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Ekonomika a management
strategic management to contemporary Another reason that led to this study was
organizations [74]. In this sense, the survey the method adopted, phenomenography,
sought to contribute towards management whose main characteristic is its ability to
knowledge in the organizational environment capture the perceptions of a group of people
by clarifying what is the real understanding of about a concept. After an exhaustive search of
management graduates on the themes of available scientific databases, only one study of
strategy and strategic management. a similar nature was found, the Shanahan and
According to Tseng [83] and Obembe [60], Gerber [75] research on the concept of quality
knowledge management in an organization in HEIs, which proved the inspiration for the
begins by identifying the knowledge that research set out here. Most of the other
individuals bring in from outside the company. phenomenography studies found deal with
In this case, the development of organizational educational teaching methods [5], [13], [19],
strategy depends on understanding the [36], [63], [82] or, in fewer cases, the behaviour
perceptions of their managers on what strategy of consumers [88]. In the field of strategy, they
and strategic management actually is. The both represent an innovation and a new
identification of perceptions of future managers alternative for research.
on the two concepts, as used in this study, The paper is structured as follows: firstly,
contributes significantly to organizational mana- a literature review of the strategy and strategic
gement practice. This enables the organization’s management concepts from a historical
management strategies as organizational perspective is carried out. Afterwards, the
knowledge on the field of strategy can hardly be phenomenography research is described and
managed should each manager understand the explained. The methodology adopted in the
concept differently. survey is presented in the next section.
The study findings may also be expected to Subsequently, the collected data are analysed
contribute to Higher Education Institutions and our model is tested. The article ends up
(HEI), by identifying what level of understan- with final considerations and future recom-
ding their graduating management students mendations.
attain regarding the subjects under analysis.
The research contribution also extends to the 1. Strategy and Strategic
academic world by presenting the concepts of Management: a Historical
strategy and strategic management most Perspective
present and active in the minds of future Strategy was created by the Greeks, who
managers, findings rarely encountered in the endowed the concept with a military conno-
literature. There are few studies relating strategy tation. The term derives from the Greek strategos,
as a theoretical approach and its practical translated as a general in command of troops
application in organizations [42], [68]. Thus, this or the art of the general or plan to destroy
study contributes to research on strategy demon- enemies through effective use of resources
strating that the field of strategy, comprising as [18], [76], [78]. This term in itself contained the
it does of several concepts and approaches, idea of objectives to be achieved and plans of
generates confusion among management action to be performed in various scenarios,
practitioners. After all, the same phenomenon depending on the enemy’s behaviour [73].
is approached in several distinctly different According to Mintzberg and Quinn [53],
ways and individuals working in management strategy was already considered as an orga-
would also seem to hold various perspectives, nizational skill at the time of Pericles (450 BC),
often understanding neither the real meaning of meaning management skills (administrative,
strategy nor its management [41], [62]. leadership, public speaking, power). However,
Furthermore, this research aims to provide it was only after World War II that strategy fully
some insights for lecturers bearing in mind that entered into the business world, which has
student opinions and knowledge on this matter since grown significantly and needed guidance,
reflect the efficiency and the effectiveness of lines and paths to be followed by their entire
the strategy related learning process [31], structures [18]. This growth increased organi-
potentially revealing a need to change the zational complexity and, together with the
didactics of these classes. accelerated pace of environmental changes,
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Ekonomika a management
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Ekonomika a management
development fully underway in the 1960s and that strategic management has many attributes
1970s. of a still immature field of study, with little
According to Porth [68], strategic manage- consensus and low levels of productivity. This
ment emerged as part of strategic planning, result furthermore explains the reason there
which is now regarded as one of its main are several definitions for the same concept.
instruments. It was incorporated into strategic According to Ansoff and McDonnell [9],
management, which united planning and strategic management constitutes a systematic
management in the same process. On the approach to the management of changes,
other hand, Stead and Stead [76] stated that comprising: positioning the organization
strategic management is derived from the through strategy and planning, real time
concept of enterprise policy. This concept strategic response through the management of
explains the organization as a system in which problems, and the systematic management of
economic resources are applied effectively with resistance during strategy implementation. On
the company’s functional activities coordinated the other hand, Porth [68] believes that
around generating profit. strategic management is definable as a cross-
Once founded, strategic management process of formulation, implementation and
expanded swiftly and produced both theoretical evaluation of the decisions that enable
and practical models [22]. A broad range of organizations to define and achieve their
models emerged out of market analysis in the mission and ultimately to create value.
