•i B ^ M B ^ B i B ' B ^ M ^ H w o r k s

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How To Diagnose ai
Repair Automotiv
Electrical Systei
 T o Leslie, w h o s e love a n d advice is a gift-

First published in 2005 by Motorbooks, an imprint O n the front coven

of MBI Publishing Company, Galtier Plaza, Suite 200.
380 Jackson Street, St. Paul. M N 55101-3885 USA
© Tracy Martin, 2005
All righrs reserved. With the exception of quoting brief
passages for the purposes of review, no part of this
publication may be reproduced without prior written
permission from the Publisher.
T h e information in this book is true and complete to
the best of our knowledge. All recommendations arc
made without any guarantee on the p a n of the author
or Publisher, who also disclaim any liability incurred in
connection with the use of this data or specific details.
This publication has been prepared solely by M B I
Publishing C o m p a n y and is not approved or licensed
by any other entity. W c recognize that some words,
model names, and designations mentioned herein
are the property of the trademark holder. We use
them for identification purposes only. This is not an
official publication.
Main: Sometimes a lab scope is the only way to
determine if an electrical component is doing its job.
T h e waveform for one of the cighttfuel injectors on
this Ford F150 looks good. Small: These components
may appear different, but they're all just load dcviccs
with resistance to electron flow.
O n the back cover: A relay has been added to a
driving light circuit. T h e relay now controls the high
amperage load that the driving ligfits need to operate.
For more on this, see Chapter 8.
ISBN-10: 0-7603- 2099-3
Editors: Jennifer Johnson and IVicr BodenMeincr
Designer: Chris Faycrs
Printed in China

Motorbooks titles are also available at discounts in bulk

quantity for industrial or sales-promotional use. For
derails write to Special Sales Manager at
MBI Publishing Company, Galtier Plaza,
Suite 200, 3 8 0 Jackson Street, St. Paul,
M N 55101-3885 USA.
CONTENTS
Pr«tM« J

SECTION I: THEORY
P.HAPTFR 1 Ohm1. Law 1P
-Three Things* About 12-Volt DC Circuits 11
•Three Things* About 12-Volt DC Circuits 14
Resistance/Amps Relationship 16
DC and AC Circuits 18
Oh No. Math? 19
Rules of Operation for Three Types of Circuits 20

CHAPTER 2: Voltage Drop Testing 28

nnn't I an Ohmmctpr .. P7
How a Voltmeter Measures Voltage 28
Testing Circuits Dynamically 30
Voltage Drop 32
How Mnrh k Tnn Mnr-h? . 33
Locating the Bad Spot 35
Test. Don't Guess 36

SECTION II: TOOLS

CHAPTER 3: Electronic Testing Toolt 37
Test Ughts 38
Multimeters 40
Fluke Multimeter 42
Measuring Amperage 45
Logic Probes 46
Noid Ughts 46
Rhnrt Finder* 47
Jumper Wires and Accessories 49
Coil Testers 50
Spark Tester 51
Ignition Timing Lights 53
Battery Testers 53
Lab Scopes 54
Soldering Tools 55

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S E C T I O N III; E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S
CHAPTER 4: Storage Battery 58
Chemical Reactions 59
Discharging 60
Electrolyte Solution 61
Charging 62
Battery Ratings 63
Type ot Batteries . . . .63
Battery T e s t i n g - S t a t e of Charge • • 64
Dynamic Battery Testing 65
Hand-held Battery Testers 67

CHAPTER 5: C h a r g i n g a n d S t a r t i n g Sy»temm 69
n r : n«npratnr<; S3
DC Generator Voltage Regulators 71
Allornatnre ,. Z2
Mechanical Voltage Regulators for Alternators 7S
Transistorized Electronic Voltage Regulators • 76
Internal and Computer-Controlled Voltage Regulators 77
Charge Indicators 78
Alternator Testing • 81
Generic Alternator Testing 83
G M Alternator with External Regulator 85
G M Delcotron Alternator with Internal Regulator 87
Delco-Remy CS Alternator 87
Ford-Altemator with External Regulator 89
F n r r l - M n t n r r f a f t IAR Altarnatnr-i £H
Chrysler Alternator with External Voltage Regulator 90
Chrysler's Computer-Controlled Alternator 90
DC Generator and Regulator Testing 90
Generator Polarizing
Starter Motors 92
Starter Solenoids 93
Starter Testing 93

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CHAPTER 6: I g n i t i o n Systems 98
How To Get from 1? Volts 10 100.000 Volts 97
Ignition Coils 97
Generic Coil Testing 99
Points and Condenser 101
Electronic Ignition and Computer Controls 102
Triggers 104
Ignition Modules 107
Generic Ignition Module Testing 107
Ignition Module "Tap" Testing 108
Secondary Ignition Circuit 116

