BASIC LOGIC REVIEWER

CHAPTER III: JUDGMENT & CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

JUDGMENT

- pronounces agreement or disagreement between terms or ideas

- second act of intellect that relates or combines ideas

ENUNCIATION

- mental pronouncement or judgment

- mental product of judgment
- can be affirmative or negative depending on relation formed
- will have a truth-value when two concepts are compared

PROPOSITION

- judgment expressed in sentence or sentence pronouncing agreement or

disagreement between terms
- no proposition can be truth and false; only one and not the other with respect
to its relation with reality
- is always a sentence with purpose to make an assertion or claim

TYPES OF PROPOSITION

A. CATEGORICAL
- expresses direct judgment or assertion of agreement or disagreement of two
terms in absolute manner
- truth-value is directly known

B. HYPOTHETICAL
- does not express direct judgment since there are two judgments whose truth-
value depends on each other
- always a compound statement since its composition is of two basic
propositions
- types are: conditional, disjunctive and conjunctive

THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

 MATTER – substance of proposition (what it is all about)

 FORM – structure of proposition; can be affirmation or negation

ELEMENTS OF A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

SUBJECT – idea that is to be affirmed or denied

PREDICATE – idea which is affirmed or denied of the object

COPULA – expresses mental act which pronounces agreement or disagreement

between subject and predicate

QUANTIFIER – application or extension of proposition

LOGICAL FORM OF PROPOSTION

Pattern: Qunatifier + Subject – Copula – Predicate

- always in present tense and uses copula, “to be” [is/are/am]

ABSOLUTE PROPERTIES OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

A. QUALITY OF PROPOSTION – affects copula

1. AFFIRMATIVE
- predicate is always affirmed of subject according to whole of its
comprehension and part of its extension
- predicate is always particular except when sentence is a definition of
a subject

2. NEGATIVE
- predicate is always denied of subject according to part of comprehension
and whole of its extension
- predicate is always universal

B. QUANTITY OF PROPOSITION – expresses number of individuals (application)

1. UNIVERSAL
- subject is a universal term that applies distributively to its class.
- usually starts with all, each, every
- also starts with no, nobody

2. PARTICULAR
- subject is a particular term, term use partly and indeterminately
- usually preceded with some, many, few

3. SINGULAR
- subject is a single term
- applies only to one individual

4. COLLECTIVE
- subject is a collective term
- applies to a class or group only (collective nouns used)

 Collective and Singular propositions are considered as universal

propositions also.

TYPES OF PROPOSTION ACCORDING TO QUALITY & QUANTITY COMBINED

1. UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE (A)

2. UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE (E)

3. PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE (I)

4. PARTICULAR NEGATIVE (O)

* from first two vowel letters of Latin words afirmo and nego
THE PATTERN/FORM (SCHEMA) OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

LEGEND: S = Subject; P = Predicate;

u = Universal; p = Particular; s = Singular;

+ = Affirmative; - = Negative

UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE (A)

- Su + Pp  All books are interesting.

SINGULAR AFFIRMATIVE / DEFINITION (A’)

- Su + Ps / Su + Pu  A dog is a barking animal.

UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE (E)

- Su – Pu  No man is an island.

PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE (I)

- Sp + Pp  Many scholars are famous in Science.

PARTICULAR NEGATIVE (O)

- Sp – Pu  Some people are not employed.

LOGICAL OPPOSITION

- relation between propositions with same subjects and predicates but different
quality and/or quantity

TYPES OF OPPOSITION

A. CONTRADICTION

- opposition existing between propositions with different quantity and quality

- A & O; E & I

- when one is true, the other is false and vice versa

- opposition is greatest since there is no middle ground

B. CONTRARIETY

- opposition existing between universal propositions with different quality only

-A&E

- when one is true, other is false; when one is false, other is doubtful

C. SUB-CONTRARIETY

- opposition existing between particular propositions with different quality only

-I&O

- when one is false, other is true; when one is true, other is doubtful

D. SUB-ALTERNATION

- opposition existing between propositions with different quantity only

- A & I; E & O

- when A is true, then I is also true; when E is true, then O is also true

- when I is true, then A is doubtful; when O is true, then E is doubtful

- when I is false, then A is also false; when O is false, then E is also false

- when A is false, then I is doubtful; when E is false, then O is doubtful

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

EQUIVALENCE

- similarity in terms of meaning between propositions

- should express same meaning although with different expression
- process of forming equivalent propositions is called eduction

EDUCTION

- process of immediate inference in which from a proposition taken as true,

another implied proposition is derived.

