Optoelectronics

EE/OPE 451, OPT 444

Fall 20XX Section 1:
John D. Williams, Ph.D.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
406 Optics Building - UAHuntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899
Ph. (256) 824-2898 email: williams@eng.uah.edu
Office Hours:

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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Course Textbook and Topics Covered

• Ch. 1: Wave Nature of Light

• Ch. 2: Dielectric Waveguides
– Sections 2.1 and 2.2 only
• Ch. 3: Semiconductor Science and Light
Emitting Diodes
• Ch. 4: Stimulated Emission Devices
– Sections 4.9- 4.14 only
• Ch. 5: Photodetectors
• Ch. 7: Photovoltaic Devices
• Ch. 8: Polarization and Modulation of Light

Prentice-Hall Inc.
© 2001 S.O. Kasap
ISBN: 0-201-61087-6
http://photonics.usask.ca/
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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Additional Supportive Material
• The breadth of this course is larger than a single textbook
• Certain sections will have added material presented in class from the following
textbooks

Fundamentals of Photonics Optoelectroncics: infrared-Visible-UV Photonics: Optical Electronics in

ISBN-13: 978-0-471-35832-9 Devices and Applications 2nd ed. Modern Communications, 6th ed.
John Wiley & Sons ISBN: 9781420067804 ISBN: 978-0-19-517946-0
CRC Press Oxford University Press
• Photonics reads more like an encyclopedia than a textbook but has some nice
applications and diagrams
• Optoelectronics covers current device concepts but lacks on theory
• Students will be tested on material from Kasap

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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Course Programmatics
• Course will be taught on slides posted on Angel after each class
– Students are expected to take their own notes based on class presentation
– Figures and key points will be provided after on slides
• Additional material from each subject topic will be posted on Angel as optional
reading for anyone interested
• Course will focus on key concepts and equations that describe them
– First principle derivations will NOT be required unless they are critical for student
development
– Most homework and test assignments will can be answered by understanding the question
and applying a formula
• Class project (25% of the total grade)
– Students will be asked to work in teams to research a particular topic in
optoelectronics
– Teams will turn in a term paper no less than 10 pages (1½ space)
– Teams will present the topic in 8 min presentations
• Homework will be due at the beginning of class every Tuesday (15%)
• Two in class exams and 1 comprehensive final (60%)

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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Introduction to Optoelectronics
• Definition of Optoelectronics
– Sub field of photonics in which
voltage driven devices are used
to create, detect, or modulate
optical signals using quantum
mechanical effects of light on
www.udt.com
semiconductors materials http://www.led.scale-

– Examples of optoelectronic
train.com/blue0603led.php

devices 240 Optical components on a chip –

Infinera Wavelength Multiplexer2007
• Photodiode
• LED
• DFB LASER
http://spie.org/x27589.xml?ArticleID=x27589 Opticis.com
• VSCEL
siliconphotmultiplier.com
• Semiconductor Photomultipliers
• Integrated Optical Circuit
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JDW, ECE Fall 2009 http://www.fi.isc.cnr.it/users/giovanni.giacomelli/Semic/Samples/samples.html
 What is Photonics?
• Broader topic than Optoelectronics alone
• Study of wave/particle duality devices in
optics.
– Study of optical devices that utilize photons instead
of the classical electromagnetic wave solution.
– emision, detection, modulation, signal processing,
transmission and amplification of light based on
QM and Solid State principles
• State of the art is the development of light
A.D. Dinsmore, Umass-Amherst 2009
modulation through periodic structure

J. Obrien , USC Photonics Group 2009

L.H. Gabrielli, Nature Photonics 3, 461-463 (2009).
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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Ch. 1: Wave Nature of Light
• 1.1 Light Waves in a Homogeneous Medium
– A. Plane Electromagnetic Wave
– B. Maxwell's Wave Equation and Diverging Waves
• 1.2 Refractive Index
• 1.3 Group Velocity and Group Index
• 1.4 Magnetic Field, Irradiance and Poynting Vector
• 1.5 Snell's Law and Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
• 1.6 Fresnel's Equations
– A. Amplitude Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
– B. Intensity, Reflectance and Transmittance
• 1.7 Multiple Interference and Optical Resonators
• 1.8 Goos-Hänchen Shift and Optical Tunneling
• 1.9 Temporal and Spatial Coherence
• 1.10 Diffraction Principles Prentice-Hall Inc.
– A. Fraunhofer Diffraction
– B. Diffraction grating
© 2001 S.O. Kasap
ISBN: 0-201-61087-6
• Chapter 1 Homework Problems: 1,2, 4-17 http://photonics.usask.ca/
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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Wave Nature of Light
• Plane Electromagnetic Wave
– Treated as time varying electric Ex and magnetic, Hy, fields
– E and H are always perpendicular to each other
– Propagate through space in the z direction
– Simplest representation is a sinusoidal wave (or a Monochromatic plane wave)
Ex  Eo cos(t  kz  o )
Where Ex =electric field at position z at time t,
Eo =amplitude of the electric field
k = wave number (k=2/λ)
λ = wavelength Ex
ω = angular frequency Direction of Propagation k
x
o = phase constant
(t  kz  o ) =  = phase of the wave z z
y
– A planer surface over which the phase By
Hy
of the wave is constant is called a An electromagnetic wave is a travelling wave which has time
wavefront varying electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each
other and the direction of propagation, z.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Wave Fronts
– A planer surface over which the phase of the wave is constant is called a wavefront

