SCOUR MANUAL

SCOUR MANUAL
G.J.CM. HOFFMANS
Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division o f the Ministry o f Transport,
Public Works and Water Management, Delft

HJ.VERHEIJ
Delft Hydraulics, Delft

CRC Press
Taylor h Francis C ro u p
Boca Raton London New York

C R C Press is an im print of the

Taylor & Francis C rou p, an info rm a business
A T A Y L O R & F R A N C IS B O O K
Scour Manual, P-DWW-96-120

Editorial Board
G.J.C.M. Hoffmans, Senior Research Engineer, Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division o f the
Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
W Leeuwestein, Senior Research Engineer, Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division of the Ministry of
Transport, Public Works and Water Management
K. W Pilarczyk, Manager Research and Development of the Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division of
the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
G. J. Schiereck, Senior Scientific Officer, Delft University of Technology
HJ. Verheij, Senior Project Engineer, Delft Hydraulics

Contributors
G J. Akkerman, Senior Project Engineer, Delft Hydraulics
J. van Duivendijk, Senior Scientific Officer, Delft University o f Technology
W H.G. Klomp, Project Engineer, Delft Hydraulics
M. van der Wal, Senior Project Engineer, Delft Hydraulics
R.O.Th. Zijlstra, Project Engineer, Haskoning

The Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management and Delft Hydraulics and those
associated with this report have exercised all possible care in compiling and presenting the information
contained in it. This information reflects the state-of-the-art at the time of publication. Nevertheless, the
possibility that inaccuracies may occur in this pubhcation cannot be ruled out. Anyone wishing to use the
information in it will be deemed to do so at his or her own risk. The Ministry of Transport, Public Works
and Water Management and Delft Hydraulics decline to accept any liability whatsoever in respect of loss
or damage that may arise in consequence of such use on behalf of all persons associated with this
publication.

Cover: Ingrid La Haye, 1994, Scouring, 28 x 18 cm. The Hague

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© 1997 A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam
Contents

FOREWORD XI

LIST OF MAIN SYMBOLS XIII

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Scope of this manual 2
1.3 Sununary 3

2 BASIC CONCEPTS 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Design process 8
2.2.1 General 8
2.2.2 Boundary conditions 8
2.2.3 Fault tree analysis 12
2.2.4 Protective measures 13
2.2.5 Characteristics of bed protection 14
2.3 Initiation of motion 15
2.3.1 General 15
2.3.2 Non-cohesive sediments 15
2.3.3 Cohesive sediments 19
2.3.4 Turbulence 22
2.3.5 Examples 24
2.4 Scour processes 25
2.4.1 General 25
2.4.2 General scour 26
2.4.3 Local scour 29
2.4.4 Conditions of transport 31
2.5 Geotechnical aspects 33
2.5.1 General 33
2.5.2 Porosity of sand 34
VI Contents

2.5.3 Empirical criteria 34

2.5.4 Example 39

3 SILLS 40
3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Flow characteristics 40
3.3 Dutch scour depth modelling 42
3.3.1 General 42
3.3.2 Characteristic time 46
3.3.3 Relative turbulence intensity 47
3.3.4 Scour coefficient 49
3.3.5 Non-steady flow 51
3.3.6 Upstream supply of sediment 53
3.4 Upstream scour slopes 57
3.4.1 General 57
3.4.2 Hydraulic and morphological stability criterion 57
3.4.3 Undermining 59
3.5 Additional measures 59
3.6 Field experiments 60
3.6.1 General 60
3.6.2 Hydraulic and geotechnical conditions 61
3.6.3 Discussion 61
3.7 Examples 65

4 JETS 68
4.1 Introduction 68
4.2 Flow characteristics 68
4.2.1 Introduction 68
4.2.2 Flow velocities 69
4.2.3 Hydraulic jump 70
4.3 Time scale 72
4.4 Plunging jets 73
4.4.1 Introduction 73
4.4.2 Calculation methods 73
4.4.3 Discussion 76
4.5 Two-dimensional culverts 78
4.5.1 Introduction 78
4.5.2 Calculation methods 79
4.5.3 Discussion 81
4.6 Three-dimensional culverts 82
4.6.1 Introduction 82
4.6.2 Calculation methods 83
4.6.3 Discussion 84
 Contents VII

