationship loads. nonlinear.
Stress-strain A linear relationship is In problems involving material

relationship assumed between stress and nonlinearity, the stress-strain
strain. relationship is often a
nonlinear function of stress,
strain and/or time.
Magnitude
M it d off Changes iin geometry
Ch t d
due tto Displacements
Di l t may nott b
be
displacement displacement are assumed to small, hence an updated
be small and hence ignored, reference state may be
and the original (undeformed) needed.
state is always used as the
reference state.

Material Linear elastic material Nonlinear material properties may be
properties properties are usually easy to difficult to obtain and may require
obtain additional experimental testing
Reversibility The behaviour of the structure Upon removal of the external loads,
loads the
is completely reversible upon final state may be different from the
removal of the external loads initial state.
Boundary Boundary conditions remain Boundary conditions may change, e.g.
Conditions unchanged throughout the a change in the contact area.
analysis
Loading Loading sequence is not The behaviour of the structure may
Sequence important, and the final state is depend on the load history
unaffected by the load history
Iterations and The load is applied in one load The load is often divided into small
increments step with no iterations increment with iterations performed to
ensure that equilibrium is satisfied at
every load increment

38
Computation time Computation time is relatively Due to the many solution steps
small in comparison to required for load incrementation
nonlinear problems and iterations, computation time is
high, particularly if a high degree
of accuracy is sought
Robustness of A solution can easily be In difficult nonlinear problems, the
solutions obtained with no interaction FE code may fail to converge
from the user without some interaction from the
user
Use of results Superposition and scaling allow Factoring and combining of results
results to be factored and is not possible
combined as required
Initial state of The initial state of stress and/or The initial state of stress and/or
stress/strain strain is unimportant strain is usually required for
material nonlinearity problems.
Three Types of Nonlinearity

• Material Nonlinearity
– Due to inelastic behavior of constituent materials such as
concretet andd steel
t l when
h strained
t i db beyond d proportional
ti l lilimit
it
resulting to cracking, crushing, sliding, yielding, fracture, etc.
• Geometric Nonlinearity
– Due to Due to change in shape of the structure.
– Includes P-Δ and large displacement/rotation effects.
• Nonlinear boundary conditions

– Due to contact such as constraints and restraints
In many cases, if material nonlinearity is encountered, one

or both of the other types will be required as well.

39
MATERIAL
NONLINEARITY
A Review of Stiffness Relationships
Material Stiffness
Cross-section Geometry
Section Stiffness
Member Geometry
Member Stiffness
Structure Geometry
Structure Stiffness

40
Material Nonlinearity
Nonlinear
Material Boundary
nonlinearity Condition
Geometric Nonlinearity
(cracks appear)
Redistribution of
stresses
Nonlinear strain
distribution
• The engineering significance of material nonlinearities
varies greatly across disciplines.
• They seem to occur most often in civil engineering, that
deals with inherently nonlinear materials such as
concrete, soils and low-strength steel
• In mechanical engineering creep and plasticity are most
important, frequently occurring in combination with
strain-rate and thermal effects.
• Material nonlinearities may give rise to very complex
phenomena such as path
dependence, hysteresis, localization, shakedown, fatigue
, progressive failure.
• The detailed numerical simulation of these phenomena
in three dimensions is still beyond the capabilities of the
most powerful computers.

41
• Material nonlinearity affects the elasto-
plastic
l ti b behavior
h i off a structure
t t significantly
i ifi tl
Structural Materials
• Concrete
• Reinforcing Steel
• Prestressing Steel
• Hot Rolled Structural Steel
• Cold Formed Structural Steel

42
Concrete
• A brittle material with distinctively different
p
responses in tension and compression.
p
• Its tensile stiffness and strength are small, and
design codes typically neglect them.
• Under compressive stresses, the concrete
stiffness decreases significantly for stresses
larger than about 0.5f‘c, where f’c is the concrete
strength in uniaxial compression.
• After reaching its compression strength,
concrete softens at a rate that depends on the
amount of lateral confinement.
Steel
• Steel exhibits elastoplastic behavior in
b th ttension
both i andd compression.
i
• Moreover, steel members contain residual
stresses due to the fabrication or erection
processes.

43
Steel
• Also called as “Constitutive Relationship”
• The
Th resistance
i t off the
th material
t i l tto strain,
t i derived
d i d
from the stiffness of the material particles
σ σ
fy
kfc
ε
Concrete Steel
Types of Modulii
• In a nonlinear material model, two, three or more
q
modulii are required to define the stress-strain
relationship, as follows:
– Young’s Modulus or Elastic Modulus
– Plastic Modulus
– Hardening Modulus
• Other names include tangent modulus, secant
modulus, and even first, second, or third
modulus.
d l S
Some off th
the ttypes overlap
l with
ith
different names. The name of modulus to be
used is dependent upon the material model
chosen.

44
Basic of Material Model

• Bilinear material model

• Trilinear material model

45

• Multilinear material model
Material
nonlinearity
Constitutive Material Models
• At present, an accurate stress–strain relationship for

steel is readily applicable in the fiber analysis
analysis.
• However, in the case of concrete, only a few models

that are suited for fiber analysis can be found.
• Never make assumptions

p about material model that
was not specifically developed for the problem at
hand.

46
Constitutive Material Model

• At present, an accurate stress–strain
relationship
p for steel is readily
y applicable
pp in the
fiber analysis.
• However, in the case of concrete, only a few
models that are suited for fiber analysis can be
found.
• Never make assumptions about material model
that was not specifically developed for the
problem at hand.
General Material Model for Steel

47
Material
nonlinearity
Material Model for Concrete

Constitutive material models for concrete varies in terms
of composition, as follows:
1.
1 Pure concrete
2. With reinforcing steel bars (RSB)
3. With RSB and structural steel
4. With steel tubes
5. Partially bonded with structural steel
6. Effects of creep, shrinkage and aging
These models, except #1, account for confinement of

concrete at different levels such as:
1. Highly confined concrete
2. Partially confined concrete
3. Unconfined concrete

Constitutive material models for concrete varies in
terms of composition, as follows:
• Pure concrete
• With reinforcing steel bars (RSB)
• With RSB and structural steel
• With steel tubes
• Partially bonded with structural steel
• Effects of creep, shrinkage and aging

48

Constitutive material models for concrete varies in
terms of composition, as follows:
• Pure concrete
• With reinforcing steel bars (RSB)
• With RSB and structural steel
• With steel tubes
• Partially bonded with structural steel
• Effects of creep, shrinkage and aging

With RSB and structural steel
• Source: El-Tawil et al. (1994)

49

With steel tubes
• Source: Susantha et al. (2001)


Effects of creep and shrinkage
• Source: Fragiacomo et al. (2004)


50
Material
nonlinearity
Masonry

• If a nonlinear material model is required,
careful research should be employed.
p y
• Constitutive material model for concrete is
normally derived from concrete cylinder tests
in the laboratory.
• However, if confinement of concrete by lateral
ties or structural steel will be considered, finite
element method is a practical tool to simulate
the concrete-steel interaction from which final
uniaxial stress-strain will be derived.
• Source: Fragiacomo et al. (2004)


51
Deformation Strain Relationship

• In general, strain is the first derivative of deformation
• Basic Deformation and Corresponding Strains are:

– Shortening Axial Strain
– Curvature Axial Strain
– Shearing Shear Strain
– Twisting Shear Strain + Axial Strain
• Total Strain is summation of strains from different

deformations
Material Properties
• Local Coordinate System
• Each Material has its own Material local
coordinate system used to define the elastic
and thermal properties.
• Significant only for orthotropic and anisotropic
materials.
• The axes of the Material local coordinate
system are denoted 1, 2, and 3.
• Material coordinate system is aligned with the
local coordinate system for each element.

52
Stresses and Strains

• The elastic mechanical properties relate the
behavior of the stresses and strains within the
Material
• The stresses are defined as forces per unit area

acting on an elemental cube aligned with the
material axes
• Not all stress components exist in every

element type.
Stresses ad Strains – General

Notation

53
Stress and Strains Components

• The Hook's law is y σ yy
simplified form of x
τ yx
τ yz
Stress-Strain z
τ xy
relationship τ zy
σ xx
τ zx τ xz
σ zz
• Ultimately the six
stress and strain At anyy ppoint in a continuum, or solid,
components t can beb the stress state can be completely
defined in terms of six stress
represented by 3 components and six corresponding
principal summations strains.
Stress-strains Relationship
• For a general Isotropic Material
⎡1 − v v v 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢v 1 − v v 0 0 0 ⎥ ε
⎡σ x ⎤ ⎢ ⎥⎡ x ⎤
⎢σ ⎥ ⎢ v v 1 − v 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ε y ⎥
⎢ y⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢σ z ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥
0 0 ⎥ ⎢ε z ⎥
E ⎢0 0 0 1 2 v
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
⎢τ xy ⎥ (1 + v )(1 − 2v ) ⎢ 2 γ
⎥ ⎢ xy ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 1 − 2v
⎢τ yz ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 ⎢γ yz ⎥⎥
⎥ ⎢
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣τ zx ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 − 2v ⎥ ⎣γ zx ⎦
⎢0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
σ xx = Eε x τ xy = Gγ xy
• For 2D, Isotropic Material, V=0

54
Secondary Relationship
• Global Axis - Local Axis
– Geometric Transformations Matrices
• Local Axis - Natural Axis

– Shape Functions
– Jacobian Matrix
Isotropic Materials
• The behavior of an isotropic material is
independent of the direction of loading or the
orientation of the material
• Shearing behavior is uncoupled from ex-

tensional behavior and is not affected by
temperature change
• The isotropic mechanical and thermal properties

relate strain to stress and temperature

55
Orthotropic Materials
• The behavior of an orthotropic material can be different
in each of the three local coordinate directions
• Shearing behavior is un-coupled from extensional

behavior and is not affected by temperature change.
• The orthotropic mechanical and thermal properties

relate strain to stress and temperature change as shown
on next slide.
slide
Anisotropic Materials
• The behavior of an anisotropic material can be different
in each of the three local coordinate directions
• Shearing behavior can be fully coupled with extensional

behavior and can be affected by temperature change
• The anisotropic mechanical and thermal properties

relate strain to stress and temperature change as next
slide
slide.

56
Temperature Dependent Properties

• These properties are given at a series of
specified material temperatures t.
• Properties at other temperatures are obtained

by linear interpolation between the two nearest
specified temperatures.
p
• Properties at temperatures
p outside the
specified range use the properties at the
nearest specified temperature.
GEOMETRIC
NONLINEARITY

57
Causes of Geometric Nonlinearity
• P-delta (large-stress) effect: when large stresses (or

forces and moments) are present within a structure
structure,
equilibrium equations written for the original and the
deformed geometries may differ significantly, even if the
deformations are very small.
• Large-displacement effect: when a structure undergoes

large deformation (in particular, large strains and
rotations) the usual engineering stress and strain
rotations),
measures no longer apply, and the equilibrium
equations must be writ ten for the de formed geometry.
This is true even if the stresses are small.
Causes of Geometric Nonlinearity

• Material nonlinearity: Material nonlinearity may
affect the load
load-deflection
deflection behavior of a structure
even when the equilibrium equations for the
original geometry are still valid.
• Other effects: Other sources of nonlinearity are

also possible, including non-linear
non linear
loads, boundary conditions and constraints.

58
P-Delta Effects
• The P-Delta effect refers specifically to the
nonlinear geometric effect of a large tensile or
compressi e direct stress upon
compressive pon trans
transverse
erse
bending and shear behavior.
• A compressive stress tends to make a structural

member more flexible in transverse bending
and shear, whereas a tensile stress tends to
stiffen the member against transverse
deformation.
P-Delta Effects
• This option is particularly useful for considering
the effect of gravity loads upon the lateral
stiffness of building
b ilding structures,
str ct res as required
req ired b
by
certain design codes (ACI 2002; AISC 2003).
• It can also be used for the analysis of some

cable structures, such as suspension
bridges, cable-stayed
cable stayed bridges, and guyed
towers. Other applications are possible.

59
Basic Concepts of P-Delta

• If equilibrium is examined in
the original configuration
(using the undeformed
geometry),the moment at the
base is M = FL, and decreases
linearly to zero at theloaded
end.
• If, instead, equilibrium is

considered in the deformed
configuration, there is an
additional moment caused by
the axial force P acting on the
transverse tip displacement, D.
Basic Concepts of P-Delta
• The moment no
longer varies linearly
along the length; the
variation depends
instead upon the
deflected shape.
• The moment at the

base is now M = FL -
PD.

60
Important Points
• Only the transverse deflection is considered in the deformed
configuration. Any change in moment due to a change in length of
the member is neglected.
• If the beam is in tension, the moment at the base and throughout

the member is reduced, hence the transverse bending deflection,
D, is also reduced. Thus the member is effectively stiffer against the
transverse load F.
• Conversely, if the beam is in compression, the moment through out

the member, and hence the transverse bending deflection, D, are
now increased
increased. The member is effectively more flexible against the
load F.
Important Points
• If the compressive force is large enough, the transverse
stiffness ggoes to zero and hence the deflection D tends
to infinity; the structure is said to have buckled. The
theoretical value of P at which this occurs is called the
Euler buck ling load for the beam; it is de noted by Pcr
and is given by the formula
π 2 EI
Pcr = −
4L2
• where EI is the bend ing stiff ness of the beam sec tion.