Ex  Eo cos(t  kz  o )
E and B have constant phase
in this xy plane; a wavefront
z E
E
k
Propagation
B

Ex
Ex = Eo sin(t–kz)

A plane EM wave travelling along z, has the same E x (or By) at any point in a
given xy plane. All electric field vectors in a given xy plane are therefore in phase.
The xy planes are of infinite extent in the x and y directions.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Optical Field
• Use of E fields to describe light
– We know from Electrodynamics that a time varying H field
results in time varying E fields and vise versa
– Thus all oscillating E fields have a mutually oscillating H field
perpendicular to both the E field and the direction of
propagation
– However, one uses the E field rather than the H field to describe
the system
• It is the E field that displaces electrons in molecules and ions in the
crystals at optical frequencies and thereby gives rise to the
polarization of matter
• Note that the fields are indeed symmetrically linked, but it is the E
field that is most often used to characterize the system

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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Optional Plane Wave Representations
• 1-D solution • General solution
E x  Eo cos(t  kz  o ) E  E (r , t )  Eo cos(t  kz  o )
 
jo j (t  k r )
E x  E ( z , t )  Eo cos(t  kz  o ) E (r , t )  Re[ Eo e e ]
 
j (t  k r )
E (r , t )  Re[ Ec e ]
Since cos( )  Re[ei ]  
Where k  r  k x x  k y y  k z z
E ( z , t )  Re[ Eo e jo e j (t  kz ) ]
E ( z , t )  Re[ Ec e j (t  kz ) ] k = wave vector whose magnitude is 2/λ
y Direction of propagation
k

r E(r,t)
 r
z
O

A travelling plane EM wave along a direction k.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) 11
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Phase Velocity
• For a plane wave, the relationship between time and space for any give
phase, , is constant
(t  kz  o ) =  = constant
• During any time interval, t, this constant phase (and hence maximum
value of E) moves a distance r.
• The phase velocity of the wave is
r dr  2v
v      v
t dt k 2 / 
• The phase difference,  at any given time between two points on a wave
that are separated by a distance z is
2z
  kz  Since ωt is the same for each point

• The fields are said to be in phase if he phase difference is zero if = 0 or
2 multiples of kz with regards to the initial value. 12
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Maxwell’s Wave Eqn. and Diverging Waves
2E 2E
 E   2   r  o o 2
2
E
A
cos(t  kr)
t t r
Wave fronts
(constant phase surfaces) Wave fronts
Wave fronts
k

  P E
k r
P 
O

z
A perfect plane wave A perfect spherical wave A divergent beam
(a) (b) (c)

Examples of possible EM waves

© 1999 S.O. Kasap , Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

• Plane waves emanate from surface of relatively infinite size

– Wavefronts are planes
• A spherical wave emanates from a EM point source whose amplitude
decays with distance
– Wavefronts are spheres centered at the point source
• A divergent beam emanates from a defined surface
– The optical divergence refers to the angular separation of the wave vectors on a given
13
wavefront
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Beam Divergence
• Consider a Gaussian laser emitting from a slab of finite radius (or waist radius) 2wo
• We define the initial waist of the beam as wo
• As the beam moves far enough from the surface such that source no longer looks like
an infinite plane, then the wavefronts begin to diverge at a constant angle
• The half angle of the divergence is 
• The beam diameter, 2w, at any distance z from the origin is defined such that the
cross sectional area of the beam (w2) contains 85% of the total beam power.
• The beam divergence is the angle 2 which is calculated from the waisty
radius
Wave fronts
(b)
Beam divergence x

4 2wo O z Beam axis

2 
 (2wo )
Intensity
(c)
 Gaussian

In radians!!!!!!
(a) r
2w
(a) Wavefronts of a Gaussian light beam. (b) Light intensity across beam cross
section. (c) Light irradiance (intensity) vs. radial distance r from beam axis (z).
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) 14
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example 1
• Consider a HeNe laser beam at 633 nm with a spot size of 10
mm. Assuming a Gaussian beam, what is the divergence of
the beam?
Beam divergence

4 4( 633  10 9
m)
2    8.06  10 5
rad  0.0046 o
 (2wo )  (10 103 m)

• At what distance is the spot size of the diverged beam equal

to 1 m?
0.5 m
0.0046o
z
1m
z  tan 1 (0.0046o )   6227m
2
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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Refractive Index
• Assume an EM wave traveling in a dielectric medium with permittivity  = ro
• EM propagation is equal to the propagation of the polarization in the medium
• During propagation, the induced molecular dipoles become coupled and the
polarization decays the propagation of the EM wave
• ie THE WAVE SLOWS DOWN and the velocity of the wave depends directly on the
permittivity and permeability of the material it is traveling through
• For an EM wave traveling through a nonmagnetic dielectric, the phase velocity of
the wave is:
1
v  From the wave eqn.
 r  o o
1  2
E  2
E  2
E
 2 E  2 2   2   r  o o 2
v t t t
1
• In a vacuum, v = c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s where c 
 o o
• The refractive index, n, is the relative ratio of c/v   r
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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Optical Constants in a medium
• Index of refraction, n = c/v
• Wave vector, kmedium=nk
• Wavelength, λmedium=n λ
• In noncrystalline materials such as glasses and liquids, the material structure is
statistically the same in al directions, and thus n does not depend on direction.
The refractive index is then said to be isotropic
• In crystals the atomic arrangements between atoms often demonstrate different
permittivities in different directions. Such materials are said to be anisotropic
• In general the propagation of an EM field in a solid will depend on the permittivity
of the solid along the k direction.
• Anisotropic permittivities that introduce a relative phase shift along the direction
of propagation have complex terms in the off diagonals terms of the permittivity
matrix and will be the discussion of various device concepts described in Ch. 7