4.7 Scour control 85

4.8 Examples 87

ABUTMENTS AND SPUR DIKES 91

5.1 Introduction 91
5.2 Geometry characteristics 92
5.2.1 Introduction 92
5.2.2 Wing-wall abutments 93
5.2.3 Spill-through abutments 94
5.2.4 Vertical-wall abutments 94
5.2.5 Flow pattern 95
5.3 Time scale 96
5.4 Equilibrium scour depth 100
5.4.1 Introduction 100
5.4.2 Calculation methods 100
5.4.3 Discussion 104
5.5 Types of scour 105
5.5.1 Introduction 105
5.5.2 Combined local scour and bend scour 105
5.6 Failure mechanism and measures to prevent local scour 106
5.6.1 Introduction 106
5.6.2 Scour slopes 106
5.6.3 Outflanking 107
5.6.4 Riprap protection 107

BRIDGE PIERS 109

6.1 Introduction 109
6.2 Characteristic flow pattern 109
6.3 Time scale no
6.4 Equilibrium scour depth 113
6.4.1 Introduction 113
6.4.2 Calculation methods 114
6.4.3 Discussion 115
6.5 Effects of specific parameters 117
6.5.1 Introduction 117
6.5.2 Pier shape 118
6.5.3 Alignment of the pier to the flow 118
6.5.4 Gradation of bed material 120
6.5.5 Group of piers 120
6.6 Scour slopes 122
6.6.1 Introduction 122
6.6.2 Single cylindrical pier 122
6.6.3 Other types of piers 123
VIII Contents

6.7 Measures to prevent local scour 125

6.7.1 Introduction 125
6.7.2 Riprap protection 125
6.7.3 Mattress protection 126
6.7.4 Deflectors 126

7 COASTAL AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES 128

7.1 Introduction 128
7.2 Pipelines 129
7.2.1 Introduction 129
7.2.2 Development regimes 130
7.2.3 Time scale 132
7.2.4 Equilibrium scour depth 132
7.2.5 Methods to prevent scour 135
7.3 Piles 135
7.3.1 Introduction 135
7.3.2 Equilibrium scour depth 136
7.3.3 Large diameter piles 137
7.3.4 Scour protection 139
7.4 Vertical breakwaters 139
7.4.1 Introduction 139
7.4.2 Time scale 139
7.4.3 Equilibrium scour depth 140
7.4.4 Influence of a protective layer 141
7.5 Coastal defences 142
7.5.1 Introduction 142
7.5.2 Type of processes 143
7.5.3 Effects of structures 143
7.5.4 Time scale 143
7.5.5 Equilibrium scour depth 145
7.5.6 Scour protection 148
7.6 Gravity structures 151
7.6.1 Introduction 151
7.6.2 Time scale 151
7.6.3 Equilibrium scour depth 152
7.6.4 Dishpan scour 152
7.6.5 Measures to mitigate scour 152
7.6.6 Uncertainties in scour predictions 155

8 PROTOTYPE SITUATIONS 156

8.1 Introduction 156
8.2 Lengthening of groynes in the Waal River, the Netherlands 157
8.2.1 Introduction 157
 Contents IX

8.2.2 Available data 157

8.2.3 Design philosophy 158
8.2.4 Evaluation 161
8.3 Submerged vanes in the Waal River, the Netherlands 162
8.3.1 Introduction 162
8.3.2 Available data 163
8.3.3 Design philosophy 164
8.3.4 Evaluation 168
8.4 Improvement of the access channel to the port of Barranquilla,
Colombia 169
8.4.1 Introduction 169
8.4.2 Available data 171
8.4.3 Design philosophy 172
8.4.4 Evaluation 176
8.5 Damming of Chao Phraya and Nan Rivers for navigation
improvement, Thailand 178
8.5.1 Introduction 178
8.5.2 Available data 180
8.5.3 Design philosophy 181
8.5.4 Evaluation 182
8.6 Gravity based structure 185
8.6.1 Introduction 185
8.6.2 Boundary conditions 186
8.6.3 Assessment of the scour depth 187
8.6.4 Small-scale model tests 188
8.6.5 Evaluation 193