1960s, including the BCG Matrix, SWOT Bowman et al. [16] strategic management
Model, the Experience Curve, and Portfolio focuses on issues concerning either the creation
Analysis, as well as important concepts such as and sustainability of competitive advantage or
the economic analysis of structure, behaviour the search for such an advantage.
and performance, distinctive competences, Furthermore, Grant [33] argued that strategic
skills, and the so-called strategic planning management involves a complex relationship
systems [29], [54], [77]. between the organizational focus, the results
Currently, strategic management is one of obtained, and the broad spectrum of external
the most prominent and relevant areas in the and internal environmental variables of the
management field. It constitutes a set of ma- organization.
nagement actions that enable company managers According to Dess et al. [25], strategic
to keep it aligned with its environment and on management in an organization must become
the correct path of development, thereby a process and a single path guiding actions
bringing about the achievement of its objectives throughout the organization. It consists of
and its mission [25], [40], [56], [79], [17]. organizational analysis, decisions and actions
Despite its importance, Boyd et al. demonstrate creating and sustaining competitive advantage.
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Ekonomika a management
themselves forming a model that describes the However studies on the field of education [5],
phenomenon in its totality. This model contains [13], [19], [36], [63], [82] and on consumer
a set of categories hierarchically structuralized behaviour [87] also played their role in the
around the phenomenon under study [36]. methodological decisions taken over the
Consequently, the researcher aims at consti- course of this research project.
tuting a logical structure relative to different To attain our study objectives, we examined
meanings. The categories constituted by students taking degrees in management at
researchers for representing the different forms public universities in Portugal. Their curricula
of living a phenomenon are seen as representing programs feature strategy and/or strategic
a structuralized set – the model. This provides management subjects. The choice of
a means of grasping the collective human Portuguese public universities derives from the
experience of the holistic phenomena despite fact that they represent about 60% of higher
the fact the same phenomenon can be education students in Portugal [64]. All thirteen
perceived in different forms by different people universities were invited to participate. Of
and in different circumstances. Ideally, the these, five universities expressed interest:
results represent all the gamma of possible University of Beira Interior (UBI), University of
forms of living a specific phenomenon, in Coimbra (UC), University of Évora (UE), University
a specific time, for the population collectively of Minho (UM), and University of Porto (UP). The
represented by the group [4]. questionnaires were sent to these universities
In practical terms, phenomenography has and then completed in the classroom and
proven efficient when deployed to witness returned completed to the researchers.
decisions on education programs and applied The choice of this target group derived from
in two distinct forms [4]: (i) to identify a variation their being on the verge of graduation and in
in the agreement on one determined concept a few months will become the youngest managers
(involving the identification of the main in the Portuguese market. This means they
characteristics of concepts that alumni do or do might be expected to be the management
not obtain to discern their understanding of the professionals with the most up-to-date
phenomenon); and (ii) to project an education knowledge on the issues involving organizational
program that maximizes alumni opportunities to management, including strategy and strategic
gain a full understanding of a concept based on management. The sample gathered focuses on
a prior evaluation of knowledge on the the students present in classrooms on the days
phenomenon. Correspondingly, we approach of the application of the research questionnaire
phenomenography as a research method that and that had been passed approved in these
focuses on concepts explaining phenomena as subjects. This type of sample appears as non-
lived by individuals and of value in practically all probabilistic, intentional, for trial [34]. It should
educational areas [5]. be noted that the results presented here
represent only a proportion of management
3. Methodology students in Portugal. To achieve a broader
In accordance with the principles of phenome- representation of Portuguese management
nography (the collective analysis of individual students, it would be necessary to apply the
experiences), proposed by Marton [44], same research in other universities.
described in the introduction to this study and For the purposes of data collection, we
the methodological decisions made explicit in deployed a questionnaire with six open questions,
the work of Shanahan and Gerber [75], this which aimed to identify respondent perceptions
research project adopted the phenomenographic as to their own definitions of strategy and
methodology. This is characterized as strategic management. The final questionnaire
qualitative, exploratory and cross-sectional was the following:
[34], with data collection carried out by personal 1. Based on your own experience, what does
interviews with structured questionnaires. All strategy mean to you?
methodological decisions described in the 2. Using your own words, what is your
sequence (universe and sample research, definition of strategy?
collection and analysis of data) were adapted 3. According to your point of view, give at least
from the study of Shanahan and Gerber [70]. three examples of strategies.