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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Frequency Dependent Permittivity
• Materials do not often demonstrate a single degree of polarization along any one direction
across the entire frequency range.
• In fact the frequency dependence of permittivity is what gives rise to properties such as
absorption within a solid and allows one to see objects in “color”.
• Most materials of optical interest have absorption bands in which the permittivity, and thus
the refractive index, changes drastically. Shifting of these constants by doping the material,
(or adding large magnetic fields) has allowed for the development of bandgap
semiconductors with specific optical properties for optical generation and detection.
• Consider the simplest expression used to calculate the permittivity

 r  1 N /  o
Where N is the number of polarizable molecules per unit volume, and  is the
polarizability per molecule.
If I can inject or remove the relative N value in a solid, then one can change the permittivity
of that solid and therefore its electronic and optical properties.
If the solid is a stack of semiconductor materials with different N values that respond
optically when biased, then one can create an optoelectronic device!!!
If the polarizability, , is frequency dependent (and it is), then our optoelectronic device will
work over a particular frequency range which can be engineered for the spectral band of
interest!!!! 18
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Group Velocity
• First and foremost: THERE ARE NO PERFECT
MONOCHROMATIC WAVES in practice  + 
• There are always bundles of waves with slightly
different frequencies and wave vectors  – 
• Assume the waves travel with slightly different
frequencies, ω+ω and ω - ω Emax Emax k

• The wave vectors are therefore represented by
K + k and k - k
• The combined transform generates a wave Wave packet 
packet oscillating at a mean beat frequency ω
that is amplitude modulated by a slowly time Two slightly different wavelength waves travelling in the same
varying field at ω direction result in a wave packet that has an amplitude variation
which travels at the group velocity.
• The maximum amplitude moves with a wave
vector k © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

• The velocity of the packet is called the group For video of wave packets
velocity and is defined as
with and without v = vg:
d
vg  http://newton.ex.ac.uk/tea
d ching/resources/au/phy11
• The group velocity defines the speed at which 06/animationpages/
the energy is propagated since it defines the
speed of the envelope of the amplitude
variation 19
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example: Group Velocity
 + 

 – 

Emax Emax k


Wave packet 

Two slightly different wavelength waves travelling in the same

direction result in a wave packet that has an amplitude variation
which travels at the group velocity.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

• Resulting wave is:

Ex ( z, t )  Eo cos   t  k  k z   Eo cos   t  k  k z 

• Using the Trig identity:

cos A  cos B  2 cos1 / 2 A  Bcos1 / 2 A  B
• We get:
Ex ( z, t )  2Eo cos t  k z cost  kz

• Maximum field occurs when:

 t  k z   2m
• dz d
Yields velocity:   vg
dt d 20
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Group Index
• Suppose v depends on the λ or K Dispersive medium example: SiO2
 c  2  where n = n(λ)
  vk     1.49

 n    1.48
• By definition, the group velocity is then
Ng
d c c 1.47
vg   
dk dn Ng 1.46
n n
d 1.45
• We define Ng as the group index of the
medium. 1.44
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
• We now have a way to determine the effect
Wavelength (nm)
of the medium on the group velocity at
different wavelengths (frequency Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure
dependence!!!) SiO 2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
• The refractive index, n, and group index, Ng,
depend on the permittivity of the material, r • Ng and n are frequency (wavelength) dependent
• We define a dispersive medium is a medium • Notice the minima for Ng at 1300 nm.
in which both the group and phase velocities • Ng is wavelength independent near 1300
depend on the wavelength. nm
• All materials are said to be dispersive over • Light at 1300 nm travels through SiO2 at
particular frequency ranges the same group velocity without
21
dispersion
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example: Effects of a Dispersive Medium
• Consider 1 um wavelength light propagating through SiO2
• At this wavelength, Ng and n are both frequency dependent with no
local minima
• Thus the medium is dispersive
• Now we must ask the question, are the group and phase velocities of
the propagating wave packet the same?

• Phase Velocity
1.49
dz c  m m
v    3x108  / 1.450  2.069 x108 1.48
dt n  s s Ng
1.47

• Group Velocity 1.46

n

d c  m m 1.45

vg     3x108  / 1.463  2.051x108

dk Ng  s s 1.44
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Wavelength (nm)
• Answer: NO!!!!
Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure
The group velocity is 0.9% slower than the phase velocity SiO 2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

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JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Energy Flow in EM Waves
• Let us recall that there is indeed a B field in the EM wave.
• Recall from electrostatics that
c
E x  vBy  B y
n
• where v   r  o o 
1
Speed of light in the medium
n r

• As the EM wave propagates along the direction k, there is an energy flow in that direction
– Electrostatic energy density 1   E 2
r o x
2 Where both these values are equal
– Magnetostatic energy density 1 B y2   o H y2
2o 2
• The Energy flow per unit time per unit area, S, is defined as the Poynting Vector
    Avt   r  o E x2
S  Eo  H o 
   
 v  r  o E x2  v 2 r  o E x By
At
 2   2   c2 n2    
S  v  r  o E  B  v  r  o o E  H  2 2 E  H  E  H
n c
 Irradiance
• Magnitude of the Pointing Vector is called the irradiance
• Note that because we are discussing sinusoidal waveforms, that the instantaneous irradiance
of light propagating in phase is taken from the instantaneous amplitude of E and B
respectively
S  v  r  o E x By
2

• Instantaneous irradiance can only be measured if the power meter responds more quickly
than the electric field oscillations.
• As one might imagine, at optical frequencies, all practice measurements are made using the
average irradiance.
1
• The average irradiance is I  S avg  S  v r  o Eo2
2
1c 1  m
  r  o Eo2  cn o Eo2  1.33 108 nEo2
2n 2  s
1 2 1 2  
 v  r  o Eo Bo  v  r  o o E  H
2 2
1 c
2
  1 c 2 n2   1  
  r o o E  H  2 2 E  H  E  H
2 n2 2n c 2
 Example: Electric and Magnetic Fields in Light

• The intensity (irradiance) of the red laser from a He-Ne laser at a certain location was
measured to about 1mW/cm2.
• What are the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields?

