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Why are some molecular compounds solid while others are gaseous and others are liquid
at room temperature?
Competing Powers
One major factor that is responsible for the varied behavior of solids, liquids, and gases is
the nature of the interaction that attracts one particle (atom, ion, or molecule) to another.
The attractive forces that hold molecules together are called intermolecular forces.
3 Types of Intermolecular Forces
• 1) Dipole-Dipole
• 2) Hydrogen Bonding
• 3) London Forces (Induced Dipole Forces)
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Adding energy
to liquids will
overcome the
forces holding
the molecules
together–
boiling
Adding energy
to solids will
overcome the
forces holding
the molecules
together–
melting
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Energy calculations for phase changes may be carried out using the tabulated values for:
Example: Determine the amount of heat needed to melt 155 g of ice at 0°C, we use the
heat of fusion of water (79.7 cal/g) as a conversion factor.
Note: No Temperature Change!
Ice (0oC) → Water (0oC)
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Group Work:
A patient with a fever is sponged with 50.0 g of 2-propanol. How much heat energy is
drawn from the patient when 2-propanol vaporizes?
(heat of vaporization for 2-propanol is 159 cal/g)
The amount the temperature of an object increases depends on the amount of _________
added (Q).
– If you double the added heat energy the temperature will increase twice as
much.
Q = S x m x ΔT
The table above gives the specific heats of various substances with units of cal/g oC.
Specific heats can also be tabulated with units of J/g oC.
• For example, since 1 cal = 4.184 Joules, the specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g oC
• If you use cal/g oC in your calculation, the energy (Q) will be in calories.
• If you use J/g oC in your calculation, the energy (Q) will be in joules.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Example:
Calculate the amount of heat energy (in joules) needed to raise the temperature of 7.40 g
of water from 29.0°C to 46.0°C
Group Work
How much energy needs to be removed from 175 g of water to lower the temperature
from 23.0oC to 15.0oC ?
Do this problem, you should get 3.4 x 103 cal for the answer.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
E = Epotential + Ekinetic
This is not practical to measure in the lab or to model in calculations!
Just like the energy (E), in nature, given the chance, everything proceeds to
the lowest possible free energy (G)!
• The “free energy” (ΔG) of a process can be thought of as the potential for
change….
∆G = Gf - Gi
A spontaneous process has a negative ∆G and a nonspontaneous process has a
positive ∆G.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Gas molecules or atoms are very ______________ apart from one another.
-different from liquids and solids!!
• Gas particles move in a straight line until they collide with another particle or the
container wall. .
Because of the relatively large distances between gas particles, most of the volume
occupied by a gas is empty space.
• Except for a few very heavy gases, most gasses will completely fill their container.
Gases can____________________________.
• Gaseous molecules travel at high speeds in all directions and mix quickly with
molecules of gases in the air in a process called diffusion.
Gas Pressure
Pressure = total _______________________applied to a certain area
larger force = larger pressure
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Air Pressure
• Constantly present when air present
• Decreases with altitude
– less air
• Measured using a __________________________
– Column of mercury supported by air pressure
– Force of the air on the surface of the mercury balanced by the pull of
gravity on the column of mercury
Relationships:
1 atm = 760. mmHg
1 atm = 760. Torr
1 atm = 14.7 psi
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Gas Laws
Gas Laws Instructional Goals
Understand and be able to use the following gas laws in calculations:
• Boyle’s Law (relationship between pressure and volume)
• Charles’ Law (relationship between volume and temperature)
• Gay-Lussac’s Law (relationship between pressure and temperature)
• Avogadro’s Law (relationship between moles and volume)
• Combined Gas Law (relationship between pressure, volume and temperature)
• Ideal Gas Law (relationship between pressure, volume, number of moles, and
temperature)
The gas laws are the mathematical equations that show the ___________________
between volume, temperature, pressure, and amount of gas.
1) Boyle’s Law
• Boyle studied the relationship between volume and pressure.
_____________ ___________.
• Boyle also noticed that when the pressure and/or volume of a gas is changed the
• PxV = Constant
Boyle’s Law:
• Remember that when using Boyle’s Law, that the _______________is never
changing.
• Only the pressure and volume change.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Example:
The initial volume of the gas in the piston below is 3.00 liters and the initial pressure is
1.00 atm. The piston compressed (at constant temperature) to a new final volume of 1.00
L. What is the final pressure?
Group Work:
If the syringe shown has an initial volume of 0.50 mL and the gas in the syringe is at a
pressure of 1.0 atm, what is the pressure inside the syringe if your finger is placed over
the opening and the plunger is pulled back to give a final volume of 3.0 mL?