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Ekonomika a management
Definition Analysis
1. [...] Strategy is the This definition of strategy was the most frequent in the responses collected. One reason is that
development of plans, many authors approach strategy in this sense [6], [9], [20], [21], [32], [43], [46], [53], [59], [61],
policies and practices to [71], [78], [81], [84], [85]. It is presented as a more complete definition and involving the
achieve the company organization as a whole. Internalising this view of strategy ensures the manager follows a logical
objectives [...] (110 similar path in strategic business development in planning, establishing guidelines and policies, and
responses). encouraging practice able to achieve organizational goals. What this definition lacks is the
relationship with the external environment because it reduces strategy to the internal company
environment.
2. [...] Strategy is the way In other words, it is marketplace company policy to compete and survive, based on forward
in which the company planning. This proved to be the second most common response, also due to several authors
should behave or act in citing the environment external to the organization as critical to the company’s strategic
the market and relate to development [7], [8], [9], [10], [18], [26], [37], [38], [39], [45], [50], [54], [65], [67], [71], [72]. It is
its external environment indeed a fact that a company is related to its external environment and all organizational
[...] (57citations). strategic actions should consider aspects related to the respective prevailing environment. Thus,
it is important to note that most new managers are aware that a company should be focused
on the market where it operates.
3. [...] Strategy is the According to the respondent answers, the relationship between strategy and top management
responsibility of senior is not often quoted by authors. The high correlation between management and strategy is
company management referred to by different authors [48], [49], [52], [87]. It should be noted that a common strategy
and the result of their in the studies is that this issue is traditionally handled by the managers running the organization,
decisions [...] (33 cases). although most existing concepts are not very explicit about this.
4. [...] Strategy is to have Respondents stated that strategy is linked to corporate objectives for medium and long term
medium and long term company goals; similar to that stated in the literature, where the definitions of strategy seldom
goals. Only a few mention the same relationship with its medium and long term goals [1], [9], [21]. In this sense,
respondents [...] one can see that the classical school and its followers [86] is that which prescribes the need to
(32 replies). plan strategically for the medium and long term.
5. [...] Strategy is Quoted by Ansoff and McDonell [9], Bracker [18], Drucker [26], Fahey [28], and Michel [47],
a guideline for structuring defining strategy as guiding organizational structure shows that the company’s resources and
the company [...] capabilities are determined according to organizational strategic options [11], and was not
(30 citations). prominent among respondent answers. However, in accordance with the responses already
given, we may consider that the specific structure necessary for the company to achieve its
objectives is included within the scope of senior management decisions and planning strategies,
words attaining greater incidence among respondents.
6. [...] Strategy is a means Strategy as the means of achieving organizational success was previously put forward by
of achieving business Barney [11], Porter [66], and Wright et al. [87]. This type of definition relates company success
success [...] to the effectiveness of its strategy and its implementation (through activities and practices).
(cited 19 times).
7. [...] Strategy is the Also derived from the school of planning [54], the company mission and vision are proposed by
vision and mission of the Newman and Logan [59], Steiner and Miner [78], and Wright et al. [87]. This type of response
company [...]. by new managers expresses a certain difficulty in converting strategy into the organizational
(cited 18 times). reality.
8. [...] Strategy is an This response is a simplification of the others. The path to be taken refers to the medium and
indication of what direction long term, decisions and senior management responsibilities, the mission and vision of the
the company should take organization, leading to planning, policies and practices. This reductionist definition has already
[...] (cited by 15 been presented by Rumelt et al. [69].
respondents).
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Definition Analysis
9. [...] Strategy depends The identification of organizational competitive advantages features in the definitions of strategy
on the competitive put forward by Ansoff [7], Cannon [20], Henderson [38], [39], and Newman and Logan [59].
advantages of the Whereas the company's competitiveness is based on its advantages over competitors, it should
company [...] (15 citations). be considered that these advantages are what influence the choice of a particular strategy and
so the first step in choosing the strategy is to identify the company’s competitive advantages,
as pointed out by some of the respondents.
10. [...] Strategy is based The decision of which strategy to follow depends on the collection and analysis of organizational
on the collection and information (and including its external environment). This analysis is performed by the top
analysis of company and management of organizations, that is, in a setting that complements the fact that strategy is
stakeholder information [...] linked to the individuals running companies.
(13 citations).
11. [...] Strategy involves Uncommon among the definitions of strategy found in the literature, the involvement of the entire
the entire company [...] organization in the respective strategy was previously cited by Ackoff [1], Glueck [32], and
(5 citations). Mintzberg and Quinn [53]. Though not often referred to by authors who conceptualize the
strategy, we see that it increases the chance of success when all members of the company fully
participate in the chosen strategy. This fact was pointed out by only 5 respondents.