61
Important Points
• The exact P- Delta effect of the axial load upon the
transverse deflection and stiffness is a rather
complicated function of the ratio of the force P to the
buckling load Pcr . The true deflected shape of the
beam, and hence the effect upon the moment
diagram, is described by cubic functions under zero
axial load, hyperbolic functions under tension, and
trigonometric functions under compression.
• The P- Delta effect can be p present in anyy other beam

configuration, such as simply supported fixed- fixed, etc.
The P- Delta effect may apply locally to individual
members, or globally to the structural sys tem as a
whole.
Key Feature of P-Delta Effect

A large axial force, acting upon a small
transverse deflection
deflection, produces a
significant moment that affects the
behavior of the member or structure. If
the deflection is small, then the moment
produced is proportional to the deflection.

62
P-Delta Forces in Frame Elements

The implementation of the P-Delta
effect in the Frame element is described
in the following subtopics:
• Cubic Deflected Shape
• Computed P-Delta Axial Forces
• Prestress
• Directly Specified P-delta Axial Forces
1. Cubic Deflected Shape

The P-Delta effect is
integrated along the length of
each Frame element
element, taking
into account the deflection
within the element. For this
purpose the transverse
deflected shape is assumed to
be cubic for bending and linear
for shear between the rigid
ends of the element. The
length of the rigid ends is the
product of the rigid-end factor
and the end off sets, and is
usually zero.

63
Rigid End Offsets

• Rigid End connections to
model
d l large
l jjoints
i t
• Automated end offset
evaluation and
assignment
Computation of P-Delta Deflected Shape

• The element has non-prismatic Section properties. In this case
the P-Delta deflected shape is computed as if the element were
prismatic using
p g the average
g of the p
properties
p over the length
g of
the element.
• Loads are acting along the length of the element. In this case
the P-Delta deflected shape is computed using the equivalent
fixed-end forces applied to the ends of the element.
• A large P-force is acting on the element. The true deflected

shape
p is actually
y described byy trigonometric
g functions under
large compression, and by hyperbolic functions under large
tension.

64
Non-prismatic Frame Elements

• Multiple non-prismatic segments over
element
l t llength
th tto model
d lbbeams off
variable sections
2. Computed P-Delta Axial Force

• The P-Delta axial force in each Frame element is determined from
the axial displacements computed from axial stiffness of these
elements. The axial stiffness is determined from the Section
properties
ti ththatt define
d fi ththe cross-sectional
ti l area and
d th
the modulus
d l off
elasticity.
• Elements that have an axial force release, or that are constrained

against axial deformation by a Constraint, will have a zero P-Delta
axial force and hence no P-Delta effect.
• The P-Delta axial force also includes loads that act within the
element itself
itself. These may include Self-Weight and Gravity Loads
Loads,
Concentrated and Distributed Span Loads, Prestress Load, and
Temperature Load.

65
Prestress
When Prestress Load is included in the P-
Delta load combination, the combined tension in
the prestressing cables tends to stiffen the
Frame elements against transverse deflections.
This is true regardless of any axial end
releases. Axial compression of the Frame
element due to Prestress Load may reduce this
stiffening effect, perhaps to zero.
Directly Specified P-Delta Axial Force

You may directly specify P-delta forces
known to be acting on Frame elements
elements.
This is an old-fashioned feature that can
be used to model cable structures where
the tensions are large and well-known.

66
P-Delta Forces in the Link/Support Elements

• P-delta effects can only be considered in a Link/Support
element if there is stiffness in the axial (U1) degree of
freedom to generate an axial force. force A transverse
displacement in the U2 or U3 direction creates a
moment equal to the axial force (P) times the amount of
the deflection (delta).
• The total P-delta moment is distributed to the joints as

the sum of:
– Appair of equal
q and opposite
pp shear forces at the two ends that
cause a moment due to the length of the element
– A moment at End I
– A moment at End J

• The shear forces act in the same direction as the shear
displacement (delta), and the moments act about the respectively
perpendicular bending axes.
• For each direction of shear displacement, you can specify three

corresponding fractions that indicate how the total P-delta moment
is to be distributed between the three moments above. These
fractions must sum to one.
• For any element that has zero length, the fraction specified for the
shear forces will be ignored, and the remaining two fractions scaled
up so that they sum to one
one. If both of these fractions are zero
zero, they
will be set to 0.5.

67

It must be considered that the physical
characteristics of the device being modeled by a
Link/S pport element in order to determine what
Link/Support hat
fractions to specify. Long brace or link objects
would normally use the shear force. Short
stubby isolators would normally use moments
only. A friction-pendulum isolator would
normally take all the moment on the dish side
rather than on the slider side.
B. Large Displacements
• Large-displacements analysis considers the equilibrium

equations in the deformed configuration of the structure.
structure
Large displacements and rotations are accounted
for, but strains are assumed to be small. This means
that if the position or orientation of an element
changes, its effect upon the structure is ac counted for.
However, if the element changes significantly in shape
or size, this effect is ignored.
• Large-displacement analysis is well suited for the

analysis of most cable or membrane structures.

68
B. Large Displacements
Snap-through buckling problems can

be considered using g large-displacement
g p
analysis. For nonlinear static analysis, this
usually requires using displacement
control of the load application. More
realistic solutions can be obtained using
nonlinear direct-integration time-history
analysis.
y
Load-Deformation Relationships
• The entire response of structure or a member can be
determined, in an integrated manner from the Load-
Load
Deformation Curve

69
Material
Nonlinearity
Limiting Points on Load Deformation Curve
• A - The point up to which the relationship between load

and deformation can be considered nearly linear and the
deformations are relatively small
• B - The point at which the deformation starts to increase

suddenly, at more or less constant load value or with
relatively small increase in the load
• C - The point at which the load value starts to drop with

increasing deformations
• D - The point where load value become nearly zero and

member loses all capacity to carry any loads and
collapses or fails completely
Limiting Point on Load Deformation Curve
• A - The point up to which the relationship between load and

deformation can be considered nearly linear and the deformations
are relatively small
• B - The point at which the deformation starts to increase

suddenly, at more or less constant load value or with relatively
small increase in the load
• C - The point at which the load value starts to drop with increasing
deformations
• D - The point where load value become nearly zero and member
loses all capacity to carry any loads and collapses or fails
completely

70
Design Stages
• Region OA corresponds to the serviceability
design
g considerations and working
g strength
g or
allowable strength design concepts related to
linear, small deformation state
• Point ‘A’ roughly corresponds to the ultimate

strength considerations or the design capacity
consideration based on the material strength or
material yielding criterion
Design Stages
• Point ‘B’ roughly corresponds to the maximum
load carrying
y g capacity
p y of the member and is a
measure of the maximum load based
performance level. This point is often called as
a measure of ductility in many cases.
• Point ‘C’ is a clear indication of deformation

based performance of the member
member, but is rarely
used in actual design considerations due to a
certain level of uncertainty near that point

71
Formulation of Equilibirum Equations

IF…
• the load acting on a structure and the resulting deflections are small
g , the load-deflection relationship
enough, p for the structure is linear.
Then equilibrium equations will be formulated.
• the load on the structure and/or the resulting deflections are large,
then the load-deflection behavior may become nonlinear. Then
equilibrium equations will be formulated.
• Strictly speaking, the equilibrium equations should actually refer to

the geometry of the structure after deformation.
NONLINEAR BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS

72
Occurrences of Boundary Nonlinearity
• Contact
– contact conditions such as constraints and
restraints which allow parts or portions of the
same part to touch or lift off each other.
– model the interactions of certain systems.
• Forces
– represent loads that can be defined as
displacement or velocity based such as
earthquakes and soil conditions
Representing and Controlling

Behavior
• Specifying Boundary
– Restraints
– Constraints
– Releases
– Edge Contraints

73
Degrees of Freedom
• Each degree of freedom in the structural model
must be one of the following types:
– Active — the displacement
p is computed
p during
g the
analysis
– Restrained — the displacement is specified, and the

corresponding reaction is computed during the analysis
– Constrained —the displacement is determined from the

displacements at other degrees of freedom
– Null — the displacement does not affect the structure and

is ignored by the analysis
– Unavailable —the displacement has been explicitly

excluded from the analysis
Restrained Degrees of Freedom

• If the displacement of a joint along any one of its
available degrees of freedom is known, such as at a
support point, that degree of freedom is restrained.
• The known value of the displacement may be zero or
non-zero, and may be different in different Load Cases.
• The restraint reaction is determined by the analysis.
• Unavailable degrees of freedom are essentially
restrained
restrained.

74
Joint Restraints
• Fixed or Free conditions
• General Spring Connection
• Global and skewed springs
• Coupled 6x6 user-defined spring stiffness
option (for foundation modeling)
Basic Properties of Joints

• Lumped masses and rotational inertia may
b placed
be l d att th
the jjoints
i t
• Loads and masses applied to the
elements are transferred to the joints
• Joints are the primary locations in the
structure at which the displacements are
known (the supports) or are to be
determined

75
Joint Coordinate Angles
Springs
• Any of the six degrees of freedom at any
of the joints in the structure can have
translational or rotational spring support
conditions
• springs elastically connect the joint to the
ground
• The
Th springi fforces ththatt actt on a joint
j i t are
related to the displacements of that joint
by a 6x6 symmetric matrix of spring
stiffness coefficients

76
Joint Restraints
Stiffness Matrix for Spring

Element
where u1 ,u2 ,u3 ,r1 ,r2 and r3 are the joint displacements and
rotations, and the terms u1, u1u2, u2, ... are the specified spring
stiffness coefficients.

77
Constraints
• A constraint consists of a set of two or more constrained
joints.
• The displacements of each pair of joints in the constraint
are related by constraint equations.
• The types of behavior that can be enforced by
constraints are:
– Rigid-body behavior
– Equal-displacement behavior
– Symmetry and anti-symmetry conditions
Pushover Analysis
Concepts, Methods and Tools

78
The Questions
• Why use Pushover Analysis
• What is Pushover Analysis
• How to carryout Pushover Analysis
• What to do before Pushover Analysis

• What to do after Pushover Analysis
Basic Concepts for Analysis

• DOF (Degree of Freedom)
• Stiffness
• Cross-section Response
• Structural Type
• Static Analysis Process
• Dynamic Analysis Procedures (Modal
Analysis)

79
The Seven Degrees of Freedom

• The General
ry
Beam Element uy
may have 7 y
degrees of
freedom
u x rx
• The seventh x
degree is Warping z
uz Each section on a beam
• Warping is out-of rz member can have seven
Degrees Of Freedom
plane distortion of wz (DOF) with respect to its
local axis.
the beam cross-
section
The Complete DOF Picture

§ uz Ö Axial deformation Ö Axial strain Ö Axial stress
§ ux Ö Shear deformation Ö Shear strain Ö Shear stress
§ uy Ö Shear deformation Ö Shear strain Ö Shear stress
§ rz Ö Torsion Ö Shear strain Ö Shear stress
§ r y Ö Curvature Ö Axial strain Ö Axial stress
§ rx Ö Curvature Ö Axial strain Ö Axial stress
§ wzÖ Warping Ö Axial strain Ö Axial stress

80
What is Stiffness ?
• In structural terms, stiffness For Linear Response
mayy be defined as
“Resistance to Deformation” u∞F
• So for each type of Ku = F
deformation, there is a
corresponding stiffness F
K=
• Stiffness can be considered u
or evaluated at various
levels
• Stiffness is also the
“constant” in the Action-
Deformation Relationship
The Structure Stiffness
Material Stiffness
Cross-section Geometry
Section Stiffness
Member Geometry
Member Stiffness
Structure Geometry
Structure Stiffness

81
The Matrices in FEM

Global Nodal Deformations
T-Matrix
Global-Local Cords.
Element Nodal Deformations
N-Matrix
Shape Functions
Deformation in Element Space

B-Matrix
Strain-Deforrmation
Strain Deforrmation
Strain In Element Space
D-Matrix
Stress-Strain
Stress in Element Space
Cross-section Reponses
• Stresses
– Tension
– Compression
– Shear > Tension-Compression
• Strains
– Normal strain
– Shear Strain
• Deformations
– Rotation
– Shortening
– Shearing
– Twisting

82
Determining Cross-section Response

Material Stress-Strain Curves
Cross-section Dimensions
Given Moment Direction Capacity

Interaction Surface
Given P value
Performance
Given Moments Given Axial Load
Strength
h
Moment-Curvature Curves
P-M Curve M-M Curve
•Moment for Given Curvature
•Curvature for Given Moment
•Yield Moment •Moment for Given Load •Mx for Given My
•Stiffness •Load for Given Moment •My for Given Mx
•Ductility •Capacity Ratio •Capacity Ratio
Capacity Interaction Surface