2I 2(110 3 10 4Wm 2 ) V

Eo    87
cn o  8 m
1.33 10 n  1
m
 s
Bo  Eo / c  0.29T
• What are the magnitudes if this beam is in a glass medium with refractive index 1.45?

2I 2(110 3 10 4Wm 2 ) V

Eo    72
cn o  8 m
1.33 10 1.45
m
 s Note: the relative amplitude of E
Bo  nEo / c  0.35T decreased, and B (H) increased
and thus the polarized wave
became more ellipsoidal 25
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Snell’s Law
At
• Neglect absorption and emission
t
• Light interfacing with a surface boundary will kt
reflect back into the medium and transmit Refracted Light
Bt
through the second medium
A
• Transmitted wave is called refracted light y
• The angles i, r, and t define the direction of t t
n2
the wave normal to the interface. z A B
O n1
• The wave vectors are defined as ki, kr, and kt
i r i r
• At any interface, I = r
A B
• Snell’s Law States
ki
sin  i  v1 n2  

 
sin  t  v2 n1 kr
Ai Br

Incident Light Bi Ar Reflected Light

A light wave travelling in a medium with a greater refractive index ( n1 > n2) s uffers
reflection and refraction at the boundary.
26
JDW, ECE Fall 2009 © 1999 S.O. Kas ap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Total Internal Reflection
• If n1 > n2 then transmitted angle > incidence angle.
• When t =90o, then the incidence angle is called the critical angle
sin  c   2
n
n1
• When i > c there is
– no transmitted wave in medium
– Total internal reflection occurs
– an evanescent wave propagates along the boundary (i.e. high loss electric field
propagating along the surface)
Transmitted
(refract ed) light
kt
t n2 Evanescent w ave
n 1 > n2
ki i i kr c c i >c
TIR
Incident Reflected
light light
(a) (b) (c)

Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dens e medium. Depending on
the incidence angle with respect to  c, which is determined by the ratio of the refractive
indices , the wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected. (a) i < c (b)  i = c (c) i
>  c and total internal reflection (TIR).

© 1999 S.O. Kas ap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) 27

JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Fresnel’s Equations (1)
• Amplitude Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
– Transverse Electric Field (TE) waves if Ei, Er, and Et
– Transverse Magnetic Field (TM) waves if Ei, Er , and Et 
 
j ( t  k i  r )
– Incident wave Ei  Eio e
 
j ( t  k r  r )
– Reflected Wave Er  Eroe y
Et, T ransmitt ed wave
  kt n2
j (t  kt r )
– Transmitted Wave Et  Eto e z
t
Et,
t=90°
Et, Evanescent wave
ki
x into paper
i r Ei,// i r n1 > n 2
Ei,// Er, Er,
– Boundary Conditions Ei, kr Ei,
Er,// Er,//
• Etangential (1) = Etangential (2) Incident Reflected Incident Reflected
wave wave
• Btangential (1) = Btangential (2) wave wave
(a) i < c then some of the wave (b) i >  c then the incident wave
– Applying the boundary conditions to the is transmitted into the less dense suffers total internal reflection.
medium. Some of the wave is However, there is an evanescent
equations above yields amplitudes of reflected. wave at the surface of the medium.
reflected and transmitted waves. These
Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. The plane of
equations were first derived by Fresnel incidence is the plane of the paper and is perpendicular to the flat interface between the
two media. The electric field is normal to the direction of propagation . It can be resolved
into perpendicular ( ) and parallel (//) components 28
JDW, ECE Fall 2009 © 1999 S.O. Kasap,Optoelectronics(Prentice Hall)
 Fresnel’s Equations (2)
• Define n = n2/n1 as the relative refractive index of the system
• Refection and transmission coefficients for E are
Ero cos  i  n  sin  i
2 2
r   These equations allow one to calculate
Eio cos  i  n 2  sin 2  i the amplitude and phases of light
Eto 2 cos  i propagating through different media
t  
Eio cos  i  n 2  sin 2  i
• Refection and transmission coefficients for EII are
Ero n 2  sin 2  i  n 2 cos  i
r   If we let Eio be real, then the phase angles
Eio n 2  sin 2  i  n 2 cos  i of r and t  correspond to the phase
Eto 2n cos  i changes measured with respect to the
t   incident wave
Eio n 2  sin 2  i  n 2 cos  i
• These coefficients are related by the following two equations

r  nt  1 r  1  t
29
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Internal Reflection
• Light traveling from a more dense medium Magnitude of reflection coefficients Phase changes in degrees
c
into a less dense one ( n2 < n1 ) 1 180
TIR

• Critical angle 0.9 (a)