CHAPTER 7 Fuel I n j e c t i o n Systems 119

narhi.rotnrQ 120
Electronic Fuel Injection 120
Taking EFI (or a Test Drive 121
Sensor Testing 124
fieneral Motors 128
Ford Motor Company 128
Chrysler 131
MflM Airflnw Spnwrs — 131
Fuel Injectors and injector Pulse 134

SECTION 4: GENERAL ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS

CHAPTER 8: W i r i n g Diagrams 136
Reading Wiring Diagrams 137
Wiring Diagram Exercises 141
Answers to Wiring Diagram Questions 142

CHAPTER 9: Troubleshooting Electrical Systems 147

The Starter that Doesn't: A Case Study 147
Bad Grounds 152
Cross over Circuits 153
Parasitic Amp Draw 156

Sources 157
Index 1S9

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 PREFACE
W hile the automotive clectrical field has always
fascinated me. it has taken me about 25 years to get
to the position of writing this book. I have spent years
working in my garage on all makes of vehicles. It has
oftentimes been a long and arduous process of trial and
error, discovering what works and what doesn't, how to
fashion "short-cuts." and most importantly, how to break it
all down into simple, easy-to-undcrstand "sound bites" of
information that a reader or beginning mechanic can
quickly understand and digest. Fortunately, what has made
this process somewhat easier is that I have been taught by
some of the best people in the fields of automotive repair
and training. Many of the instructional methods used to
convey technical information in this book have been
borrowed from colleagues, friends, and fellow mechanics
and then elaborated upon. However, throughout my
experiences I have often been struck by the notion that the
related areas of automotive electricity, electronics, and
diagnostic testing arc needlessly complicated and presented
in a confused manner. I have endeavored to correct this
imbalance in this book.

In the early 1980s I worked as a lab technician at a large

turbocharger manufacturer in Southern California. 'Phis
company was one of the few pioneering innovators in
design and construction of turbochargers for the dicscl and
automotive markets. It also had the largest engine
dynamometer facility on the West Coast. Many auto
manufacturers introduced the advantages of turbocharging
an engine in the early 1980s, and as a technician in the right
place at the right time. I was fortunate enough to see new
and developing automotive technology years prior to its
incorporation into production vehicles. This environment
was the setting in which I received an introduction to some
of the earliest electronic engine management systems, their
modes of operation, and their inherent "teething" problems.
Along with fellow technicians, 1 had the opportunity to
install test engines into various dyno test cells (soundproof
rooms), mounting all the electronics on a plywood board
next to the engine. As engine testing progressed, the
computer-controlled carburetor or fuel injection system
would inevitably "crash and burn" and have to be repaired.
Since there were no service manuals available (they aren't
written prcproduction), automotive engineers were the
only source of information for how the systems were
supposed to work. And more often than not. the response
from engineers to queries for more information about why
something didn't work out as cxpcctcd went something like
this: "The system couldn't possibly have malfunctioned: it's
made using state-of-the-art electronics, designed by a
qualified electrical engineer. You must have installed it
incorrectly." Although this was not the most ideal
environment in which to learn automotive electronics,
some technical knowledge rubbed off on me with the help
of fellow technicians.
Some years later, the widespread introduction into the
automotive industry of carburetors with wires coming out
of them and electronic fuel injection systems gave me the
opportunity to teach fellow mechanics (now called
technicians) what I had learned about how to diagnosis and
repair these systems. I taught classes for many nationwide
corporations, including Sun, Allen, Nissan, and Snap-On.