OBVERSION

- derived proposition has same subject but contradictory predicate of original

proposition
- original proposition is obvertend and derived proposition is obverse
- retain subject, contradict predicate, negate the copula and retain quantity
- A to E; E to A; I to O; O to I

CONVERSION

- derived proposition takes predicate for its new subject and subject for its new
predicate
- original proposition is convertend and derived proposition is converse
- interchange subject and predicate and retain quality
- the O proposition has no valid converse proposition
- divided into two types:

SIMPLE CONVERSION
- simply done by interchanging the subject and predicate without affecting
the quantity and meaning of the original proposition
- E to E; I to I
- usually used in logic examinations
- A and O propositions cannot be converted using simple conversion
 Ex. Many treasure hunters are successful businessmen.  Many successful
businessmen are treasure hunters. (I to I)

PARTIAL CONVERSION
- original proposition is converted from universal to particular
- interchange also subject and predicate
- A to I; E to O (Only A to I is used in examinations)

Ex. All Japanese are Asians.  Some Asians are Japanese. (A to I)

ADDITIONAL KINDS OF EDUCTION:

CONTRAPOSITION
- done by interchanging the subject and predicate and presents the
subject as the contradictory of original predicate
- the original proposition is the contraponend and the new proposition is called
the contraposit or contrapositive
- has two types:

SIMPLE CONTRAPOSITION (TYPE 1)

- subject is the contradictory of the original predicate
- quality is changed
- predicate is the former subject of original proposition
- rules are: obvert the original proposition(contraponend) then convert it
afterward
- A to E; E to I; O to I
- I proposition has no simple/complete contraposition

Ex. Every brain surgeon is a medical expert.  No non-medical expert is a

brain surgeon. (A to E)

COMPLETE CONTRAPOSITION (TYPE 2)

- subject is the contradictory of original predicate (same as simple
contraposition)
- quality is unchanged
- predicate is the contradictory of former subject of original proposition
- rules are: obvert the original proposition, convert it afterward and obvert it
again
- A to A; E to O; O to O

Ex. No horses are three-legged creatures  Some non-three-legged

creatures are not non-horses (E to O)

INVERSION
- logical way of re-expression where subject becomes the contradictory of the
original subject
- the original proposition is called the invertend and the new proposition formed
is called the inverse

SIMPLE/PARTIAL INVERSION (TYPE 1)

- quality of the original proposition is changed but retains the character of
the original predicate
 - rules are: present contradictory form of original subject, change the
quality and retain the predicate
- A to O; E to I

Ex. All creatures are organisms.  Some non-creatures are not organisms.
(A to O)

COMPLETE INVERSION
- quality of original proposition is unchanged yet predicate is now
contradictory of the original predicate.
- rules are: retain subject and predicate; present contradictory form of
both subject and predicate of original proposition (quanitity) and never
change the quality
- A to I; E to O

Ex. All priests are evangelists.  Some non-priests are non-evangelists. (A

to I)

VARIETIES OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

1. SINGLE

- contains only one sentence in its construction

1.1. SIMPLE

- simple terms used for subject and predicate

1.2. COMPOSITE

1.2.1. COMPLEX

- subject or predicate or both are complex terms

1.2.2. MODAL

- copula expresses mode of proposition

1.2.2.1. NECESSARY

- predicate essentially belongs to subject (must, should)

1.2.2.2. POSSIBLE

- predicate may or can belong to subject (could, can, may)

1.2.2.3. IMPOSSIBLE

- predicate cannot or will not belong to the subject (cannot,

may not, could not)

1.2.2.4. CONTINGENT

- predicate need not belong to the subject (need not, should

not, must not)
2. MULTIPLE

- has two or more propositions in its construction

2.1. OVERTLY MULTIPLE

- plainly composed of two or more sentences

2.1.1. COPULATIVE

- two or more sentences combined in grammatical unity (and)

2.1.2. ADVERSATIVE

- two or more sentences united in opposition (but, yet)

2.1.3. RELATIVE

- expresses relation of time and place bet. two sentences (adverb of

time and place)

2.1.4. CAUSAL

- also abridge syllogism

- two sentences where one is the reason of the other. (because, since,
for, so)

2.1.5. COMPARATIVE

- expresses comparison between two subjects and degree of

comparison whether one is greater than, lesser than or equal to (as, than,
more)

2.2. COVERTLY MULTIPLE

- appears to be single but really are multiple

- regarded as “exponibles” and component parts are exponents.

2.2.1. EXCLUSIVE

- indicates exclusion of any predicate from subject and vice versa

- uses particles like only, alone

2.2.2. EXCEPTIVE

- indicate portion of predicate does not apply to subject and vice

versa

- uses particles like except, save

2.2.3. REDUPLICATIVE

- gives special emphasis on subject

 - cause between subject and predicate is essential (part of nature of)

2.2.4. SPECIFICATIVE

- also gives special emphasis on subject

- cause between subject and predicate is accidental (need not be)

ADDITIONAL NOTES

THE VENN DIAGRAM

- unique way of presenting relationship that exists between subject and predicate
- uses two overlapping circles to show extension of relationship

S P

ILLUSTRATION MEANING

Nullification
(nothing exists within circle / class)

Particularity
X (there is at least one individual
representing a class)

S P Individuality and Differentiation

(Class of Subject (S) and Class of
 Predicate(P) )

S P The Four Partitions

SP SP SP (Not in S and P [SP], Only in S [SP], Only
in P [SP], Both in S and P [SP] )

SP

DIAGRAM OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

A
S P

E
S P

S P

S P