REFERENCES 195
Foreword

In February 1953 many dikes in the south-western provinces of the Nether­

lands failed during a severe stormtide. As a consequence of this disaster sev­
eral hydraulic and soil mechanical issues had to be dealt with in order to be
able to draw up appropriate solution for the breaches in the flood defences.
In part the solutions consisted of repairing the dikes and in part by construct­
ing closure dams in the existing estuary. To study the effects of enclosures
small-scale experiments were carried out to obtain general information about
the critical velocity for the stability of stones and concrete blocks, the over­
lapping of mattresses, the water movement, and the scouring effects down­
stream of revetments.
Based on a systematic investigation of the time scale for two and three
dimensional scour in loose sediments relations were derived for predicting
the maximum scour depth as function of time. In the nineties these scour re­
lations were slightly modified and used for the design of the storm surge
barrier in the New Waterway near Rotterdam and for the prediction of the
scour process downstream of the barrier in the Eastern Scheldt.
This manual concerns the scour processes and phenomena taking place
near several hydraulic structures. It is intended primarily for hydraulic engi­
neers in the field; however, it may have some appeal also to researchers in
hydraulic engineering. The scour process has not yet been explained in a
general accepted manner, and therefore it would be only appropriate to dis­
cuss their mechanism and formulations for the simplest cases. I hope this
manual will offer the practical engineer as much interest as the authors ex­
perienced in preparing it.

A. Hoekstra
Former head of Hydraulic Engineering Division

XI
List of main symbols

A Cross-section (L^)
b Length of structure (perpendicular to flow direction) (L)
B Width of flow (L)
c Coefficient (-)
C Chézy coefficient x-i)
d Particle diameter (L)
Median grain size (L)
D Height of sill (L)
D* Sedimentological diameter, d(Aglv^Ÿ^^ (-)
e Embedment (L)
Friction coefficient, glO- (-)
Friction coefficient (-)
/c Roughness function, C/Cq, Cq = 40 m'^^ /§
Fr Froude number, (-)
g Acceleration of gravity (LT“2)
h Flow depth (L)
Hq Initial flow depth (L)
hf Tail water depth (L)
H Drop head across structure or wave height (L)
Significant wave height (L)
/ Volume of scour hole per unit width (L^)
k Turbulence energy (L^T-^)
Effective or equivalent bed roughness (rough: = Sdg^, smooth:
k^ = 2d,g) (L)
K Coefficient (-)
KC Keulegan Carpenter number, Tib (-)
L Length of bed protection (L)
Failure length (L)
p Porosity (-)
q Discharge per unit width (L^T-i)
Q Discharge (L^T“i)
Reduction transport per unit width (L^T^O

XIII
XIV Scour manual

s Sediment transport per unit width (L^T^*)

Re Reynolds number, UqIi/ v (-)
Discrepancy ratio (-)
Relative turbulence intensity, a„/i7 (-)
t Time (T)
h Characteristic time at which the maximum scour-depth equals (T)
T Wave period (T)
Tp Peak wave period (T)
u Local longitudinal flow velocity (LT^O
M* Bed shear-velocity (LT“i)
Critical bed shear-velocity (LT-*)
Uo Mean velocity, Q/A (LT“0
u Depth-averaged velocity (LT“i)
Uc Critical mean velocity (LT~')
w. Fall velocity (LT“i)
Longitudinal distance (L)
Vertical distance (L)
ym Maximum scour depth (L)
a Flow and turbulence coefficient (or angle) (-)
«» Coefficient, a - UJU^ (-)
p Upstream scour slope (or angle) (-)
Y Coefficient (or angle) (-)
5 Slope angle downstream of the point of reattachment (-)
A Relative density, p^/p - 1 (-)
K Constant of von Karman (-)
X Wave length or angle (L)
II Shape factor or roughness factor (-)
V Kinematic viscosity (L^T“')
P Fluid density (M^L“i)
P. Material density (M^L-i)
o Relative standard deviation (-)
a„ Standard deviation of the instantaneous longitudinal velocity averaged
over the depth (LT“i)
Bed shear-stress (ML-'T“^)
Critical bed shear-stress (ML-^T“^)
Angle of repose (-)
Angle of internal friction (-)
'P Mobility or Shields parameter (-)
CO Turbulence coefficient (-)

Subscripts
b Bed
c Critical or current
 List o f main symbols XV

e Equilibrium
H Horizontal
m Maximum or model
P Prototype
V Vertical
w Waves
0 Initial or reference
CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 GENERAL