P
My Mx

83
P-M and M-M Interaction Curves
The Moment Curvature Curve

84
Cross-section Stresses
Strength and Performance
• In Strength Design, every member and

every cross-section
ti mustt satisfy
ti f strength
t th
equation
• Even if all members and sections are
designed for strength, the structure may
not perform well in case of overload
• In Performance Based Design, only a few
members on the critical load path need to
perform well for the structure to perform
well

85
Members on Critical Load Path
• In Performance Based Design, only a few

members
b on th
the critical
iti l lload
d path
th need
d tto
perform well for the structure to perform
well
• Therefore for strengthening of

structures, we may only need to
strengthen members or section in the
critical load path
What Effects Serviceability?
• Anything that reduces cracking

– The presence of appropriate amount of
reinforcement at appropriate locations
• Anything that increases stiffness
– Reasonable sizes and proportions of member
cross-sections
• Anything that reduces Creep/ Shrinkage
– Presence of compressive reinforcement
• Anything that improves Durability
– High strength concrete

86
What Effects Strength?
• The basic Material Strength

– Concrete crushing strength
– Reinforcement yield strength
• The Cross-section Dimensions
• The amount of Rebars
• The
Th fframing
i conditions
diti
What Effects Performance?
• Performance is generally of concern for

l t l lloads
lateral d such h as earthquake
th k and d wind
i d
• The main factor that effects performance
is the Ductility of the members on the
critical load path
• In frame structures
structures, the design of the joints
between columns and beams is critical
• The performance of shear walls if great
importance for lateral load demands

87
Ductility – Definition and Usage
• Ductility can be
Load
defined as the “ratio
of deformation and a Yield/ Design
Strength
given stage to the Dy Du

maximum
deformation
Deformation
capacity”
Ductility = Dy / Du
• Normally ductility is
measured from the
deformation at
design strength to
the maximum
What Effects Ductility!
• The most important factor effecting

d tilit off reinforced
ductility i f d concrete
t cross-
section is the confinement of concrete
– Amount of confinement steel
– Shape of confinement steel
• Other factors include:
– Presence of Axial Load
– Stress-strain curve of rebars
– Amount of rebars in tension
– Amount of rebars in compression

88
Action – Deformation Curves
• Relationship between action and

corresponding
di deformation
d f ti
• These relationships can be obtained at
several levels
– The Structural Level: Load - Deflection
– The Member Level: Moment -
Rotation
– The Cross-section Level: Moment -
Curvature
– The Material Level : Stress-Strain
Th A ti D f ti h th
How to Get Action-Deformation Curves

• By actual measurements
– Apply load, measure deflection
– Apply load, measure stress and strain
• By computations
– Use material models, cross-section
dimensions to get Moment-Curvature Curves
• By combination of measurement and
computations
– Calibrate computation models with actual
measurements
– Some parameters obtained by measurement
and some by computations

89
The Moment Curvature Curve
The Moment-Curvature Curve
• Probably the most important action-deformation curve for

beams, columns, shear walls and consequently for
building structures
• Significant information can be obtained from Moment
Curvature Curve to compute:
– Yield Point
– Failure Point
– Ductility
– Stiffness
– Crack Width
– Rotation
– Deflection
– Strain

90
What is Curvature
e
• In geometry, it is rate of
C
changeg of rotation
• In structural behavior,
Curvature is related to
Moment Curvature = e / C (radian / unit length)
• For a cross-section
undergoing
u de go g flexural
e ua
deformation, it can
computed as the ratio of
the strain to the depth
of neutral axis
How to Read M-Phi Curve

91
Outputs from M-Phi Curve
2 -Failure Point
1 -Yield Point
ϕy
3 - Ductility =
ϕu

4 - Stiffness of the Section at given M and Phi
M
φ=
EI
M
EI =
φ
5 - Slope
p of the section at given
g Moment
b
M
θ =∫ dx
a
EI

92

6 - Deflection of the section at given Moment
⎛M⎞
b
Δ = ∫ ⎜ ⎟x dx
a⎝
EI ⎠
7 - Strain at given Moment
c = distance from the NA to

ε = φc the point where strain is
required

8 - Crack Width at given crack spacing
W = εs X φ
W = φyX
εs
9 - Crack Spacing at given crack width
W
X=
εs
W
X=
φy

93
Outputs from M-Phi Curve - Summary

Plot M-Phi Curve
⎛M ⎞
b
M Δ = ∫⎜
EI = Determine curvature ⎟ x dx
d
φ at known moment a ⎝
EI ⎠
Determine Flexural
Determine Deflection
Stiffness (EI)
b
θ = ∫ EI
M
dx ε = φc
a
Determine Slope Determine Strain
W
X =
εs
W = εsX
Determine Crack
Spacing/Width
Outputs from M-Phi Curve -

For M=600 Phi = 0.00006
Example
From M-Phi Diagram
M
EI =
φ
EI=600x12/0.00006
EI=1.2E8 k-in^2
Slope at Mid Span
b
M
θ =∫ dx
a
EI
=600x7.5x144/1.2E8
=0.0054 rad

94

Deflection at Mid Span
Example
⎛M ⎞
b
Δ = ∫ ⎜ ⎟x dx
a⎝
EI ⎠
=600x7.5x144x15x12/(6x1.2E8)
=0.162 in Specified Crack Spacing = X
Strain in Steel
ε = φc NA
y
φ
Rebar Centroid
M = 600 k-ft, y=16

εs W
=0.00006x16
=0.00096

Example
Crack Width
Assuming crack spacing of 18 in Specified Crack Spacing = X
W = εs X
NA φ
=0.00096 x 18 y Rebar Centroid
=0.01728 in
εs W
Crack Spacing
Assuming crack width of 0.02
0 02 in
W
X=
εs
=0.02/0.00096
=20.8 in

95
M-Phi Curve and Ductility
• Effect of Axial Load

• Effect of Compression Steel
• Effect of Confinement Model
• Effect of Confinement Shape
Axial Load and Ductility

Effect of Axial Load on Ductility
700
600
500
400
Axial Load =0
300
Axial Load =0.2Pu
200 Axial Load =0.4Pu
100 Axial Load =0.6Pu

Axial Load =0.8Pu
0
-0.0002 0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018
-100
C ur v a t ur e ( r a d/ i n)

96
Compression Steel and Ductility

Effects of Compression Rebars on D uctility
700
600
500
400
300 a: Duct ilit y Rat io =2.65

b: Duct ilit y Rat io =3.32
200
c: Duct ilit y Rat io =4.68
100 d: Duct ilit y Rat io =9.25
0
-0.0005 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035 0.0040
-100
C ur v a t ur e ( r a d/ i n)
Confinement Model and

Ductility
Effect of Concrete Confinement Model on Ductility of Cross-Section
350
300
250
Moment (kip-ft)
200
Whitney Rectangle
150
Mander Circular Confined
Mander Pipe Filled
100
50
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
Curvature (rad/in)

97
Confinement Steel and Ductility

Effect of Confinement Steel Spacing on Ductility
160
140
120
Moment (kip-ft)
100
Spacing = 3in
80
Spacing = 6 in
60
Spacing = 12 in
40
20
0
-0.0005 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025
-20
Curvature (in/rad)
Confinement Shape and

Ductility
Effect of Confinement Shape on Ductility
350
300
250
200
150
100
M ander Rectangular Confined
M ander Circular Confined
50
Whitney Rect angle
(0. 0010) 0. 0000 0. 0010 0. 0020 0. 0030 0. 0040 0. 0050 0. 0060 0. 0070
-50
C ur vat ur e ( r ad/ i n)

98
Structure Types
• Cable Structures
• Cable Nets
• Cable Stayed
• Bar Structures
• 2D/3D Trusses
• 2D/3D Frames, Grids
• Surface Structures
• Plate, Shell
• In-Plane, Plane Stress
• Solid Structures
Global Modeling of Structural Geometry
(a) Real Structure
(b) Solid Model (c) 3D Plate

Plate-Frame
Frame (d) 3D Frame
(f) Grid-Plate
(e) 2D Frame
Fig. 1 Various Ways to Model a Real Struture

99
Some Sample Finite Elements
Truss and Beam Elements (1D,2D,3D)
Plane Stress, Plane Strain, Axisymmetric, Plate and Shell Elements (2D,3D)
Brick Elements
Model Creation Tools

• Defining Individual Nodes and Elements
• Using Graphical Modeling Tools
• Using Numerical Generation
• Using Mathematical Generation
• Using Copy and Replication
• Using Subdivision and Meshing
• Using Geometric Extrusions
• Using Parametric Structures
•

100
Graphic Object Modeling

• Use basic Geometric Entities to create FE
M d l
Models
• Simple Graphic Objects
– Point Object Represents Node
– Line Object Represents 1D Elements
– Area Object Represents 2D Elements
– Brick Object Represents 3D Elements
• Graphic Objects can be used to represent
geometry, boundary and loads
• SAP2000, ETABS and SAFE use the
Modeling Objects and Finite Elements
• Structural Members are representation of

actual structural components
• Finite Elements are discretized
representation of Structural Members
• The concept of Graphic Objects can be
used to represent both, the Structural
M b
Members as wellll as FiFinite
it El
Elements
t
• In ETABS, the Graphic Objects
representing the Structural Members are
automatically divided into Finite Elements
for analysis and then back to structural
b f lt i t t ti

101
Linear-Static Analysis Process

• Generate Stiffness Matrix for each
El
Element t
• Form Global Stiffness Matrix
• Form Load Vector
• Modify for boundary conditions
• Solve for unknown Displacements
• Compute element actions/ stresses from
end displacements
The Modal Analysis

102
The Modal Analysis
• The modal analysis determines the inherent natural

frequencies of vibration
• Each natural frequency is related to a time period and a
mode shape
• Time Period is the time it takes to complete one cycle of
vibration
• The Mode Shape is normalized deformation pattern
• The number of Modes is typically equal to the number of
Degrees of Freedom
• The Time Period and Mode Shapes are inherent
properties of the structure and do not depend on the
applied loads
Free Vibration Analysis

• Definition
– Natural vibration of a structure released from initial condition
and subjected to no external load or damping
• Main governing equation -Eigenvalue Problem
[M ] ⎧⎨ u ⎫⎬ ⎧•⎫
••
+ [c ] ⎨ u ⎬ + [K ] {u }t = {P }t
⎩ ⎭t ⎩ ⎭t
• Solution gives
– Natural Frequencies
– Associated mode shapes
– An insight into the dynamic behavior and response of the
structure

103
The Modal Analysis
• The Modal Analysis should be run before

applying
l i lloads
d any other
th analysis
l i tto check
h k
the model and to understand the response
of the structure
• Modal analysis is precursor to most types
of analysis including Response Spectrum,
Time History, Push-over analysis etc.
• Modal analysis is a useful tool even if full
Dynamic Analysis is not performed
• Modal analysis easy to run and is a fun to
Application of Modal Analysis
• The Time Period and Mode Shapes,

t
together
th with
ith animation
i ti iimmediately
di t l
exhibit the strengths and weaknesses of
the structure
• Modal analysis can be used to check the
accuracy of the structural model
– The Time Period should be within reasonable
range, (Ex: 0.1 x number of stories seconds)
– The disconnected members are identified
– Local modes are identified that may need
suppression

104
Application of Modal Analysis
• The symmetry of the structure can be

d t
determined
i d
– For doubly symmetrical buildings, generally
the first two modes are translational and third
mode is rotational
– If first mode is rotational, the structural is un-
symmetrical
• The resonance with the applied loads or
excitation can be avoided
– The natural frequency of the structure should
not be close to excitation frequency
Eccentric and Concentric

Response
Unsymmetrical Mass
and Stiffness
Symmetrical Mass
dS
and Stiffness
iff
Mode-1 Mode-2 Mode-3


105
Modes and Pushover

• Generally the deformation pattern
corresponding
di tto th
the Fi
Firstt M
Mode
d iis used
d as
the basis for analysis
• This is acceptable for structures with time
period less than or equal to 1 second
• For more flexible structures
structures, higher mode
contribution may become significant
Introducing
Pushover Analysis

106
The Pushover Analysis
• An alternate method of analysis for

carrying
i outt the
th Performance
P f Based
B d
Design
• Pushover analysis is carried out after the
Linear Analysis has been done and
Serviceability and Strength design has
been completed
• Pushover analysis is most suitable for
determining the performance, specially for
lateral loads such as Earthquake or even
i d
Why Pushover Analysis

• Buildings do not respond as linearly elastic
systems during strong ground shaking
• Improve Understanding of Building
Behavior
– More accurate prediction of global
displacement
– More realistic prediction of earthquake
demand on individual components and
elements
– More reliable identification of “bad actors”
• Reduce Impact and Cost of Seismic
Retrofit

107
Performance Based Design -

Basics
• Design is based not on Ultimate Strength
but rather on Expected Performance
– Basic Ultimate Strength does not tell us what
will be performance of the structure at
Ultimate Capacity
• Performance Based Design Levels

– Fully Operational
– Operational
– Life Safe
– Near Collapse AIT, Thailand
Collapse
Pushover Spectrum

108
Pushover Demand Curves
Earthquake Push on Building

109
The Pushover Curve
Pushover Capacity Curves

110
Demand Vs Capacity
Non-linearity in Pushover
• Material nonlinearity at discrete, user-defined hinges in
frame/line elements.
1. Material nonlinearity in the link elements.
• Gap (compression only), hook (tension only), uniaxial plasticity
base isolators (biaxial plasticity and biaxial friction/pendulum)..
2. Geometric nonlinearity in all elements.
• Only P-delta effects
• P
P-delta
delta effects plus large displacements
3. Staged (sequential) construction.
• Members can be added or removed in a sequence of stages
during each analysis case.