120
(b)
0.8
sin  c   2 
n 1
0.7
60

n1 1.44 0.6 p
0.5 0
 c  44o 0.4
| r |
c
60
0.3 //
• For n2 < n1 at i = 0 0.2 p
| r // | 20
n1  n2 0.1
r  r  0 80
n1  n2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incidence angle, i
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incidence angle, i
• This value is always positive, meaning that Internal reflection: (a) Magnitude of the reflection coefficients r// and r
the reflective wave undergoes no phase vs. angle of incidence  i for n1 = 1.44 and n2 = 1.00. The critical angle is
change prior to r going to zero 44°. (b) The corresponding phase changes // and  vs. incidence angle.
• Brewster’s Angle = Polarization angle = p © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rentice Hall)

is the angle at which r becomes zero and • Reflected waves at angles greater than p
TE/TM polarization begins to occur are linearly polarized because they
tan p  
n2 1 contain field oscillations that are

n1 1.44 contained within a well defined plane
 p  35o perpendicular to the plane of incidence
30
JDW, ECE Fall 2009 AND the plane of propagation
 Phase Change in TIR
• For p < i < c, Fresnel’s eqn. gives r < 0.
Predicts a phase shift of 180o
• For i ≥ c, Fresnel’s eqn. gives r and r = 1 TIR =
such that the reflected wave has the same Total Internal Reflection
amplitude as the incident wave and TIR
occurs
Magnitude of reflection coefficients Phase changes in degrees
• For i > c we have r = 1, but the phase c
change,   and   are derived from 1
(a)
180
TIR
0.9 (b)
0.8 120

1  sin 2  i  n 2 0.7
60

tan    0.6 p
2  cos  i 0.5 0
0.4 c
| r | 60
1   sin  i  n 0.3 //
2 2
tan     0.2 p
| r // | 20
2 2 n 2 cos  i 0.1
0 80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Phase change in TIR Incidence angle, i Incidence angle, i

Transmitted light does
NOT experience a phase shift
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Internal reflection: (a) Magnitude of the reflection coefficients r// and r
vs. angle of incidence  i for n1 = 1.44 and n2 = 1.00. The critical angle is
44°. (b) The corresponding phase changes // and  vs. incidence angle.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rentice Hall) 31
 Evanescent Waves
• When i ≥ c there must still be an electric field in medium 2 or the boundary conditions will
not be satisfied
• The field in medium 2 is an evanescent wave that travels along the boundary edge at the
same speed as the incident wave and dissipates into the 2nd medium

Et  ( y, z , t )  e  2 y e j (t  kiz  z )
kiz  ki sin  i evanescent wave vector
2
2n2  n1 
2    sin 2  i  1 attenuation coefficient
  n2 
• The penetration depth of the electric field into medium 2 is

  1  Et =e-1
2

32
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 External Reflection
• Light traveling from a less dense medium
into a more dense one ( n2 > n1 )
1
• At normal incidence, both Fresnel External reflection
0.8
coefficients for r and r are negative
0.6
• External reflection for TM and TE at 0.4
p r//
normal incidence generates a 180 degree 0.2
phase shift. This phase shift is observed 0
at all angles for TE waves and up to p for -0.2
TM waves -0.4
• Also, r goes through zero at the -0.6
r
Brewster angle, p -0.8
-1
• At p the reflected wave is polarized in 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
the E component only. Thus Light
Incidence angle, i
incident at p or higher in angle does not
generate a phase shift in reflection for The reflection coefficients r// and r vs. angle
TM waves. of incidence i for n1 = 1.00 and n2 = 1.44.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
• Transmitted light in both internal and
external reflection does NOT experience
a phase shift 33
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example: Evanescent Wave
• TIR from a boundary n1 > n2 generates an evanescent wave in medium 2 near the boundary
• Describe the evanescent wave characteristics and its penetration into medium 2

j (t  kt r )
Et   t Eio e
2
2n2  n1 
kt A2   2    sin 2  i  1
  n2 
kt  r  yk t cos  t  zkt sin  t
Penetration depth
sin  t   n1  sin  i  1   1
 n2 
2
Apply Snell’s
Law at c > i
cos  t  1  sin 2  t   jA2 Additionally, TIR allows us to calculate t
Eto  2 cos  i
j (t  zkt sin t  jykt A2 ) t  
Et   t Eio  e Eio  2
n 
cos  i   2   sin 2  i
Et   t Eio  e  ykt A2 e j (t  zkt sint )  n1 
t   to  e  j Complex transmission value with
For TIR imaginary phase constant 
kt sin  t  ki sin  i  k z
Et   t Eio e  ykt A2 e j (t k z z ) 34
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example: Internal Reflection
• Reflection of light from a less dense medium
• Wave is traveling in a glass of index n1 = 1.450
• Wave becomes incident on a less dense medium of index n2 = 1.430

sin  c  
n2 1.430
• What is the minimum incidence angle for TIR?  c  80.47o
n1 1.450

• What is the phase change in the reflected wave at an incidence angle of 85 degrees?
2

sin  i  n
2
 
sin 85  
 1.43 
o

  
2 2
 1.45     116.45o
tan     1.61447
 2 cos  i cos 85o 
 ||    sin 2 i  n 2 1   ||  62.1o
tan    2 tan  
 2  n cos  i
2
n  2

• What is the penetration depth of the evanescent wave into medium 2 when the incidence
angle is 85o? 2
2n2  n1 
2    sin 2  i  1  1.28 106 / m
  n2 
  1  7.8 10 7 m 35
2
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Intensity, Reflectance, and Transmittance
• Relative (%) intensity of the reflected light traveling through the media – Reflectance
2
2
Ero Ero|| 2
R   r
2
R||  2
 r||
2
Eio Eio||