A hydraulic structure is generally intended to provide a practical measure to

solve an identified problem. After problem identification subsequent stages
are determined by a series of decisions and actions culminating in the crea­
tion of a structure or structures to resolve the problem. Aspects that may af­
fect the eventual outcome of the design process have to be assessed. In addi­
tion to hydraulic, geotechnical and engineering characteristics, phenomena
such as social conditions, economics, environmental impact and safety re­
quirements also influence the design process.
Within the scope of the Dutch Delta works, systematic research with re­
spect to the prediction of the formation of scour holes was conducted by the
Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management and
Delft Hydraulics. After the catastrophic flood disaster in 1953, the Delta
plan was formulated to protect the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta against future
disasters. Dams with large-scale sluices were planned in some estuaries. The
severe scour that was expected necessitated the acquisition of a better un­
derstanding of the scour process.
To obtain detailed information about the physical processes playing a role
in scour development, many experiments in which various parameters of the
flow and the scoured material were varied, were carried out by Delft Hy­
draulics. From the results of experiments in flumes, with all the attendant
difficulties of scale effects and limitations in instrumentation, some semi-
empirical relations were obtained that describe the erosion process as a
function of time and position (Breusers 1966,1967; van der Meulen & Vinjé
1975). In addition, design criteria for the length of the bed protection were
deduced. These were based on many hundreds of shear failures and flow
slides that occurred along the coastline in the south-western part of the Neth­
erlands.
Understanding of the physical processes and mathematical modelling of
the water and sediment movement in rivers, estuaries and coastal waters
have made much progress in recent years. This has led to a number of more

1
2 Scour manual

or less ready-to-use mathematical model systems, but it has also raised many
new research questions. In the early nineties a morphological model for the
generation of scour holes behind hydraulic structures was developed
(Hoffmans 1992). This morphological model was based on the 2-D Navier
Stokes and convection-diffusion equations and used for the calibration and
verification of semi-empirical relations that predict the scour process.
This manual highlights the so-called Breusers-equilibrium method which
describes the maximum scour depth as function of time, including the practi­
cal equilibrium value near hydraulic structures. Scour due to three-
dimensional flow can easily be predicted when this method is applied in
combination with computational results of depth-averaged models or with
measurements obtained from scale models. The accuracy of the scour com­
putation depends mainly on the accuracy of the flow velocities and the turbu­
lence intensities just above the protected bed. According to Breusers (1966),
the development of the scour process depends entirely on the average flow
velocity and relative turbulence intensity at the transition of the fixed to the
erodible bed. By applying this concept, the scour prediction is restricted to
one computation; no information is needed concerning the near bed veloci­
ties and bed turbulence in the scour hole.

1.2 SCOPE OF THIS MANUAL

The purpose of this scour manual is to provide the civil engineer with practi­
cal methods to calculate the dimensions of scour holes and to furnish an in­
troduction to the most relevant literature. The manual contains guidelines
which can be used to solve problems related to scour in engineering practice
and also reflects the main results of all the Dutch research projects directed
to the phenomena of scour which have been realised in the Netherlands dur­
ing recent decades. A complete review of all the available references on
scour is beyond the scope of this manual. A more general introduction to
scour is given by Breusers & Raudkivi (1991). The scour depth as function
of time can be predicted by the so-called Breusers-equilibrium method.
Basically, this method can be applied for all situations where local scour is
expected. However, the available knowledge about scour is not sufficient, to
apply the method for the prediction of scour at each type of structure. Struc­
ture specific scour prediction rules are presented then. The treatment of local
scour is classified according to different types of structures. Each type of
structure is necessarily schematised to a simple, basic layout. There is a brief
description of the main parameters of a structure and of the main parts of the
flow pattern near a structure, in so far as they are relevant to the description
of scour phenomena. Detailed and theoretical descriptions of the flow phe­
nomena are not included because at this stage the consequences of such de-
 Introduction 3

scriptions are minimal in relation to engineering practice. As many scour

problems are still not fully understood attention is paid to the validity ranges
and the limitations of the formulas, and to the information about the accu­
racy of the calculated parameters, i.e. the maximum scour depth expected
during the lifetime, the upstream scour slope and the expected failure length.
Due to shear failures or flow slides, the scour process can progressively
damage the bed protection; this will lead to the failure of hydraulic struc­
tures.
Summarising, the presented Breusers-equilibrium method can be applied
directly in the engineering practice for nearly all types of structures. One
may expect that in the near future accurate local flow velocities and turbu­
lence intensities as a result of three-dimensional flow models will act as in­
put for the Breusers-equilibrium method, which can be considered as a con-
stination and an expansion of the work of Breusers (1966). In other words,
one may speak of a revitalisation of the Breusers formula, with which a lot
of experience has been gained, mainly in the Netherlands but also abroad.

1.3 SUMMARY

The manual is divided into seven parts, the first of which is a general intro­
duction to the subject. The next five parts deal with calculation methods for
predicting scour near hydraulic structures and, in the final part, some exam­
ples of scour at prototype scale are described. A brief summary of each
chapter follows.