111
Important Considerations
• Nonlinear analysis takes time and
patience
ti
• Each nonlinear problem is different
• Start simple and build up gradually.
• Run linear static loads and modal analysis
first
• Add hinges gradually beginning with the
areas where you expect the most non-
linearity.
• Perform initial analyses without geometric
Important Considerations
• Mathematically, static nonlinear analysis
d
does nott always
l guarantee
t a unique
i
solution.
• Small changes in properties or loading can
cause large changes in nonlinear
response.
• It is Important to consider many different
loading cases, and sensitivity studies on
the effect of varying the properties of the
structure

112
Procedure for Pushover Analysis

• Create a model just like for any other
analysis.
l i
• Define the static load cases, if
any, needed for use in the static nonlinear
analysis (Define > Static Load Cases).
• Define any other static and dynamic
analysis cases that may be needed for
steel or concrete design of frame
elements.

• Define hinge properties, if any (Define >
F
Frame Nonlinear
N li Hi
Hinge PProperties).
ti )
• Assign hinge properties, if any, to
frame/line elements (Assign > Frame/Line
> Frame Nonlinear Hinges).
• Define nonlinear link properties
properties, if any
(Define > Link Properties).

113

• Assign link properties, if any, to frame/line
elements
l t (Assign
(A i > F Frame/Line
/Li > Link
Li k
Properties).
• Run the basic linear and dynamic
analyses (Analyze > Run).
• Perform concrete design/steel design so
that reinforcing steel/ section is
determined for concrete/steel hinge if
properties are based on default values to
be computed by the program.

• For staged construction, define groups
th t representt the
that th various
i completed
l t d
stages of construction.
• Define the static nonlinear load cases
(Define > Static Nonlinear/Pushover
Cases).
• Run the static nonlinear analysis (Analyze
> Run Static Nonlinear Analysis).

114

• Review the static nonlinear results
(Di l > Sh
(Display Show St
Static
ti PPushover
h
Curve), (Display > Show Deformed
Shape), (Display > Show Member
Forces/Stress Diagram), and (File > Print
Tables > Analysis Output).
• Perform any design checks that utilize
static nonlinear cases.
• Revise the model as necessary and
repeat.
Summary
• We have to think in terms of
“Di l
“Displacements” t ” andd nott iin tterms off
loads, stresses or strains
• The main idea is to compare expected
displacements or required displacements
with the ability of the structure to reach
those displacements without failing
OR
indicating that it will not reach those
displacements

115
Pushover Analysis -Limitation

• One Dimensional Static Loads
• No Energy Dissipation
• Inertia Forces Not Considered
• Defined One Failure Mode
• Higher Mode Effects Neglected
Nonlinear Modeling of RC
and Masonry Structures

116
Pushover Modeling (Elements)

• Types
– Truss – Yielding and Buckling
– 3D Beam – Major direction Flexural and
Shear Hinging
– 3D Column – P-M-M Interaction and shear
Hinging
– Panel Zone – Shear Yielding
– In-Fill Panel – Shear Failure
– Shear Wall – P-M-Shear Interaction!
– Spring – for foundation modeling
Nonlinear Model for Building Components

beam column beam-column joint
Shear wall
Infill wall
foundation
M u&& + Cu& + Ku = − M (ru&&g )


117
Seismic Resistant vs. Gravity Load Designed (GLD) RC Buildings
Base Shear, Vb
Seismic Resistant Building

(Higher Lateral Strength + Ductile Failure)
Structural modelVfor seismic

b
resistant designed buildings
GLD Building
B ildi
(Lower Lateral Strength + Brittle Failure)
Lateral Drift, Δ
Seismic Performance of GLD RC Buildings

Shear wall
Infill
f wall
Shear Failure in
Beam
foundation

118

Shear wall
Infill
f wall
Shear Failure in Beam-

Column Joints
foundation

Shear wall
Infill
f wall
Shear Failure in Columns
foundation

119

Shear wall
Infill
f wall
Lap-Splice Failure in Columns
foundation

Shear wall
Infill
f wall
Lap-Splice Failure in Columns
foundation

120

Shear wall
Infill
f wall
Infill-Failure Induced Soft/Weak Story
foundation

Shear wall
Infill
f wall
Infill Induced Short-Column Effect
foundation

121

Shear wall
Infill
f wall
Soil Bearing Capacity Failure
foundation
Nonlinear Modeling of Plastic

Hinges

122
Plastic Hinges
• Seismic energy dissipation mechanism of well-designed cast-in-place RC
frames is usually relied on plastic flexural-deformation of beams and 1-st
story columns (Plastic Hinge, PH).
Rotation
Moment
Plastic Hinge in Beams

1) reliable predicted behavior
2) most ductile plastic deformation
3) highest equivalent damping
Energy Dissipation Mechanism
Modeling of Seismic Resistant Structures
plastic hinge spring

location of plastic hinge
((nonlinear rotational spring)
p g)
elastic frame member elastic frame element
RC Frame Subjected to EQ Motions Lumped Plasticity Model

123
2-Hinge Beam Element
uniaxial nonlinear rotational spring

2 elastic frame element 6
1 4
3 zero length
5
clear span (Ln)
Specialized Course on model

This Nonlinear
wasAnalysis of RC by
first proposed andGiberson.
Masonry The
Structures AIT, Thailand
model was later named “Giberson One Component Beam Model”.

1 4
3 zero length
5
clear span (Ln)
Elastic Frame Element Uniaxial Nonlinear Rotational Spring

1 2
2 5 6
3
E, G, A, I 4
1
Rotation
Moment

124

plastic hinge length, LPH Kspring
= +
EI/LPH
2-Hinge beam element frame element rotational spring

subjected to moment deformation deformation
for springs in parallel
KPH = 1/Kspring + 1/Kframe

Calculation of Kspring
for KPH = fEI/LPH , Kframe = EI/L
EI f
Kspring =
LPH 1-f
An alternative to 2-Hinge Beam Element

1 4
3 zero length
5
clear span (Ln)
uniaxial nonlinear
rotational spring
rigid
g link
2 7 8 6
1 4
3
5
zero length
elastic frame element
LPH

125
Plastic Hinges – Material Functions

MAIN STEEL= energy dissipater
Core Concrete (Confined Zone)
CGy
fc
crushing and
disintegrate
residual
strength y
Z
CGz
ε
cover spall STIRRUP = confinement +
shear capacity
Cover Concrete (Unconfined Zone)

BEAM CROSS SECTION
Core/Cover Concrete – Monotonic Response
Δ1 Δ2 Stress, σ (MPa)
spalling of cover concrete

σ σ Tensile Strength of Concrete is
n+
ε= A
Assumed d tto be
b ZZero
Tension
(Δ2+Δ1)/L
Strain, ε (mm / mm)
R x F’cc
disintegration
core concrete retains

some residual strength
crushing F’co
Confinement Effect from
Transverse Reinforcement
F’cc
Slope of Degrading Portion is crushing
Delayed due to Transverse
Reinforcement
Compression -

126
Core/Cover Concrete – Hysteretic Response
Δ1 Δ2 Stress, σ (MPa)
σ σ
n+
ε=
Tension
(Δ2+Δ1)/L
Strain, ε (mm / mm)
R x F’cc
residual Loading/Unloading
strength from Backbone
Curve
Elastic Loading/Unloading
Inelastic Loading
F’cc
crushing
Compression -
Steel Reinforcement – Monotonic Response

Stress, σ (MPa)
Δ1 Δ2 fracture
σ σ yielding
ε= Fy onset of strain hardening
(Δ2+Δ1)/L
Tension +
Es
εy εsh Strain, ε (mm / mm)
fracture
Compression -
yielding
onset of strain hardening 1 Ep
yielding
onset of buckling

127
Steel Reinforcement – Hysteretic Response
Hysteretic response of reinforcing steel

[L.L. Dodd and J.I. Restrepo-Posada, 1995]
EPP-Model Bilinear Model (Clough) Ramberg-Osgood Model
Assigning Properties of 2-Hinge Beam
Material
Properties
Geometrical
Properties
[Moment-Curvature
[Moment Curvature Analysis]
1 2 M
LPHΦ
*Takeda Hysteretic Model

*Equivalent Plastic Hinge Length

128
Equivalent Plastic Hinge Length, LPH
Concept of “Equivalent Plastic Hinge Length, LPH”
θ PH = ∫
PH − length
l h
φ ( x)dx φmax LPH
Empirical equations for Lph can be found in the literature
LPH = 0.08 L + 0.022d b Fy

[Paulay and Priestley, 1992]
Zero-Length Fiber Section Model

Discretized RC section Steel Layer Cover Layer Core Layer
CG
= + +
Area = A
• An RC section can be represented by sub-divided layers (fibers). Each layers is modeled using
uniaxial nonlinear springs which, in turn, classified into 3 groups according to their material
hysteretic response, i.e., steel springs, cover-concrete springs, and core-concrete springs.
• Theoretical formulation of the fiber section model can be explained through the following equations.
N = ∫ f s (ε )bdy M = ∫ f s (ε ) ybdy
EA Et Afiber
n n K spring = =
N ∑ ( f (ε ) A
i =1
s )
fiber i M ∑ ( f (ε ) y
i =1
s cg Afiber )i L LPH

129
Zero-Length Fiber Section Model
Lp
4
=
3
1
Ln
• = uniaxial nonlinear spring

• Axial stiffness of each spring is defined by area of fiber,
equivalent plastic hinge length, and tangent stiffness of the
Lp corresponding material
• To define the tangent stiffness, material hysteretic model
as discussed earlier can be directly assign to these springs
Analytical Plastic Hinge Response

CASE A – [ P = 0 kN ]
600
400
Vertical Forrce (kN)
Reversed cyclic
A displacement 200
Constant Axial
Force (P) 0
-200
A -400
1000 mm -600
-0.012 -0.008 -0.004 0 0.004 0.008 0.012
Tip Displacement (m)
CASE B – [ P = 100 kN ]
600
400
Vertical Force (kN)
200
-200
SECTION A-A
(dimension in mm) -400
-600
-0.012 -0.008 -0.004 0 0.004 0.008 0.012
Tip Displacement (m) AIT, Thailand


130
Hinge Properties
•Five points labeled A, B, C,
D,, and E are used to define
the force deflection behavior
of the hinge
•Three points labeled IO, LS
and CP are used to define
the acceptance criteria for
the hinge
•IO- Immediate Occupancy
•LS- Life Safety
•CP-Collapse Prevention
Hinge Properties
• Point A is always the origin
• Point B represents
p yyielding.
g No deformation occurs in
the hinge up to point B, regardless of the deformation
value specified for point B. The displacement (rotation)
at point B will be subtracted from the deformations at
points C, D, and E. Only the plastic deformation beyond
point B will be exhibited by the hinge
• Point C represents the ultimate capacity for Pushover
analysis
• Point D represents a residual strength for Pushover
analysis
• Point E represents total failure. Beyond point E the
hinge will drop load down to point F (not shown) directly
below point E on the horizontal axis. To prevent this
failure in the hinge, specify a large value for the
deformation at point E

131
Pushover Modeling
• Types of Deformation Properties
– Axial
– Moment only
– P-M : Uniaxial P-M Interaction
– P-M-M : Biaxial P-M Interaction
– Shear
Pushover Modeling (Loads)

• Start with Gravity Loads
– Dead Load
– Some Portion of Live Load
• Select Lateral Load Patterns

– Uniform
– Code Static Lateral Load Distribution
– First Mode
– Combination of Modes

132
Pushover Analysis (Control)

• Force Controlled Analysis
• Deformation
D f ti CControlled
t ll d A
Analysis
l i
– Roof Displacement
– Generalized Displacement Definitions
• Story Drift
• Limit of Analysis
– Instability – Loss of Gravity Load Carry
Capacity
– Excessive Distortions
Structure and Structural

Components
• For a structure, F = load, D = deflection.

• For a component, F depends on the component type, D is the
corresponding deformation.
• The component F-D relationships must be known.
• The Structure F-D relationship is obtained by structural analysis.