2
n n 
R  R  R||   1 2 
 n1  n2 
• Relative (%) intensity of the transmitted light traveling through the media – Transmittance
2 2
n2 Eto n  2 n2 Eto|| n 
T    2  t 
2
2 T||    2  t||
 n1 
2
n1 Eio  n1 Eio||  n1 
4n1n2
T  T  T|| 
n1  n2 2
• Sum of the transmittance and reflectance in any conserved system must equal 1

R T  1
36
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example: Internal and External Reflection
• Light propagates at normal incidence from air, n = 1, to glass with a refractive index of 1.5.
What is the reflection coefficient and the reflectance w.r.t to the incident beam?

n1  n2 1  1.5
r  r    0.2 2
R||  r||  0.04 or 4%
n1  n2 1  1.5

• Light propagates at normal incidence from glass, n = 1.5, to air with a refractive index of 1.0.
What is the reflection coefficient and the reflectance w.r.t to the incident beam?
n1  n2 1.5  1
r  r    0.2 2
R||  r||  0.04 or 4%
n1  n2 1.5  1
• What is the polarization angle of the in the external reflection for the air to glass interface
described by the first question above? How would one make a polaroid device (device that
polarizes light based on the polarization angle)?

tan p  
n2 At an incidence angle of 56.3o the reflected light will be polarized with
 1.5
n1 an E to the plane of incidence. Transmitted light will be partially
polarized. By using a stack of N glass plates, one can increase the
 p  56.3o
polarization of the transmitted light by a factor of N
37
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Reflectance at Different Angles of Incidence

• Light propagates at 30o incidence from air, n = 1, to glass with a refractive index of 1.5. What
is the reflection coefficient and the reflectance w.r.t to the incident beam?

n1
sin  i  sin  t Ero cos i  n  sin i
2 2
Snell’s Law r  
n2 Eio cos i  n 2  sin 2 i
t = 19.5o

replace n1  n1 cos  i
n2  n2 cos  t
cos  i  0.866
cos  t  0.943

n1  n2 0.866  1.414 2
r  r    0.24 R||  r||  0.058 or 5.8%
n1  n2 0.866  1.414

38
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example: Antireflection Coatings on Solar Cells

• When light is incident on a semiconductor it becomes partially reflected

• This is important because it the transmitted light traveling into the solar cell is absorbed and
converted to electrical energy
• Assume the refractive index of Silicon is 3.5 between 700 - 800 nm
• Calculate the reflectance of the silicon surface in air
 1  3.5 
2

R   0.309 or 30.9%

 1  3.5 
• This means there is a 30.9% loss in efficiency even before the light enters the silicon solar cell
• If one coats the solar cell with a thin layer of electric material such as Si3N4 (silicon nitride)
that has an intermediate refractive index of 1.9, then we can reduce the loss
d
n1 n2 n3

A
B

Surface Antireflection Semiconductor of

coating photovoltaic device

Illustration of how an antireflection coating reduces the

reflected light intensity 39
JDW, ECE Fall 2009 © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Example: Antireflection Coatings on Solar Cells
• Note that in order for this concept to work the thickness of the antireflective layer must be
matched to the wavelength of the light transmitted
– We are dealing with external reflection, thus reflected light off of all normal interfaces is
180o out of phase with incident light
– Phase matching must be accomplished between the light reflecting from the air/coating
interface and the light reflected from coating/silicon interface
– The phase difference in the system is equivalent to k2(2d) where k2 = n2k=2n2 /λ
– Phase matching occurs when k2(2d) = m

 2n2   d  m  
 2d  m  4n 
    2
– Thus the thickness of the coating must be multiples of the quarter wavelength of light
propagating through it.

– Also, to obtain a good degree of destructive interference, the amplitudes of the A and B
waves must be comparable. Thus we need n2  n1n3
– This yields a reflection coefficient between the air and coating that is equal to that
between the coating and the semiconductor. In our case n2 should equal 1.87 which is
close to that of Si3N4 at 1.9. 40
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example: Antireflection Coatings on Solar Cells

– Also, to obtain a good degree of destructive

interference, the amplitudes of the A and B waves
must be comparable. Thus we need
n2  n1n3 n1
d
n2 n3

– This yields a reflection coefficient between the air and A

coating that is equal to that between the coating and B
the semiconductor. In our case n2 should equal 1.87 Surface Antireflection Semiconductor of
which is close to that of Si3N4 at 1.9. coating photovoltaic device

 1  1.9   1.9  3.5 

2 2
Illustration of how an antireflection coating reduces the
RA     0.096 RB     0.0877 reflected light intensity
 1  1.9   1.9  3.5  © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

– Thus about 10% of light is now reflected off of the

coating surface and another 10% is reflected from the
silicon. Of the second 10%, about 10% of that is
reflected back from the air/nitride interface onto the
silicon again. So the total gain optical gain acquired
through use of the antireflective coating is about 10%.
41
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Example: Dielectric Mirrors
• Dielectric mirror – stack of dielectrics with alternating refractive indices
• The thickness of each layer is a quarter wavelength: λ/(4ni) = λi /4
• Reflected waves from the interfaces interfere constructively to generate a highly reflective
coating over a optical wavelength range centered at λo
• The reflection coefficient for a particular boundary is similar to that calculated previously
2
 ni  n j 
Rij    , j  i 1
n n 
 i j 
• Thus the reflection coefficients using values of i and j alternate throughout the mirror
• After several alternating reflectances, the transmission becomes exceedingly small and light
is reflected back from the surface at values near unity (1).
1/4 2/4 Reflectance