12. [...] Strategy is a way A subject virtually forgotten by both respondents and the literature, acquiring customers as
to acquire customers [...] a result of organizational strategy does merit mention by Fahey [28]. This correspondingly posits
(2 citations). that one major objective behind developing organizational strategies is attracting and retaining
customers, who generate the revenue necessary for the company to attain its financial results,
besides fulfilling its mission and vision. Thus, attracting and retaining customers is very much
linked to company marketing departments and often overlooked by other functional areas.
Market orientation should align all participants towards the organization’s customers.
Source: own elaboration
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Ekonomika a management
Following the questionnaire, interviewees company action , explore new markets, invest
were requested they provide examples of in employee training, invest in information
strategies. Porter’s [65] generic competitive technology, strategic alliances and cooperation,
strategies (focus, differentiation, and cost focus on e-commerce, hire skilled managers,
leadership), and strategies for diversification, do market research [...].
internationalization, and vertical integration
stood out and were mentioned by most Indeed, some difficulty in translating the
respondents. However, when asked to translate theoretical approaches learned during their
these strategies into real-world examples (at degrees to the business environment was
least three), most respondents left this question noted in the respondent responses. This fact is
blank. Others cited: probably due to little or no working experience
on behalf of students answering the survey, an
[...] To improve the quality of products / important indicator both for the institution and
services, to plan the location of the business, its lecturers as well as other higher education
innovate in products, use resources appro- entities running degrees in management.
priately, understand and adapt to the market Students may be graduating with a good
where the company operates, to inform definition of an important concept (strategy) but
strategies for employees, develop motivation they are confronting difficulties in applying it to
and the involvement of employees, use organizations.
marketing, improve the company's techno- The final section of the questionnaire dealt
logies, enhance the brand of products, focus on with strategic management, definitions and
customer service, develop action plans to build examples. When concerning the definition of
a good corporate image, increase the radius of the term, most citations divided up between two
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Ekonomika a management
Others returned a more comprehensive vision between theory and practice can contribute to
and saw in the concept of strategy the enhancing the competences of new market
opportunity to acquire and keep customers, managers; after all, we do here demonstrate
resulting in organizational success. that there is a need for adjustments in the
Our model explains the definition of strategy teaching of strategy related subjects on
in the vision of young managers on the cusp of management degrees. A balance between the
entering the market and represents another of current schools of thought on the concept (to
the specific objectives of this research project. thus avoid choosing a single school and
There was also confusion over the meaning of following only what it prescribes) and an
strategic management. In several cases, there approach towards the realities of practical
was a clear mix up in the definitions of strategy managerial and company life represent
and strategic management. Furthermore, this challenges for both lecturers and researchers
statement does impact on managers involved in the field.
in organizational knowledge processes given if
there is no shared perception of strategic This research was supported by the
management among managers, there is the Portuguese Science Foundation through NECE
need to unify their understanding to ensure – Núcleo de Investigação em Ciências
decision making is based on the same Empresariais (Programa de Financiamento
principles [60]. Plurianual das Unidades de I&D da FCT –
Despite this finding, it was concluded that Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia,
the definition of strategic management presented Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino
by those students who managed to differentiate Superior/Portugal).
the two terms is close to that presented in the
literature. Although they are terms that can References
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jjmf@ubi.pt
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Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to assess the acquired knowledge of university management students
on strategy and strategic management concepts. Phenomenography was used in the analysis and
a collective description was conducted. A sample of students taking management degrees at five
universities was adopted. Following data analysis, a model explaining our definition of students is
presented. This definition was compared with the existing literature. Our findings do not indicate
a single, predominant concept but reflect a diverse set of existing concepts. We conclude that
students do present difficulties when it comes to explaining their theoretical definition in real
situations applied to organizations. The results contribute towards a better understanding of the
universities surveyed, but cannot be generalized. Thus, we recommend future studies replicate this
research project at other Higher Education Institutions and confirm the factors making up the
construction of the definition of strategy from the perspective of future managers. Given that topics
relating to strategy and strategic management are highly relevant to organizations today, it is of
similar great importance to identifying just what future managers perceive about these issues. Our
model explains the definition of strategy in the vision of young managers about to enter the market.
A balance between the current schools of thought on strategy and an approach to the reality of
enterprises are presented as challenges for both teachers and researchers in this field.
DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2014-1-004
1, XVII, 2014 61