133
Main Aspects of F-D Relationship
Complication - Uncertainty
• There can be substantial uncertainty, in the

strength
t th and
d other
th properties
ti

134
Complication – Cyclic Degredation
Complication – Cyclic Strength Gain

135
Complication – Effect of Strength Loss
Strength in opposite direction may or may not

reduced.
Complication – Loop Shape
There are many possible hysteresis loop

shapes

136
Strength Based Design
• Check demand vs. capacity at the component level.

• If force demand at factored load < force capacity for all
components, the design is OK.
• Use linear analysis to calculate demands. This is usually
OK because the structure should remain essentially
linear.
Earthquake Forces Are Different

137
Deformation Based Design
• Check at the component and/or structure level.

• If deformation demand < deformation capacity for all
components, the design is OK.
• Deformation demands must be calculated using
nonlinear analysis, because the structure can yield.
Components With Brittle Behavior
• There is little or no ductile capacity beyond yield.

• Components like this must usually be designed using
force demand and capacity

138
Summary of deformation Based Design
Define deformation capacities

p for ductile components.
p
Define strength capacities for brittle components(and
any other components that should remain elastic.
Use nonlinear structural analysis to calculator the
deformation and strength demeans.
The performance is OK is all D/C ratios are <=1.
Simple in principle.
N t so simple
Not i l iin practice
ti
Performance Based Design

Conventional design g codes do not explicitly
p y establish
a performance level.
It is implied that a design that satisfies the code will
not collapse in a strong earthquake, but this is not
explicitly stated.
Performance based design seeks to provide
reasonable assurance that a design will satisfy a
specific
p p
performance level.
The most commonly used levels are:
Immediate Occupancy: little or no damage.
Life Safety: some damage, few or no injuries.
Collapse prevention: more damage, no collapse.

139
Deformation Capacities for Different

Performance Levels
Immediate Occupancy (10). Allows little inelastic behavior.

Life Safety (LS). Allows substantial inelastic behavior.
Collapse Prevention (CP). Pushes the limits of the ductile capacities
of the components.
Other performance levels may be used. The above are the most
common.
Key Steps for performance-

Based Design
Choose the performance level and the design loads
Choose loads.
Define the demand-capacity measures.
Drift, plastic hinge rotation, shear strength, etc.
Get the deformation and force capacities.
Strength :AISC, ACI, etc. codes/
Deformation : ASCE 41(FEMA 356), experiment.
Calculate the deformation and force demands.
U structural
Use t t l analysis.
l i
Calculate D/C ratios. If D/C>1:
Change the design,
Or sharpen the pencil on the demand side
Or sharpen the pencil on the capacity side.

140
Available Guidelines : ASCE 41
ASCE 41 (FEMA 356) applies to performance based

design for seismic rehabilitation of existing buildings.
However, it can be applied to new construction.
It provides guidance on modeling for nonlinear
analysis.
It provides deformation capacities for wide range of
structural components, for the IO, lS and CP levels.
However :
- The modeling guidelines are rather simplistic.
-The deformation capacities may be too conservative.
It is a useful resource, but not a definitive set of rules.
Capacity Design Concept

Some components in a structure can safely be allowed to yield.
Others should remain elastic.
If we do not know which are which, we have to rely on analysis to
tell as. This can be dangerous- we are analyzing only a model, not
the actual structure.
It is better to decide in advance which components can yield and
which must remain elastic.
We can then design the yielding components to have sufficient
ductility, and the elastic components to have sufficient strength.
Major advantages:
- we can set up more reliable nonlinear models.
- we can calculate more reliable demands and D/C ratios.
- the final design is likely to be more forgiving.
Capacity design is not always possible, but is is a desirable goal.

141
Capacity Design — Frame Structure
Specify the components that can yield. Use deformation D/C. - Beams in
bending.
- Columns at base and at roof
roof.
The remaining components should not yield. Use strength D/C. - Columns
except at base and roof.
- Connections.
- Beams and columns in shear.
- Foundations.
Capacity Design — Shear Wall
Specify the components that can yield. Use deformation D/C. -

-Flexural hinging
g g at base of wall.
-Shear in coupling beams.
The remaining components should not yield. Use strength D/C. -
-Bending in wall at all levels except the base.
Shear in wall at all levels, especially in hinge region.
- Foundations

142
Something Obvious But Important

It is essential to establish formal demand-capacity
measures (engineering demand parameters) and base
th performance
the f assessmentt on those
th measures.
All analysis results are important, and they should be
examined for consistency. However, the only important
results for performance assessment are the D/C ratios.
There may be subjective judgments in choosing
demand-capacity measures, establishing capacity
values, and calculating demand values. However, the
overall process must be objective
objective.
It does not have to be perfect (and never will be).
Please keep in mind the Purpose

of Structural Analysis
Structural analysis is not an end in itself
itself. It is
a tool for use in design.
The goal is not to get an exact simulation of
behavior. This is impossible for a real
structure.
The goal is to get D/C retio that are accurate
enough h ffor use in
i ddecision
i i making
ki
Exact is an impossible standard.
Accurate enough is much easier

143
Effective F-D Relationship
The current practice is to use a degraded

relationship allowing for a reasonable amount of cycling
relationship, cycling.
In the future, we may have initial and fully degraded
relationships, and transition between them as the
amount of cycling increases.
Practical F-D Models

There are so many uncertainties that the
b t we can h
best hope tto do
d iis capture
t th
the
main aspects of nonlinear behavior.

144
Typical ASCE 41 Capacities
ASCE 41 gives values for a wide range of components.

Alternatively,
Alternatively experimental results can be used
used.
PERFORM-3D and this seminar use the term
"capacities". ASCE 41 uses the term "acceptance
criteria".
Steel vs. concrete in ASCE 41

145
Example : RC Beam
Damage Mechanics Modeling of Nonlinear Seismic Behavior

of Concrete Structures
• (Study by Legeron,F et al. 2005)

146



147

Code Based Masonry Design

148
Objectives
• To present the basic code requirements

for masonry structures essential in design
and analysis using FEM-based software.
• BUIDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR

MASONRY STRUCTURES
(ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05)
Design Procedures
• Masonry structures and their component
members shall be designed as follows:
– General Design Requirements for Masonry
• and one of the following:
– Allowable Stress Design of Masonry
– Strength Design of Masonry
– Prestressed Masonry
– Empirical Design of Masonry
– Veneer
– Glass Unit Masonry

149
General Design
g Requirements
q
Loading
• Service Loads
– Shall be in accordance with the legally adopted
g code.
building
– In the absence thereof, ASCE 7-93 shall be used.
• Lateral Load Resistance
– Wind Load
– Earthquake load
• Other effects
– Effects of forces and deformations due to
prestressing, vibrations, impact, shrinkage,
expansion, temperature changes, creep, unequal
settlement of supports, and differential movement

150
Lateral load distribution

• Lateral loads shall be distributed to the structural
system in accordance with member stiffness
stiffness.
• Distribution of load shall be consistent with the
forces resisted by foundations.
• Distribution of load shall include the effect of
horizontal torsion of the structure due to
eccentricity of wind or seismic loads resulting
from the non-uniform distribution of mass.
• Flanges of intersecting walls design shall be
considered effective in resisting applied loads.
Shear Wall Stiffness

• Elevation of
Coupled shear
walls
– Connecting
elements between
coupled shear walls
typically require
vertical and
horizontal
reinforcement to
transfer the shear

151

• Elevation of
Uncoupled shear
walls

• Shear stiffness predominates

152

• Both shear stiffness and bending stiffness
are important
• Bending Stiffness
predominates

153
Material properties
• Elastic Moduli, E
– steel reinforcement
Es = 29,000,000 psi (200,000Mpa)
– Clay and concrete masonry
Em = 700 f m' for clay masonry
Em = 900 f m' for concrete masonry
where : f m ' = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi ( MPa)
Material properties
• Elastic Moduli, E
– Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
E AAC = 6,500( f AAC
'
) 0.6
– Grout
E g = 500 f g'
where : f g ' = specified compressive strength of grout , psi ( MPa)

154
Material properties
• Coefficients of thermal expansion
– Clay masonry
K t = 4 × 10 −6 in / in / f ο (7.2 × 10 −6 mm / mm / cο )
– Concrete masonry
K t = 4.5 × 10 −6 in / in / f ο (8.1× 10 −6 mm / mm / cο )
– AAC
K t = 4.5 ×10 −6 in / in / f ο (8.1× 10 −6 mm / mm / cο )
Material properties
• Coefficient of moisture expansion for clay
K e = 3 ×10 −4 in / in / f ο (3 ×10 −4 mm / mm)

• Coefficient of shrinkage for concrete masonry
K m = 0.5 sl
• Where:
• sl = total linear drying shrinkage of
concrete masonry

155
Material properties
• Coefficient of creep
– Clay masonry
K c = 0.7 ×10 −7 per psi (0.1×10 −4 per Mpa)
– Concrete masonry
K c = 2.5 ×10 −7 per psi (0.36 ×10 −4 per Mpa)
– AAC masonry
K c = 5 ×10 −7 per psi (0.72 × 10 −4 per Mpa)
Stress Computations
• Members shall be designed using section
properties based on the minimum net cross-
cross
sectional area of the member under
consideration.
• In members designed for composite action,
stresses shall be computed using section
properties based on the minimum transformed
net cross-sectional
cross sectional area of the composite
member. The transformed area concept for
elastic analysis, in which areas of dissimilar
materials are transformed in accordance with
relative elastic moduli ratios, shall apply.

156
Chord Modulus of Elasticity
Properties
• Stress computations
• Stiffness
– Determination of stiffness based on
uncracked section is permissible. Use of the
average net cross-sectional area of the
member considered in stiffness computations
is permitted
• Radius of Gyration
• Intersecting walls
– Design of wall intersection

157
Net Area Computations

• Minimum net section is often difficult to establish
in hollow unit masonry
masonry. The designer may
choose to use the minimum thickness of the face
shells of the units as the minimum net section.
The minimum net section may not be the same
in the vertical and horizontal directions.
• For masonry of hollow units
units, the minimum
crosssectional area in both directions may
conservatively be based on the minimum face
shell thickness.

• Solid clay masonry units
are permitted to have
coring up to a maximum
of 25 percent of their
gross cross-sectional
area. For such units, the
net cross-sectional area
may be taken as equal to
the gross cross-sectional
area, except for masonry Brick more than 75%
headers. solid net area equals
gross area

158

• Hollow unit full mortar
bedding (requires
alignment of crosswebs)
• Hollow unit full mortar

bedding
Radius of Gyration
• Radius of gyration shall be computed
using
i average nett cross-section
ti area off
the member considered.

159
Intersecting Walls
• Transfer of shear between walls shall be
prevented.
t d
– Masonry shall be in running bond – placement
of masonry units such that head joints in
successive courses are horizontally offset at
least one-quarter the unit length.
– Flanges shall be considered effective in
resisting applied loads
– Effective width flange is lesser of 6 times the
flange thickness or the actual flange on either
side of the web wall.
Intersecting Walls
• Design for shear if transfer of shear at
i t f
interfaces can nott be
b prevented.
t d
• The connection of intersecting wall shall
conform to the following:
– At least 50% of the masonry units at the
interface shall interlock.
– Walls shall be anchored by steel connectors
grouted into the wall.
– Intersecting bond beams shall be provided.

160
Intersecting Walls
• Running bond lap at intersection
Intersecting Walls
• Metal straps and grouting at wall intersections

161
Intersecting Walls
• Bonding ties and

grouting for flanged
shear walls
Intersecting Walls
• Effective flange width

162
Deflection
• Deflection of beams and lintels due to
d d plus
dead l lilive lloads
d shall
h ll nott exceed
d th
the
lesser of l/600 or 0.3 in. (7.6 mm) when
providing vertical support to masonry.
• Masonry walls shall not be connected to
structural frames unless the connections
and walls are designed to resist design
interconnecting forces and to
accommodate
Stack Bond Masonry

• For masonry in other than running bond,
the
th
• minimum area of horizontal reinforcement
shall be 0.00028 times the gross
vertical cross-sectional area of the wall
using specified dimensions. Horizontal
reinforcement shall be placed in horizontal
joints or in bond beams spaced not more
than 48 in. (1219 mm) on center.

163
Stack Bond Masonry

• Running bond masonry
– Masonry not overlapped a
minimum of ¼ of the unit
length is considered to be
laid in other than running
bond
Stack Bond Masonry

• Running bond masonry
– Masonry not overlapped a
minimum of ¼ of the unit
length is considered to be
laid in other than running
bond

164
Corbels
• Load bearing corbels shall be designed in
accordance
d with
ith th
the ffollowing:
ll i
– Prestressed Masonry
• Non-load
Non load bearing corbels shall be
designed in accordance with the
provisions under ASCE 530-05.
Corbels
– Limitations on Corbelling:
Pc = d / 2
p = h/2
p = d /3
Pc = Allowable total horizontal
projection of corbelling
p = Allowable pprojection
j off one unit
d = No min al unit thickness
h = No min al unit height
a = Air space thickness

165
Corbels
–P Limitations
=t/2 on Corbelling:
c
p = h/2
p = d /3
Pc = Allowable total horizontal
projection of corbelling
p = Allowable projection of one unit
t = No min al wall thickness
d = No min al unit thickness
h = No min al unit height
a = Air space thickness
Reinforcement
• The maximum size of reinforcement used in masonry
shall be No. 11 (M#36)
( )
• The diameter of reinforcement shall not exceed one half
the least clear dimension of the cell bond beam.
• Longitudinal and cross wires of joint reinforcement shall
have a minimum wire size of W1.1(MW7) and the
maximum size of wire is one half of the joint thickness.
• The clear distance between parallel bars shall not be
l
less th
than th
the nominal
i l di
diameter
t off th
the b
bars, nott lless th
than
1in(25.4mm)
• Reinforcement embedded in grout shall
• Have a thickness of grout between the reinforcement
and masonry units not less than 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) for fine
grout or 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) for coarse grout.