Chapter 2 - Basic concepts

The most relevant characteristics that influence the scour process, such as
hydraulic, morphological and geotechnical conditions are discussed. The
functional design of hydraulic structures is also introduced. If siife long term
functioning of hydraulic structures is to be ensured, access to information
relating to failure mechanisms and boundary conditions is indispensable.
The scour which may occur at the site of a structure may be considered as a
combination of bed scour resulting from different processes (general scour
and local scour). In addition, time phases can be distinguished in the scour
process. These phenomena and relations for the critical velocity (based on
the Shields diagram) are presented for both current and waves. The influence
of nonuniform flow is usually expressed by either a turbulence coefficient or
a dominating flow velocity or by both. Scouring is a more or less continuous
process which may suddenly be disturbed by the occurrence of geotechnical
instabilities along the upstream scour slope. Shear failures and flow slides
influence the stability of hydraulic structures. In the extreme case these in­
stabilities involve large masses of sediment and cause a major change of the
4 Scour manual

shape of the upstream side of the scour hole in a relatively short period of
time. Some design criteria which are based on storage models are presented.
In the subsequent chapters the basic scour concept for a number of hydraulic
structures and applications is discussed.

Chapter 3 - Sills
Calculation methods with respect to sills are summarised. A distinction is
drawn between sills with a broad or a sharp crest and between sills with and
without bed protection. Usually, the flow above a sill is subcritical but, de­
pending on the downstream water level, the flow may become supercritical.
The time-dependent and equilibrium behaviour of scour holes in sandy beds
related to closure works (broad-crested sills) in tidal channels is discussed.
Special attention is paid to the effects of turbulence and flow pattern on the
scour process. An approximate method (reduction method) for calculation of
the maximum scour depth is described. This takes into account the influence
of upstream sediment supply. In addition, a method to adjust this calculation
method for unsteady flow, especially tidal flow, is given. These methods
were successfully applied during the design of the Eastern Scheldt Storm
Surge barrier. The upstream scour slope determines the stability of the up­
stream part of the scour hole and the adjacent bed protection. A relation for
the upstream scour slope, based on a probabilistic bed load model for bed
load transport, is presented. Relations derived from the so-called systematic
scour investigation were verified by two field experiments.

Chapter 4 - Jets
Scour due to several jet forms, such as plunging jets, submerged jets, hori­
zontal and vertical jets, and two and three dimensional jets is discussed. In
addition, the complex flow pattern of jets is treated. Semi-empirical relations
for the scour process behind a short-crested sill are presented. These rela­
tions are often used in grade-control structures, where the flow above the sill
is supercritical and for the time dependent development of the maximum
scour depth downstream of a hydraulic jump. The structure of these relations
show a good similarity with the Breusers approach. Since there is no univer­
sal scour relation that gives a good prediction of the practical equilibrium
scour depth in all cases, some semi-empirical relations are presented. These
relations must be clearly understood prior to any attempt to use them for de­
sign purposes.

Chapter 5 -Abutm ents and spur dikes

Relations for predicting local scour at the head of abutments, for which sev­
eral names are used in the literature are presented. The flow characteristics
around blunt and streamlined abutments are briefly discussed. Attention is
also paid to the time scale of the scour process and types of scour (e.g.
 Introduction 5

overall degradation, bend scour, constriction scour). Since the literature

contains many scour relations, a number of generally acceptable predictors
have been selected for this report. Finally, attention is paid to failure
mechanisms and measures to mitigate scour near abutments.

Chapter 6 - Bridge piers

Relations for estimating scour around bridge piers are summarised. To date
it has not been possible to determine the scour depth around bridge piers
from a theoretical analysis of the water movement around the pier, so em­
pirical relations with correction factors and design graphs for the equilibrium
scour depth are discussed. Attention is paid to both the equilibrium scour
depth and to the time scale of the scour process and some methods used to
predict bridge piers from scour are cited.

Chapter 7 - Coastal and offshore structures

This chapter deals with the scour induced by wave and current action near
pipelines, piles, vertical breakwaters, coastal defences and other submerged
structures. For accurate prediction of the scour process it is necessary to
have detailed descriptions of the nearshore hydrodynamics. However, these
processes fall outside the scope of this manual, so the required information
should be obtained from site-specific studies. Here, simple prediction meth­
ods which relate the scour depth to the incident wave conditions, the flow
depth, the structure geometry and/or reflection coefficient are described. No
effects of angled wave attack or of tidal or wave induced current have yet
been accounted for. It must be stressed that our knowledge of scour due to
waves or due to the combined effect of current and waves is still in a rather
rudimentary stage and that more research and practical experience is still
needed.