P1 =
V1 =
P2=????
V2 =
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
2) Charles’ Law
• Charles observed that as the temperature increases, the volume increases and vice
versa.
• The direct relationship between temperature and volume is known as
_________________ ___________.
• Charles also noticed that ratio of volume to temperature of a gas is always the
same.
Charles’ Law:
• Remember that when using Charles’ Law, that the ____________________is
never changing.
• Only the temperature and volume change.
• Temperature must be Kelvin (K).
• Kelvin temperature scale is always positive
• K = oC + 273.15
Example:
The initial volume of the gas in the piston below is 1.35 liters. The temperature is
lowered from 373 K to 250. K (at constant pressure). What is the final volume?
Group Work
A balloon is inflated to 665 mL volume at 27°C. It is immersed in a dry-ice bath at
−79°C. What is its volume, assuming the pressure remains constant?
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
3) Gay-Lussac’s Law
• Gay-Lussac’s observed that as the temperature increases, the pressure increases
and vice versa.
The direct relationship between temperature and pressure is known as ____________
_____________.
Gay-Lussac also noticed that ratio of pressure to temperature of a
gas is always the same.
Group Work
An aerosol can containing gas at 25 atm and 22°C is heated to 55°C. Calculate the
pressure in the heated can.
K = oC + 273.15
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Example:
At an ocean depth of 33 ft, where the pressure is 2.0 atm and the temperature is 285K, a
scuba diver releases a bubble of air with a volume of 6.0 mL. What is the volume of the
air bubble when it reaches the surface, where the pressure is 1.0 atm and the temperature
is 298K ?
P1= _______
T1= _______
V1= _______
P2= _______
T2= _______
V2= ?????
Avogadro’s Law
• Avogadro’s observed that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
number of gas molecules.
• The direct relationship between moles of gas molecules and volume is known as
__________________ ____________.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Group Work
A balloon has a volume of 2.4 L and contains 0.12 moles of air. A child blows
more air into the balloon until it has a final volume of 3.5 L. How many moles of gas are
in the balloon?
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
These assumptions work well for most gases and most conditions.
One way to model a gas’s behavior is to assume that the gas is an __________ ________
that perfectly follows these laws.
The gas constant (R) is a mathematical combination of all the individual gas law
constants (Cb, Cc, Cg, Ca)
The Ideal Gas Law is more commonly written as:
• When using this equation you must have the following units:
• Pressure = atm
• Volume = liters
• Temperature = K
There are 4 variables in this equation:
In problems, we will always be given 3 of the 4 variables, then solve for the unknown
variable.
Example: How many moles of gas are contained in 11.2 liters at 1.00 atm and 0.0°C?
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Group Work:
What is the volume of 25.0 grams of oxygen gas (O2) at room temperature (22 oC) and
1.00 atm pressure?
P=
T=
n=
V=????
Partial Pressure
Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the total pressure of a mixture
of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of its components.
• The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is the pressure that the
gas would exert if alone
When two gases are present, the total pressure is the sum of the partial
pressures of the gases.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Liquids
Properties of Liquids
Viscosity is the resistance to flow.
- It is related to the strength of the non covalent interactions between the
molecules that make up the liquid - the stronger the attractions, the thicker
the liquid.
Vapor Pressure
Due to collisions that
take place between particles
(atoms or molecules) that
make up a liquid, particles at
the surface are continually
evaporating - being “bounced”
off into the gas phase. At the
same time gas phase
molecules are being trapped
and converted to liquid.
• The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
liquid equals the atmospheric pressure.
• Liquids boil when their vapor pressure equals the pressure of the air above them.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Solids
• The atoms, ions, or molecules that make up a solid are held close to one another
and have a limited ability to move around.
• Solids can be classified based on whether or not the arrangement of these particles
is ordered (in crystalline solids) or not (in amorphous solids).
Crystalline Solids
• Ionic
– consist of oppositely charged ions held to one another by ionic bonds
• Molecular
– consist of an ordered arrangement of molecules attracted to one another by
noncovalent interactions
• Covalent Networks
– atoms are held to one another by an arrangement of covalent bonds that
extends through the solids.
• Metallic
– An array of metal cations immersed in a cloud of electrons that spans the
entire crystalline structure.
Metallic Solids
Metallic Bonding
• The valence electrons in metals are free
to move about the entire crystal of metal
nuclei and core electrons.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
Metallic substances are malleable (they can be hammered or beaten in thin sheets)
Metallic compounds are ductile (they can be drawn, pulled, or extruded through a small
opening to produce wire.
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Chemistry 108 lecture notes Chapter 5: Solids, Liquids, Gases
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