A
B
C
1 2 1 2   (nm)
n1 n2 n1 n2 330 550 770
o
Schematic illus tration of the principle of the dielectric mirror with many low and high
refractive index layers and its reflectance. 42
JDW, ECE Fall 2009 © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rent ice Hall)
 Multiple Interference and Optical Resonators

• Optical resonator stores energy or filters light only at certain frequencies

• Built by aligning two flat mirrors parallel to one another with free space in between them
• Reflections between mirror surfaces M1 and M2 lead to constructive and destructive
interference the cavity
• This leads to stationary (or standing) EM waves in the cavity

Relative intensity
M1 M2 m=1
A 1 f R ~ 0. 8
m=2 R ~ 0. 4
 m
B
L m=8 
m - 1 m m + 1
(a) (b) (c)

Schematic illus tration of the Fabry-Perot optical cavity and its properties. (a) Reflected
waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain wavelengths are allowed
in the cavity. (c) Intens ity vs. frequency for various modes. R is mirror reflectance and
lower R means higher loss from the cavity.
© 1999 S.O . Kas ap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
43
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Multiple Interference and Optical Resonators

• Since the electric field at the mirrors must be zero, we can only fit integer multiples of
half wavelengths into the cavity of length L

m L m  1,2,3...
2
• Each cavity mode is defined by the m value, or the number of the half wavelengths that
constructively interfering within the cavity.
• Resonant frequencies are the beat oscillation frequencies resonant in the cavity
Relative intensity
M1 M2 m=1
c
vm  m  mv f A 1 f R ~ 0. 8
2L m=2 R ~ 0. 4
 m
c
vf  B
2L L m=8 
m - 1 m m + 1
• Free spectral range (a) (b) (c)

vm  vm1  vm  v f
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
Schematic illus tration of the Fabry-Perot optical cavity and its properties. (a) Reflected
waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain wavelengths are allowed
in the cavity. (c) Intens ity vs. frequency for various modes. R is mirror reflectance and
lower R means higher loss from the cavity.
44
© 1999 S.O . Kas ap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Fabry-Perot Optical Resonator
• Simple optical cavity that stores radiation energy only at certain frequencies
• Assume a wave A travels within the cavity and is reflected back and forth as wave B.
• The field and intensity of the cavity are:
A
Ecavity  A  Ar 2e 2 jkL  Ar 4 j 4kL  Ar 6e6kL  ... Ecavity 
1  r 2e  jkL
2 Io Io
I  Ecavity  I max 
( I  R)  4 R sin 2 (kL)
2
( I  R) 2
• Spectral width of the cavity: vf  R
vm  F
F 1 R
Where F is called the Finesse of the cavity which is the ratio of mode separation to spectral
width. Thus as losses decrease, finesse increases. Also larger finesses lead to sharper
mode peaks
Partially reflecting plates
Transmitted light

(1  R) 2
Input light Output light I trans  I incident
( I  R) 2  4 R sin 2 (kL)

L 
m - 1 m
Fabry-Perot etalon

Transmitted light through a Fabry-Perot optical cavity.

45
JDW, ECE ©Fall
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
2009
 Resonator Modes with Spectral Width

• Consider a Fabry-Perot optical cavity of air length = 100 microns with mirrors that have a 0.9
reflectance.
• Calculate the cavity mode nearest to 900 nm.

m
2L


2 100 10 6 m 222.22
 900 10 9 m
m  

2 L 2 100 10 6 m 
 900.90nm
m 222

• Calculate the separation of the modes and the spectral width of each mode.
c 3 108 m / s
vm  v f    1.5 1012 Hz
 6
2 L 2 100 10 m 
 R  0.9
F   29.8
1  R 1  0.9
v
vm  f  5.03 1010 Hz
F
c 
 m  2
vm  m vm  0.136nm ½ bandwidth of resonator output
vm c

46
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Optical Tuning
Reflected
B = Low refractive index
Reflected
transparent film ( n 2)
B Virtual reflecting plane
n2 light
y
n1
Penetration depth,  n2 n1 FT IR Incident
T IR n1
z i > c light
n 1 > n2 i > c
i r T ransmitted
A Incident
z A light (b)
(a) C A
Incident Reflected Glass prism
light light

The reflected light beam in total internal reflection appears to have been laterally s hifted by (a) A light incident at the long face of a glas s pris m suffers TIR; the prism deflects the
an amount z at the interface. light.
(b) Two pris ms separated by a thin low refractive index film forming a beam-splitter cube.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rentice Hall) The incident beam is s plit into two beams by FTIR.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rentice Hall)

• Use concept of penetration depth

y associated with evanescent waves
C n1
n2 d
• Frustrated Total Internal Reflection (FTIR)
B
A n1 > n2
z occurs when the thickness of the n2
i r
medium is thinner than the penetration
depth allowing the wave to partially
Incident Reflected
light light transmit through medium
When medium B is thin (thickness d is small), the field penetrates to • Yields partial transmission into a TIR
the BC interface and gives rise to an attenuated wave in medium C.
The effect is the tunnelling of the incident beam in A through B to C.
interface
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rent ice Hall) • Transmitted beam contains some intensity,
thus R is reduced below 1 47
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Temporal and Spatial Coherence
Amplitude
 
P Q
(a)
• Partial coherence is defined by the ability Time 

Amplitude
to predict the phase of any portion of the t l = ct
wave from any other portion (b)

Time Space

• Temporal coherence measures the extent Field = 1/t

at which two points on the wave are (c)

P
Q Amplitude
Time
separated in time 

• Coherence time: l (a) A sine wave is perfectly coherent and contains a well-defined frequency o. (b) A finite
t  wave train lasts for a duration t and has a length l. Its frequency s pectrum extends over
c   = 1/t. It has a coherence time t and a coherence length l. (c) White light exhibits
practically no coherence.