Chapter 8 - Prototype situations

Five cases on prototype scale, based on feasibility studies or design studies,
are evaluated in order to determine the practical use of the scour relations al­
ready discussed. These cases are:
- Lengthening of abutments in the Waal River, the Netherlands,
- Submerged vanes in the Waal River, the Netherlands,
- Improvement of the access channel to the port of Barranquilla, Colom­
bia,
- Damming of the Chao Phraya River, Thailand, for navigation improve­
ment,
- Gravity based structure. North Sea.
Acknowledgement
The discussions with colleagues at Delft Hydraulics were much appreciated.
6 Scour manual

especially the discussions with H.N.C. Breusers, G J. Klaassen, T. van der

Meulen, L.C. van Rijn, N. Struiksma and A.M. Talmon.
The support and useful comments of A. Franken, R.E. Jorissen, A. Kraak,
H.E. Klatter, J. Lindenberg and F.M. Stroeve of the Ministry of Transport
Public Works and Water Management was highly appreciated.
Finally, R. van der Laag was gratefully acknowledged for the drawing.
References
Abdel Ghafar, A. , M. Mossa & A. Petrillo , 1995, Scour from flow downstream of a sluice gate after a horizontal
apron, 6th international symposium on river sedimentation, New Delhi, India: 10691088.
Ackers, P. & W.R. White , 1973, Sediment transport: New approach and analysis, Journal of Hydraulics
Division, ASCE (HY11): 20412060.
Ahmad, M. , 1953, Experiments on design and behaviour of spur dikes, Proc. IAHR conference, Minnesota,
USA: 145159.
Akkerman, G.J. , 1976, Stormvloedkering Oosterschelde, Werkgroep 8, Vormgeving en constructie van
sluitgaten, WL8-59, Ontgrondingen rond putten bij gedeeltelijk verdedigde bodem, Report M1402, Delft
Hydraulics, Delft.
Altinbilek, H.D. & Y. Basmaci , 1973, Localized scour at the downstream of outlet structures, Proc. 11th
congress on large dams, Madrid: 105121.
Ariens, E.E. , 1993, Relatie tussen ontgrondingen en steenstabiliteit van de toplaag, Technical University of
Delft, Delft.
Ashmore, P. & G. Parker , 1983, Confluence scour in coarse braided streams, Water Resources Research,
19(2): 392402.
ASTM, 1992, Soil and rock; Dimension stone, Geosynthetics, Volume 04.08, Philadelphia, USA.
Baker, R.E. , 1986, Local scour at bridge piers in non-uniform sediment, Report 402, Department of Civil
Engineering University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
Bijker, E.W. & W. Leeuwestein , 1984, Interaction between pipelines and the seabed under the influence of
waves and currents, Seabed mechanics. Proc. symp. IUTAM/IUGG: 235242. International Union of Theoretical
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Bijker, R. , C. Staub , F. Silvis & R. Bruschi , 1991, Scour induced free spans, Proc. 23rd conference on
offshore technology , Houston, Texas, Paper 6762.
Bishop, A.W. , 1954, The use of slip circle in the stability analysis of slopes, Proc. European conference on
stability of earth slopes, I S. 112, Stockholm.
Bishop, J.R. , 1980, Experience with scour at the Christchurch bay tower, Scour prevention techniques around
offshore structures, The Society for Underwater Technology, London.
Blaisdell, F.W. & C.L. Anderson , 1989, Scour at cantilevered outlets: Plunge pool energy dissipator design
criteria, ARS-76, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Washington, D.C.
Blazejewski R. , 1991, Prediction of local scour in cohesionless soil downstream of outlet structures,
Agricultural University of Poznan, Faculty of Reclamation and Environmental Engineering, Poznan, Poland.
196 Bogardi, J.L. , 1974, Sediment transport in alluvial streams, Akademiai Kiado, Budapest.
Bonasoundas, M. , 1973, Strmungsvorgang und Kolkproblem am runden Brckenpfeiler, Versuchsanstalt fr
Wasserbau, Bericht 28, Technischen Universitt Mnchen, Oskar v. Miller Institut, Germany.
Bormann, N.E. & P.Y. Julien , 1991, Scour downstream of grade-control structures, Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, ASCE, 117(5): 579594.
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