166
Protection of Reinforcement
• Reinforcement bar shall have a masonry
cover nott less
l than
th following:
f ll i
– Masonry face exposed to earth or weather
2in(50.8mm) for bars larger than No.5(M#16);
1 and 1/2 in. (38.1mm)for No.5(M#16) bars or
smaller.
– Masonry not exposed to earth or weather 1
and 1/2in. (38.1mm).
Standard hooks
• Standard hooks shall be formed by one of the following
methods:
a. A 180-degree turn plus extension of at least 4 bars
diameters but not less than 2 and 1/2in
b. A 90-degree turn plus extension of at least 12 bar
diameters at free and of bar.
c. For stirrup and tie anchorage only either a 90 degree or
a 135-degree turn plus an extension of at least 6 bar
di
diameters
t att the
th free
f end
d off the
th bar.
b

167
Standard hooks
• Minimum diameters of bend
Standard hooks
• 180 degrees bend
• 90 degrees bend
• Stirrup and Tie

anchorage with
90 deg. or 135
deg. bend

168
Seismic Design Requirements

• Seismic Design Category is defined in
ASCE 7-02.
7 02
• The seismic design requirements of this
section apply to the design and
construction of masonry, except glass unit
masonry and masonry veneer.
Seismic design
• Lateral force-resisting system
– Ordinary plain (unreinforced)masonry shear walls
– Detailed plain (unreinforced)masonry shear walls
• Minimum reinforcement requirements
• Connections
• Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls
• Intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls
• Special
p reinforced masonryy shear walls
• Ordinary plain (unreinforced) AAC masonry shear
walls.
• Detailed plain (unreinforced) AAC masonry shear
walls.
• Ordinary reinforced AAC masonry shear walls. AIT, Thailand

169
Seismic Design Category A

• Structures in Seismic Design Category A
shall
h ll comply
l with
ith th
the requirements
i t off th
the
following:
– Prestressed Masonry y
– Empirical Design of Masonry
• AAC masonry structures shall comply with
the requirements of ASCE 530-05.
Seismic Design Category A

• Drift limits
– The calculated story drift of masonry structures due to
the combination of design seismic forces and gravity
loads shall not exceed 0.007 times the story height.
• Anchorage
– Masonry walls shall be anchored to the roof and all
floors that provide lateral support for the wall. The
connections shall be capable of resisting the greater
off a seismic
i i llateral
t l fforce iinduced
d db
by th
the wallll or 1000
times the effective peak velocity-related acceleration,
lb per lineal ft of wall (14 590 times, N/m).

170
Wall Anchorage Details

• Wall Anchorage to Concrete Beams

• Wall Anchorage to Concrete Columns

171

• Wall Anchorage to Concrete Steel Column

• Wall Anchorage to Concrete Steel Beam

172
Seismic Design Category B

• Should comply with the requirements of Category A
• Design of elements that are part of lateral force
force-resisting
resisting
system
– Should comply with the following:
• Allowable Stress Design of Masonry
• Strength Design of Masonry
• Prestressed Masonry
– Masonry shear walls shall comply with the requirements of
ordinary plain (unreinforced) masonry shear walls, detailed plain
(unreinforced) masonry shear walls, ordinary reinforced
• masonry shear walls, intermediate reinforced masonry
shear walls, or special reinforced masonry shear walls.
Seismic Design Category B

• Anchorage of floor and roof diaphragms in
AAC masonry structures
t t
– Floor and roof diaphragms in AAC masonry
structures shall be surrounded by a
continuous grouted bond beam reinforced
with at least two longitudinal reinforcing bars
ha ing a cross
having cross-sectional
sectional area of at least 0.4
04
sq. in.

173
Seismic Design Category C

• Design of elements that are NOT part of
l t l fforce-resisting
lateral i ti system
t
– Load-bearing frames or columns
– Masonry partition walls, masonry screen walls
and other masonry elements
– Horizontal and vertical reinforcement should
be carefully detailed based on this code.
– The above elements should be designed to
accommodate the design story drift.
Grout Space Requirement

• a>Min. grout space
dimension
• b
b>Min.
Min. grout space
dimension
– Plus Horizontal bar
diameter
– Plus horizontal protrusions

174
Seismic Design Category C

• Design of elements that are part of lateral
f
force-resisting
i ti system
t
– Masonry columns and shear walls
– Connectors shall be provided to transfer
forces between masonry columns and
horizontal elements
– Anchorage of floor and roof diaphragms in
AAC masonry structures
Seismic Design Category D

• Minimum reinforcement requirements for
masonry walls
ll
– Masonry walls shall be reinforced in both the
vertical and horizontal direction
• Minimum reinforcement for masonry
columns
– Lateral ties in masonry columns shall be
spaced not more than 8 in. (203 mm) on
center and shall be at least 3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
diameter. Lateral ties shall be embedded in
grout.

175
Seismic Design Category D

• Material requirements
– Neither Type N mortar nor masonry cement
shall be used as part of the lateral force-
resisting system.
• Lateral tie anchorage
– Standard hooks for lateral tie anchorage
g
shall be either a 135 degree standard hook
or a 180 degree standard hook.
Seismic Design Category E & F

• Minimum reinforcement for stack bond elements
that are not part of lateral force-resisting system
– Stack bond masonry that is not part of the
lateral force-resisting system shall have a
horizontal cross-sectional area of
reinforcement of at least 0.0015 times the
gross cross-sectional area of masonry.
– The maximum spacing of horizontal
reinforcement shall be 24 in. (610 mm). These
elements shall be solidly grouted and shall be
constructed of hollow open-end units or two
wythes of solid units.

176
Seismic Design Category E & F

• Minimum reinforcement for stack bond elements that are
part of the lateral force-resisting system
– Stack bond masonryy that is p part of the lateral force-
resisting system shall have a horizontal
crosssectional area of reinforcement of at least
0.0025 times the gross cross-sectional area of
masonry. The maximum spacing of horizontal
reinforcement shall be 16 in. (406 mm).
– These elements shall be solidly grouted and shall be
constructed of hollow open-end
open end units or two wythes of
solid units.
– Wythes – each continuous vertical section of a wall,

one masonry unit in thickness.

177

• a>Min. grout space
dimension
• b
b>Min.
Min. grout space
dimension
– Plus Horizontal bar
diameter
– Plus horizontal protrusions
Allowable Stress Design of

Masonry

178
Scope
• Load combination
• D i strength
Design t th
• Anchor bolts solidly grouted in masonry
• Multiwythe walls
• Columns
• Pilasters
• Load transfer and horizontal connections
• Concentrated loads
• Development of reinforcement embedded in
grout
Load Combinations
• The building shall be
resist the fallowing load
combination.
– D
– D+L
– D+L+(W or E )
– D+W
– 0.9D+E
– D+L+(H or F)
– D+(H or F)
– D+L+ T
– D+T

179
Allowable Flexural Tensile stresses

• For clay and concrete masonry, psi (KPa)
Failure at the Anchor Bolt

connection

180
Anchor Bolt Cone Area Overlap
Multiwythe Walls

181
Effective Height
Minimum design eccentricity in

Column

182
Brick Pilasters
Block pilasters

183
Load Distribution
Load Distribution

184
Masonry Wall under Loadings
Strength
g Design
g of Masonry
y

185
Strength design of masonry

• Required strength
• Design strength
• Strength reduction factor
• Deformation requirement
• Headed and bent-bar anchor bolts
• Nominal baring strength
• Material properties
Required strength
• Required strength shall be determined in accordance
with the strength design load combinations of the legally
adopted building code.
• When the legally adopted building code does not provide
factored load combinations, structures and members
shall be designed to resist the combination of loads
specified in ASCE 7-02 for strength design.
• Members subject to compressive axial load shall be
designed for the factored moment accompanying the
factored axial load.
• The factored moment, Mu, shall include the moment
induced by relative lateral displacement.

186
Design strength
• Masonry members shall be proportioned
so that
th t the
th design
d i strength
t th equals
l or
exceeds the required strength.
• Design strength is the nominal strength

multiplied by the strength reduction factor
Ø
Strength reduction factor

• Combinations of flexure and
axial load in reinforced
masonry … Ø = 0.9
• Combinations of flexure and

axial load in unreinforced
masonry… Ø = 0.6
• Shear Ø = 0.8
• Anchor bolt Ø = 0.5
• Bearing Ø = 0.6

187
Deformation Requirement
• Drift Limits
– Based on legally adopted building code
– In the absence of provision thereof, ASCE 7-
02 shall be used.
• Deflection of Unreinforced Masonry
– Based on uncracked section
• Deflection of Reinforced Masonry
– Based on cracked section
Headed and bent-bar anchor

bolts
• Nominal axial tensile strength of headed anchor bolts
(Ban) Ban = 4 Apt f 'm
Ban = Ab f y
• Projected area of masonry for headed anchor bolts

2
Apt = π l b
• Effected embedment length for headed anchor bolts, lb

– The minimum effective embedment length for bent-bar anchor
bolts resisting axial forces shall be 4 bolt diameters or 2 in. (50.8
mm), whichever is greater.

188
Material properties
• Masonry compressive strength
f m' ≥ 1,500 psii (10.34 MPa

MP )
No min al strength :
f m' < 4,000 psi − for concrete masonry
f m' < 6,000 psi − for clay masonry
Material properties
• Grout compressive Strength, fg
For concrete masonry :

f g' ≥ f m' < 5,000 psi (34.47 MPa)
F clay
For l masonry :
f g' < 6,000 psi (41.37 MPa)

189
Masonry Modulus of Rupture

• Modulus of rupture (psi, KPa)
• Bending – subject to out-of-plane or in-plane bending
Unreinforced (plain) Masonry

• Strength for resisting loads
– unreinforced masonry members shall be
designed using the strength of masonry units.
Mortar, and grout in resisting design loads.
• Strength contribution from reinforcement

– stresses in reinforcement shall not be
considered effective in resisting design loads.

190

• Design assumptions:
– Strength design of members for factored flexure and
axial load shall be in accordance with principles of
engineering mechanics.
– Strain in masonry shall be directly proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis
– Flexural tension in masonry shall be assumed to be
directly proportional to strain.
– Flexural compressive stress in combination with axial
compressive stress in masonry shall be assumed
directly proportional to strain. Nominal compressive
strength shall not exceed a stress 0.80fm .
– The nominal flexural strength shall be determined.

• Nominal axial strength of plain masonry
members
• For member having h/r ration not greater than
99:
⎧⎪
2
⎡ ⎛ h ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
p = 0 . 80 ⎨ 0 . 80 An f ' m ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 140 r ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
• For members having an h/r ration greater than

99: ⎧ ⎡ 2
⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ 70 r ⎞ ⎪
p = 0 . 80 ⎨ 0 . 80 An f ' m ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ h ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭

191

• Nominal shear strength
– Shear
Sh strength
t th shall
h ll b
be th
the smallest
ll t off ((a))
and (b) and the applicable of (c) through (e)
a : 3.8 An f 'm
b : 300 An
c: for running bond masonry not lolidly grouted :
56 An + 0.45 N u
where : An = net cross sec tional area of masonry :
N u = factored compressive force acting normal to shear surface

d: for stack bond masonry with open end unit and grouted solid :
56 An + 0.45 N u
e: for running bond masonry grouted solid :

90 An + 0.45 N u

192
Design Assumptions
• There is strain continuity between the reinforcement, grout, and
masonry such that all applicable loads are resisted in a composite
manner.
manner
• The maximum usable strain, εmu, at the extreme masonry
compression fiber shall be assumed to be 0.0035 for clay masonry
and 0.0025 for concrete masonry.
• Reinforcement stress below specified yield strength, fy, shall be
taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that
corresponding to fy, stress in reinforcement shall be taken equal to
fy.
• d. Masonry stress of 0.80 f′m shall be assumed uniformly
distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges
of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral
axis at a distance a = 0.80 c from the fiber of maximum compressive
strain. The distance c from the fiber of maximum strain to the neutral
axis shall be measured perpendicular to that axis.
Reinforcement
• Reinforcing bar size limitations
– Reinforcing bars used in masonry shall not be
larger than No. 9 (M#29). The nominal bar
diameter shall not exceed one-eighth of the
nominal member thickness and shall not
exceed one-quarter of the least clear
dimension of the cell
cell, course
course, or collar joint in
which it is placed.
– The area of reinforcing bars placed in a cell or
in a course of hollow unit construction shall
not exceed 4 percent of the cell area.