• Spatial coherence measures the extent at © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rent ice Hall)

which two points are separated on the No interference Interference No interference

t
wave in space (a) A

• Coherence length: l  ct B

Time
Source
P
l (b) Spatially coherent source
v 
c
• Spectral width: Q
t
(c) An incoherent beam
•
c
Example: 589nm laser with spectral width
Space
of 5x1011Hz
t  2 10 12 s (a) Two waves can only interfere over the time intervalt. (b) Spatial coherence involves
comparing the coherence of waves emitted from different locations on the source. (c) An

l  0.6mm
incoherent beam.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

48
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Introduction to Diffraction
• Airy rings are a diffraction pattern clearly visible when light passes through a circular
aperture
• The diffracted beam does NOT correspond to the shadow of the aperture
• Instead the light imaged passed the aperture is the result of both light passing
through the aperture and light scattered off the edges. The scattered light
generates an interference pattern in the image
• Diffracted light from a distance generates the image in a planer wavefront:
Fraunhofer Diffraction
• Diffracted light from a near by aperture images the surface with significant
wavefront curvature: Fresnel Diffraction
Light intensity pattern

Diffract ed beam

Incident light wave

Circular aperture

A light beam incident on a s mall circular aperture becomes diffracted and its light
intensity pattern after passing through the aperture is a diffraction pattern with circular
bright rings (called Airy rings ). If the screen is far away from the aperture, this would be a
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
© 1999 S.O. Kas ap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
49
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Introduction to Diffraction
Incident plane wave
A secon dary
wave so urce

An oth er ne w
wa vefront (diff ract ed)
Ne w
wa vefront  z

(a) (b)

(a) Huygens-Fresnel
_______________principles states that each point in the aperture becomes a source of
secondary waves (spherical waves ). The s pherical wavefronts are separated by . The new
wavefront is the envelope of the all these s pherical wavefronts . (b) Another possible
wavefront occurs at an angle  to the z-direction which is a diffracted wave.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rentice Hall)

50
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Introduction to Diffraction
Incident y
Incident
• Light emitted from a point source light wave
Y light wave Screen
y R = Large
E  y e  jk sin
y 
y a
E ( )  C 
y 0
y e  jk sin
 A
a b
c
y
1  
Ce  jk sin a sin  ka sin   y z  

E ( )  2  z ysin

1
ka sin  Light intensity
2 (a) (b)

• The single slit diffraction equation yields an (a) The aperture is divided into N number of point sources each occupyingy with
amplitude  y. (b) The intensity distribution in the received light at the screen far away
intensity  
2 from the aperture: the diffraction pattern
1  
 Ca sin  ka sin    © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
I ( )   2    I (0) sin c 1 ka sin  
 
 1  2 
 ka sin  
 2 
• With zero intensity points at
m
sin  
a
m  1,2,...


sin   1.22 where D is the diameter of the aperture
D
51
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Image Resolution
y
• Consider 2 nearby coherent sources are
S1 A2
S1 imaged through an aperture of diameter D
 s  • The two sources have an angular
S2 S2 separation of .
A1 L
I
• As the points get closer together
Screen
– angular separation becomes narrower
Resolution of imaging systems is limited by diffraction effects. As points S1 and S2
get closer, eventually the Airy disks overlap so much that the resolution is lost. – diffraction patterns overlap more
© 1999 S.O. Kasap ,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) • According to the Rayleigh criterion, the two
spots are just observable when the
principle maximum of one diffraction
pattern coincides with the minimum of
b
another
a • This minimum is obtained by the angular
radius of the Airy disk

The rectangular aperture of dimensions a  b on the left sin   1.22
D
gives the diffraction pattern on the right.
where D is the diameter of the aperture
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

52
JDW, ECE Fall 2009
 Diffraction Gratings
First-order
• Bragg Diffraction Condition Zero-order
Incident m = 1 First-order
light wave
d sin   m
m = 0 Zero-order
Incident
First-order
light wave
m  0,1,2,3,...
m = -1 First-order

• For light incident at an angle (a) Transmission grating (b) Reflect ion grating

d (sin  m  sin  i )  m (a) Ruled periodic parallel scratches on a glass serve as a transmission grating. (b) A
reflection grating. An incident light beam results in various "diffracted" beams. The
zero-order diffracted beam is the normal reflected beam with an angle of reflection equal
m  0,1,2,3,... to the angle of incidence.

y © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rent ice Hall)

One possible Single slit

y diffracted beam diffraction
envelope Normal to
Incident
light wave Normal to grating plane
a
m=2 Second-order face
m=1 First-order
m=0 Zero-order First order
m = -1 First-order
d
m = -2 Second-order
 z 
dsin
 d
Diffraction grating
Intensity

(a) (b )

(a) A diffraction grating with N slits in an opaque scree. (b) The diffracted light
pattern. There are distinct beams in certain directions (schematic) Blazed (echelette) grating.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) 53
JDW, ECE Fall 2009 © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)