193
Reinforcement
• Maximum area of flexural tensile reinforcement
– For masonry members where
Mu / Vu dv ≥ 1
where dv = actualdepthof masonryin the directionof shearconsidered(mm)
– The cross sectional area of flexural tensile

reinforcement shall not exceed the area required to
maintain axial equilibrium.
– For intermediate and special reinforced masonry

shear wall subject to in-plane loads.
– Reinforcing bars shall not be bundled.
Design of Beams, Piers, and

Columns
• Nominal strength
• Beams
• Columns
• Wall design for out-of-plane loads
• Wall design for in-of-plane loads

194
Nominal Strength
• Nominal axial and flexural strength
– For members having an h/r ratio not greater
than 99:
⎡ ⎛ h ⎞2 ⎤
Pn = 0.80[0.80 f ( An − As ) + f y As ]⎢1 − ⎜
'
⎟ ⎥
• m
⎢⎣ ⎝ 140r ⎠ ⎥⎦
– For members having an h/r ratio greater than

99: 2
⎛ 70r ⎞
Pn = 0.80[0.80 f m ( An − As ) + f y As ]⎜
'
⎟
⎝ h ⎠
Nominal Strength
– Shear strength provided by masonry
⎡ ⎛ M ⎞⎤
Vm ⎢4.0 − 1.75⎜⎜ u ⎟⎟⎥ An f m' + 0.25Pu
⎣ ⎝ Vn d v ⎠⎦
– Shear strength provided by shear

reinforcement.
⎛A ⎞
Vs = 0.5⎜ v ⎟ f y d v
⎝ s ⎠

195
Beams
• The factored axial compressive force on a
b
beam shall
h ll nott exceed
d 0.05
0 05 An
A f 'm.
'
• Longitudinal reinforcement
– The variation in longitudinal reinforcing bars in
a beam shall not be greater than one bar size.
Not more than two bar sizes shall be used in
a beam.
– The nominal flexural strength of a beam shall
not be less than 1.3 times the nominal
cracking moment strength of the beam, Mcr.
The
Specialized Course modulus
on Nonlinear ofMasonry
Analysis of RC and rupture,
Structures fr,AIT, Thailand
Beams
• Transverse reinforcement
– Transverse reinforcement shall be provided where Vu
exceeds φVm. The factored shear, Vu, shall include
the effects of lateral load.
• Beams shall be grouted solid.
• Dimensional limits
– The clear distance between locations of lateral
bracing of the compression side of the beam shall not
exceed 32 times the least width of the compression
area.
– The nominal depth of a beam shall not be less than 8
in. (203 mm).

196
Piers
• The factored axial compression force on
th piers
the i shall
h ll nott exceed
d 0.3
0 3 An
A f 'm.
'
– One bar shall be provided in the end cells.
– The minimum area of longitudinal
reinforcement shall be 0.0007bd.
– (c) Longitudinal reinforcement shall be
uniformly distributed throughout the depth of
the element.
Piers
– The nominal thickness of a pier shall not be less than
6 in. (152 mm) and shall not exceed 16 in. (406 mm).
– The distance between lateral supports of a pier shall
not exceed 25 times the nominal thickness
– The nominal length of a pier shall not be less than
three times its nominal thickness nor greater than six
times its nominal thickness. The clear height of a pier
shall
h ll nott exceed
d fi
five ti
times itits nominal
i l llength.
th
– Exception: When the factored axial force at the
location of maximum moment is less than 0.05 f 'm
Ag, the length of a pier may be equal to the thickness
of the pier.

197
Columns
– Maximum reinforcement area shall be
determined in accordance with maximum area
of flexural tensile, but shall not exceed 0.04
An.
– Minimum reinforcement area shall be 0.0025
A
An.
– Longitudinal reinforcement shall be uniformly
distributed throughout the depth of the
element.
Columns
– Maximum reinforcement area shall be determined in
accordance with maximum area of flexural tensile, but
shall not exceed 0.04 An.
– Minimum reinforcement area shall be 0.0025 An.
– Longitudinal reinforcement shall be uniformly
distributed throughout the depth of the element.
• Lateral ties shall be provided
• Columns shall be solid grouted.

198
Columns
– The nominal width of a column shall not be
less than 8 in. (203 mm).
– The distance between lateral supports of a
column shall not exceed 30 times its nominal
width.
– The nominal depth of a column shall not be
less than 8 in. (203 mm) and not greater than
three times its nominal width.
Wall Design for Out-of-Plane

Loads
• Maximum reinforcement
– Based on this code
• Moment and deflection calculations
– For other support and fixity conditions,
moments and deflections shall be calculated
using established principles of mechanics.

199

Loads
• Walls with factored axial stress of 0.2f 'm
or less
l
⎛ Pu ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ≤ 0.20 f m'
⎜A ⎟
⎝ g ⎠
– Where :
• Pu is factored axial load Ib(N)
• Ag is gross cross-sectional area of
masonry

Loads
• Deflection design
– Service lateral and service axial load shall be
limited by the relation:
– P-delta effects shall be included in deflection
calculation.
δ s ≤ 0.007h
a : where M ser < M cr

5 M ser h 2
δs ≤
48 E m I g

200
Wall Design for Out-of-Plane Loads

• Deflection design
b : where M ser < M cr < M n
5 M ser h 2
5( M − M cr ) h 2
δs ≤ + scr
48 E m I g 48 E m I cr
– The modulus of rupture, fr, shall be taken from given Table in
previous slid.
p
Wall Design for In-Plane Loads

• Reinforcement
– The amount of vertical reinforcement shall not
be less than one half the horizontal
reinforcement.
• Maximum Reinforcement
• Flexural and axial strength
• Shear strength

201

• Special Boundary elements
– Need not to be provided in shear walls
meeting the following conditions :
– For geometrically unsymmetrical wall

sections
Pu ≤ 0.10 Ag f m'

• Special boundary elements
– For geometrically unsymmetrical wall
sections; and either
Pu ≤ 0.05 Ag f m'
– Where Mu
≤ 1 .0
Vu I w
– or Vu ≤ 3 An f m' and
Mu
≤ 3 .0
Vu I w

202

• Special boundary elements shall be provided over
portions of compressions where:
lw
C≥
• where: d ne 600(C δ / h )
w
Cd is deflection amplification factor
lw is the length of wall
hw is the wall hight
δ ne is the displacement
Prestressed Masonry
• Design
– Prestressed masonry members shall be designed by elastic analysis
using
i lloading
di and d lload
d combination
bi ti
– Immediately after the transfer of prestressing force to the masonry, all
limitations on masonry stresses given in this chapter shall be based
upon f ′mi .
• Jacking force
– The stress in prestressing tendons due to the jacking force shall not
exceed 0.94fpy, nor 0.80fpu, nor the maximum value recommended by
the manufacturer of the prestressing tendons or anchorages.
• Post-tensioned
Post tensioned masonry members
– At the time of application of prestress, the stress in prestressing tendons
at anchorages and couplers shall not exceed 0.78fpy nor 0.70fpu.
• Immediately after transfer
– The stress in the prestressing tendons immediately after transfer of the
prestressing force to the masonry shall not exceed 0.82fpy nor 0.74fpu

203
Empirical
p Design
g of Masonry
y
Empirical design of masonry

• Gravity load
– The resultant of gravity loads shall be placed
within the center third of the wall thickness
and within the central area bounded by lines
at one third of each cross-sectional dimension
of foundation piers.

204

• Seismic
– Empirical requirements shall not apply to the
design or construction of masonry for
buildings, parts of buildings or other structures
in seismic design categories D, E or F as
define in ASCE 7-02

• Wind
– Empirical requirements shall not apply to the design or
construction of masonry for locations with the following basic
wind speeds given in ASCE7-02
• Where the basic wind speed exceed 177Km/h
• Interior masonry element
– building over 55.1m
– building over 18.4m height where the wind speed is 145km/h
– building over 10.7m in height where the wind speed is161km/h
• Exterior masonry
– building over 18.4m in height the wind speed is 145km/h
– building over 10.7m in height where the wind speed is161km/h
• Other horizontal loads
• Glass unit masonry
• AAC masonry

205

• Thickness of masonry
– Minimum thickness requirements shall be
based on nominal dimensions of masonry
• For bearing walls the minimum thickness 203mm
• For rubble stone walls - 406mm
• For shear walls - 203mm
• F
Foundation
d ti wallsll - 203mm
203
• Foundation piers - 203mm
• Parapet walls - 203mm
Allowable Compressive Stress

206

207
Cumulative Length of Shear

Wall
Wall Cross-section

208
Wall Cross-section

• Bond
• Bond with masonry headers
– Solid units
– Hollow units
• Bond with prefabricated joint
• Natural
N t l or castt stone
t
– Ashlar masonry
– Rubble stone masonry

209

• Anchorage
– Intersecting walls
– Floor and roof anchorage
– Walls adjoining structural framing
• Miscellaneous
– Chases and recesses
– Lintels
– Support on wood
Veneer
• Design requirement
– Design and detail the backing system of
exterior veneer to resist water penetration
– Design and detail flashing and weep holes in

exterior veneer wall systems
y to resist water
penetration into the building interior.
– Design and detail the veneer to accommodate

differential movement.

210
Anchored veneer
• The alternative design of anchored
masonry veneer
– Loads shall be distributed through the veneer
to the anchors and the backing using
principles of mechanics.
– Out of plane deflection of the backing shall be
limited to maintain veneer stability.
Anchored Veneer

211
Adhered veneer
• The alternative design of adhered
masonry
– Loads shall be distributed through the veneer
to the backing using principles of mechanics.
– Out of plane curvature shall be limited to
prevent veneer unit separation from the
backing.
Adhered Veneer

212
Glass unit masonry

• General design requirement
– Design and detail glass unit masonry to accommodate
differential movement.
• Units
– hollow or solid glass block units shall be standard or thin
units.
– the specified thickness of standard units shall be at least
98.4mm.
– The specified thickness of thin units shall be 79.4mm for
hollow units or 76.2 for solid units.
Glass Masonry Ultimate Wind

Load Resistance

213
Panel Anchor Construction
Channel Type restraint

Construction

214
Specific Nonlinearity
in Masonry Structure
Different Types of Masonry

• Unreinforced Masonry (URM)
• Reinforced Masonry (RM)
• Clay Bricks
• Stone-blocks
• Concrete Blocks
• Other Materials

215
Masonry Walls
• Categories of Walls for Seismic
R i t
Resistance
– Cantilever walls
– Coupled walls with pier hinging
– Coupled walls with spandrel hinging
– Selection of Primary and Secondary Lateral
Lateral-
Force-Resisting Systems
– Face-Loaded Walls
(Source: Seismic Design of Reinforced concrete and Masonry Building: Pauley and Priestley)
Analysis Procedure
• Masonry Moment-Resisting Wall Frames
– Capacity Design Approach
• Capacity design principles developed for
reinforced concrete frames may be applied in
simplified form in the design of masonry wall
frames
g are is assumes to form at beam
• Plastic hinges
ends, with plastic hinging of the wall-like column
members avoided by use of weak-beam/strong
column approach
• Other undesirable mechanisms such as beam/wall
shear failures, or joint failures must be avoided

216
Masonry Infill Walls

• Masonry infill walls are typically used in
reinforced concrete buildings and are
considered by engineers as nonstructural
components
• Even if they are relatively weak when compared
with structural components, they can drastically
alter the response of structure
structure.
• The presence of masonry infill walls can modify
lateral stiffness, strength, and ductility of
structure
Masonry Infill Walls

• At low level of in-plane lateral force, the frame
and infill panel will act in a fully composite
fashion, as a structural wall with boundary
elements
• When lateral deformations increase, frame
attempts to deform in a flexural mode. But, infill
panel attempts to deform in a shear modemode.
• These lead to separation between frame and
panel at the corners on the tension diagonal,
and the development of a diagonal compression
strut on the compression diagonal.

217
Failure of Masonry Infill Walls

• The masonry infill itself may fail in a
variety
i t off modes,
d mostt often
ft involving
i l i
some combinations of bed joint sliding,
corner crushing, and diagonal cracking, as
shown in Figure
Failure mechanisms of infill

frames

218
Modeling of Masonry Infill Walls

• Masonry infill walls are modeled using
equivalent
i l t strut
t t conceptt based
b d on
recommendations of FEMA-273 (1997)
• Based on this concept, the stiffness
contribution of infill wall is represented by
an equivalent diagonal compression strut
Equivalent Diagonal
Compression Strut

219

• Thickness and modulus of elasticity of strut are assumed
to be the same as those of infill wall.
• Width of equivalent strut, a, is determined by using
Equations was suggested by FEMA-273
a = 0.175(λ1hcol ) −0.4 rinf

1
⎡ Emtinf sin 2θ ⎤ 4
λ1 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4 Ec I c hinf ⎦
where : Ec I c is the bending stiffness of the columns
Em is the mod ulus of Elasticity of masonry

• In SAP 2000, equivalent diagonal compression
strut will be modeled as an axial element having
a nonlinear axial hinge along its length.
• According to FEMA-273, idealized force-
displacement relations for infill wall are defined
by a series of straight-line segment
• These relations are plotted between normalized
force and story drift ratio.

220
Idealized force-displacement relation of infill wall (FEMA-273)

• Variable d and e, representing nonlinear deformation capacities of
infill wall, are expressed in terms of story drift ratio percentage (from
Table in FEMA 273))
• In order to determine the expected strength of strut, Rs, the
expected infill shear strength, Vine, is used. Vine shall be calculated
as the product of the net horizontal area of the infill panel, Ani, and
the shear strength of masonry infill wall as shown in Equations
Vine = Ani (τ 0 + μ f f m' ) , Vine = Rs cos θ
τ0
Rs = rinf tinf
⎡ ⎞⎤
⎛ h inf
⎢1 − μ f ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ I inf
⎠⎦
where : f m' is the compressive strength of masonry

221
FEM Model for Masonry

• The existing models for the mechanical
b h i off masonry materials
behavior t i l can bbe
classified into two basic categories:
– Discrete Models
– Continuum Models

• Discrete Damage Model
– Discrete models are used for the analysis of
monumental structures composed of large
discrete parts, such as stone arches
– The discrete large elements of the structure
are assumed to behave fully elastically, while
th b
the behavior
h i off th the contact
t t iinterface
t f b
between
t
them is assumed to be described by a
unilateral friction law

222

• Continuum Damage Model
– Continuum models are used for masonry structures composed of
a combination of bricks or stones and mortar at their interfaces of
contact
– The mechanical behavior of the continuum models can be
described by a stress-strain law, which is derived from a one-
phase or a two-phase model of the masonry material.
– The one-phase models consider the masonry as consisting of a
single material, while the two phase models take into account
the different inelastic behavior between the components of the
masonry (brick or stone and mortar)
– One-phase models are much simpler than the two-phase ones
and for this reason they can be very successfully used for the
analysis of three-dimensional structures of large size and great
geometrical complexity.
Continuum Damage Model

• The theory of continuum damage
mechanics attempts to model
macroscopically the progressive
mechanical degradation of any quasi-
brittle material under different stages of
loading
• It is assumed that the process is governed
by a damage index d, which physically
represents the net area of a unit surface of
the body, cut by a given plane, i.e. the
area without existing cracks and cavities

223

• By assuming homogeneous distribution of
micro voids and invoking the hypothesis of strain
micro-voids
equivalence, the total stress tensor, σ, is
represented as
• Wh
Where, σ iis th
the effective
ff ti stress
t tensor
t for
f the
th
undamaged material, while the damage index d
takes values between 0 (undamaged state) and
1 (full loss of material coherence).

Procedural framework in 3D FE Analysis
• At every load step and at each Gauss integration point of
an element, the strain and effective stress vectors
are computed by:
_
{ε } = [ B].{u} , {σ } = [ D].{ε }
Where, {u} is the displacement vector, [B] the matrix of

partial derivatives of the interpolation functions, and [D]
the elasticity material property matrix.

224

• Then, principal
_ strains ε i and principal effective
stresses σ i (i(i=1,3)
1,3) will be computed.
• From the above principal magnitudes, the corresponding
effective strains < ε i >, > ε i <, and effective <σ i >, > σ i <
_ _
are computed by the formulas:
< xi >= ( xi + | xi |) / 2 , > xi <= ( xi − | xi |) / 2 , i = 1,3

_
Setting x i = ε i or σ i , respectively.

• Afterwards, the total equivalent strains
defined as
as,
~+ 3 ~− 3
ε = Σ < ε i >2 , ε = Σ < ε i >2
i =1 i =1
^+ max(< ε i >) ^+ min(> ε i <)

ε = 3
,ε = 3
Σ < εi > Σ > εi <
i =1 i =1
Where subscripts “+” and “-” are referred to tension and

compression, respectively.

225

• The equivalent strains of the strain tensor are defined as:
+
ε i = [(1 + v) < σ i > −vΣ < σ i >] / E , i = 1,3
−
ε i = [(1 + v) < σ i > −vΣ < σ i >] / E , i = 1,3
• From the above parameters, the following can be
computed.
+ + − + + −
H i = 1 iff ε i = ε i + ε i ≥ 0 andd H i = 0 iff ε i = ε i + ε i < 0
− + − + + −
H i = 1 if ε i = ε i + ε i ≤ 0 and H i = 0 if ε i = ε i + ε i > 0

• The following parameters are defined as:
+ 3 + + + − ~+ ~+ + ~+
k = [∑ H i ε i (ε i + ε i )] /(ε ) if ε ≠ 0 or k = 0 if ε = 0
i =1
+ 3 − + + − ~− ~+ − ~+
k = [∑ H i ε i (ε i + ε i )] /(ε ) if ε ≠ 0 or k = 0 if ε = 0
i =1
• From the above following strain parametersare

computed from
+ −
2k + + k − k+ + k−
α = min( ,1) , α = min( ,1)
2k + k+

226

• Compute the tensile and compressive stress norms by
_+ _ _
τ = {< σ >}T [ D]−1{< σ >} for tensile stress norms
_− _ − _
τ = 3 ( K σ oct + τ ) for compressive stress norms
+
K = 2 (1 − Ro ) /(1 − 2 Ro ) , Ro = f c−( 2 D ) / f c−(1D )
where : f c−(1D ) is the uniaxial compressive strengths
f c−( 2 D ) is the biaxial compressive strengths

• Then, the damage threshold values are
computed
t d as ffollows:
ll
+ −
ft 2 Ro
ro = , ro = f0
E 3 1− 2 Ro
where : f 0 is the elastic lim it of the compressive

227

• The damage evolution laws for the two damage indices
are given by _ + _−
+ τ + τ
A + (1− ) B _ (1− )
r0 r0 + r0 − r0 −
d = 1− _+ e , d = 1 − _ + (1 − A ) − e
τ τ
where :
A+ , A− , B + are parameters depending on material properties such as
compresive strengths, f t , f c , fracture energy, G f , the Young Modulus
of Elasticity , E , and the characteristics length l.

• Finally, the unification of the two damage
i di
indices iinto
t one iis made
d b by
+ −
d = α d +α d + −
• Using this final damage index, the total

stress tensor σ is computed.

228

• Limit damage surface and uniaxial stress-
strain
t i curve for
f the
th FOM Model.
M d l
NUMERICAL MODELLING
• Masonry is a material exhibiting distinct
di ti
directionall properties,
ti owing
i tto th
the mortar
t
joints, which act as planes of weakness
• In general, the approach towards its
numerical representation may focus on
– the micro
micro-modeling
modeling of the individual
components, i.e. unit (brick, block, etc.) and
mortar, or
– the macro-modeling of masonry as a
composite

229
MODELLING
Modeling strategies for masonry

masonr str
structures:
ct res
(a) detailed micro-modeling; (b) simplified
micro-modeling; and (c) macro-modeling
MODELLING
• Depending on the level of accuracy and the simplicity
desired, it is p
possible to use the following
g modeling
g
strategies
– detailed micro-modeling-units and mortar in the joints
are represented by continuum elements whereas the
unit–mortar interface is represented by discontinuum
elements
– simplified micro-modeling - expanded units are
represented by continuum elements whereas the
behavior of the mortar joints and unit–mortar interface
is lumped in discontinuum elements;
– macro-modeling - units, mortar and unit–mortar
interface are smeared out in a homogeneous
continuum

230
MODELLING
• In the first approach, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio
and, optionally, inelastic properties of both unit and
mortar are taken into account
• The interface represents a potential crack/slip plane with
initial dummy stiffness to avoid interpenetration of the
continuum. This enables the combined action of unit,
mortar and interface to be studied under magnification.
• In the second approach
approach, each joint
joint, consisting of mortar
and the two unit–mortar interfaces, is lumped into an
average interface while the units are expanded in order
to keep the geometry unchanged.
• Masonry is thus considered as a set of elastic blocks
bonded by potential fracture/slip lines at the joints.
MODELLING
• The third approach does not distinguish between
individual units and jjoints, but treats masonry
y as a
homogeneous anisotropic continuum.
• One modeling strategy cannot be preferred over the
other because different application fields exist for micro-
and macro-models.
• Micro-modeling studies are necessary to give a better
understanding about the local behavior of masonry
structures
structures.
• This type of modeling applies notably to structural
details. Macro-models are applicable when the structure
is composed of solid walls with sufficiently large
dimensions that the stresses across or along a macro-
length will be essentially uniform

231
Structural Component Models
(a) wall with openings; (b) lumped parameters; (c) beam elements;
and (d) macro-elements (rigid or deformable)
Micro Modeling Vs Experimental

232
Structural Component Models

• Macro modeling is more practice-oriented,
owing
i tto th
the reduced
d d titime and
d memory
requirements as well as a user-friendly
mesh generation.
• This type of modeling is most valuable
when a compromise between accuracy
and efficiency is needed.
Infilled Masonry Frames

• Simplified collapse load analysis can be
carried out for the analysis of infilled
masonry frames.
• Rigorous non linear behavior of the
structural elements may be included,
based on the use of curved three-
dimensional members of variable cross-cross
section to analyze spatial skeletal
structures, with elasto-plastic behavior in
the compressive range and elastic–brittle
tensile response

233
FRAMED MASONRY WALLS

• Mortar is usually the weak plane of the
masonry structure
t t andd crackk is
i ffrequently
tl
initiated from there.
• The cracking of the mortar and separation
of the bricks usually cause discontinuous
and nonlinear behavior.
• The failure modes of mortar are classified
into two types—tensile failure and shear
failure.
Modes of Failure
• Shear cracking of the masonry
• Elongation of the reinforced concrete
members
• Beam-column joint failure
• Shear failure of the columns

234
Shear Cracking of Masonry

• Cracking in the masonry panel due to shear stresses is a
very common type of failure observed in infilled frame
buildings affected by earthquakes.
• This type of failure is mainly controlled by the shear
strength of the mortar joints, the tensile strength of the
masonry units and the relative values of the shear and
normal stress.
• Depending on these parameters,
parameters the combination of
shear stresses with vertical axial stresses can produce
either cracks crossing the masonry units or debonding
along the mortar joints (also termed as shear friction
failure).
Shear Cracking of Masonry

• The cracks usually develop following a stepped pattern
along the diagonal direction.
• Shear cracking does not necessarily represent a failure
condition provided that the cracked panel is restrained
by the surrounding frame and the shear distortion is
controlled.
• The formation of diagonal cracks is regarded only as a
serviceability limit state.
state
• For hollow masonry, however, cracking of the masonry
units can produce the failure of the structure

235
Elongation of the RC Members

• The longitudinal bars of reinforced concrete members
can yyield in tension with significant
g ductility
y
• However, this is not convenient in infilled frame
structures because the excessive elongation of the
frame members reduces the beneficial effect of the
frame, which restrains the shear distortion of the
masonry wall.
• Consequently, the columns and beams of the
surrounding frame should be designed to resist the
tensile axial forces resulting from seismic actions without
yielding of the reinforcement
Beam-Column Joint Failure

• High normal and tangential stresses develop along the
contact lengths in the zones near to the loaded corners,
resulting in large shear forces and bending moments
• The stress state induced in these beam-column joints
may cause the formation of wide diagonal cracks running
across the joint from the interior to the exterior corner
• Minor attention has been given to this mode of failure,
even though it has been observed in different
investigations

236
Beam-Column Joint Failure

• The failure of the beam-column joint causes unfavorable
effects in the behavior of infilled frames, because the
lateral forces cannot be transferred from the floor beam
to the columns and the masonry panel.
• Furthermore, the formation of diagonal cracks causes
the opening of the joint
• Therefore, the contact length at the loaded corners and
the width of the equivalent strut decrease
decrease, resulting in an
increase of the stresses in the masonry panel
Shear Failure of Columns

• The columns can fail due to the shear forces resulting
from the interaction with the infill panel
• The maximum shear forces occur along the contact
length, near the loaded corners
• Sliding shear failure is a particular case which can occur
at the top of the columns, close to the beam face, as a
result of the unfavorable combination of shear and
tensile axial forces.
forces

237
General Conclusions
• All the numerical techniques have advantages and shortcomings
• Consider cost, the need for experienced users/engineers, the level
of accuracy required, the availability of input data, the need for
validation and the use of the results.
• Advanced modelling is a necessary means for understanding the
behaviour and damage of complex structures, but this is less
effective for designing strengthening.
• Prefer simplicity over complexity and adopt an analysis tool, that can
be validated and assessed
• It is better to model structural parts than complete structures;
• Avoid use of full-structure three-dimensional models unless it is
necessary
• Numerical models can be used as a numerical laboratory, where the
sensitivity of the results to input material parameters, boundary
conditions and actions is studied and compared for understanding of
in situ testing and monitoring.
Questions and Discussions

238

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