8
Typically, these instructions occurred in the evenings, after
everyone had already put in a full day working on cars. Too
often, I was faced with a group of ill-fated students all
wishing they were home eating dinner instead of sitting in
class. Keeping these students awake, interested, and open
to learning was a challenge, to say the least. Consequently,
over the years I gained invaluable experience and learned,
out of necessity, innovative ways of imparting information
and keeping things moving during class. As a result. I have
been able to incorporate many of those techniques and
ideas into this book.
In addition to teaching. I had the great fortune to
spend quite a few years working and consulting at a
unique and interesting business called Automotive Data
Systems (ADS) in California. A D S is a cutting-edge
company that provides a telephone automotive diagnostic
"hotline" that technicians can call in to receive
immediate, real-person, real-world advice on how to
diagnose and repair a specific problem on a car as its
being worked on. T h e automotive database compiled,
referenced, and stored at this facility is truly amazing,
having (at last count) over 30,000 records, or "tech-
notes." pertaining to specific years, makes, and models of
vehicles and their drivability-relatcd problems. As a
result, ADS technicians have been consistently able to
give correct advice to customers over 95 percent of the
time. With this much confidence in that database and
the daily hands-on training I received in diagnostics
and troubleshooting, I was able to synthesize a great deal
of information about electrical automotive systems and
their diagnosis and repair. I am forever indebted to the
great bunch of guys I met at this company who have
always generously shared (and c o n t i n u e to) their
knowledge and experience with me. Unfortunately, the
company, although still in business, hxs been swallowed
up by a large automotive aftcrmarkct "solutions" provider;
many of the employees now work for a large Korean car
manufacturer somewhere in Southern California.
Hopefully, they've all found diagnostic nirvana there.
Finally, for the last 25 years of my life there has been my
wife. O n our first date, she showed up at my door only to
find me working in my garage on my recently acquired
1964 Corvette. It should have been a portent for her of
things to come. However, she was not dissuaded. For this,
I am forever indebted to her, especially for her continuing
efforts to p u m p some life into me and make me funny and
acccssible to humans. I don't know where I'd be without
her—probably somewhere else sucking engine juice for life
support and wishing I had a wife just like her.
If all these experiences have taught me anything, its that
the more I think I know, the more I realize I don't know
much at all. So I'd like to thank some of the people who
have helped me over the yean, especially with the writing
of this book.
Chief and foremost. I'd like to thank "Teck." H e was my
master teacher during my short tenure as a high school
auto-shop teacher and also the founder of ADS. His
technical and personal advice over the years has been an
invaluable source of inspiration, development, and practical
growth, and without him I am sure I would be something
less of the person I am today. I'd also like to thank both
Curt Moore and Dave Bellaver, who allowed me access,
through their contacts, to much of the technical infor-
mation contained in this book. I'd also like to thank
especially Mike McFJfresh. a former coworker, technical
scribe, and overall automotive scholar at ADS. Without his
rechnical ediring. and invaluable input, some of the stupid
things I originally wrote would have wound up printed in
these pages for you to laugh at. Fortunately, his generous
gift of time and his always-willing-to-help attitude has
(hopefully!) saved me from professional embarrassment.
Thanks, Mike, for all your help. lastly and again, there is
my wife, whose incredible patience, astute editing skills,
and sharp-edged advice ( O U C H ! ) made this a better book.
She helped me avoid writing about voltmeters or alter-
nators that "speak" or ground path returns that go
nowhere. I'd like to thank her from the bottom of my heart
and promise her that she doesn't have to read this book
"just one more time."
In closing, I'd just like to say that I hope you, the reader,
are able to gain some practical skills and knowledge, which
will help increase your confidence when faced with
automotive electrical challenges.
— Tracy Martin
 SECTION I
THEORY
T his first scction is intended to provide a bare-bones
explanation of general electrical theory and how basic
direct current (IXI) electricity operates in an automobile.
Its not important to understand electricity inside and
o u t — a subject many books cover in excruciating detail—
but it is important to have a basic understanding of how to
apply a practical working knowledge of electricity in order
to diagnose and repair electrical malfunctions that show up
in your car or truck.
An in-depth examination of clcctrical theory is far more
complex and cumbersome than the practical "hands-on"
premise offered in this book. Therefore, apologies arc
offered in advance to readers with more than a working
CHAPTER 1
OHM'S LAW
B ecause billions of electrons flowing through a wire at
the speed of light are difficult to see and—for most
people—hard to even imagine, electronics and clcctrical
repair arc areas of vehicle maintenance most people shy
away from. Unlike disassembling and cleaning a carburetor,
changing a flat tire, or bolting accessories onto your vehicle,
repairing electrical systems is a truly cerebral endeavor;
however, it is not impossible or even difficult. Electrical
systems may seem perplexing while watching a seasoned
automotive technician with electronics sawy diagnose an
electrical problem in a vchicle, especially when you think
you may have to repeat the process when faced with an
clcctrical nightmare at a later point. However, a little secret
allows you to easily repeat skills needed to diagnose a starter
motor that goes "click," a dim headlight, an engine that
starts and dies, or to find and fix any number of other
mysterious problems. T h e secret is practice.
Most people understand the need for practice, especially
when it comes to sports; playing baseball, riding motor-
cycles, shooting pool, bowling—anything requiring a
specific skill set goes a lot smoother with experience. For
example, suppose you haven't picked up a baseball bat in a
10
knowledge ot electricity or electronics since this book takes
certain liberties and shortcuts with clcctrical science. For all
electronically challenged mortals, ( rtapter I on I )hm's Law
is a hot-rod version of how 1 J volt automotive electrical
systems operate. Then, Chapter 2 on voltage drop testing
cuts to the chase by showing how to apply the information
learned in the context of solving real automotive ptobleniv
In fact, all subjects covered in this book relate in some way
to basic theories discussed in chapters 1 and 2. So. if brain-
fade starts to set in while reading more detailed sections on
wiring diagrams or electronic fuel injection diagnosis, a
revisit to these chapters for an electrical theory "tune-up"
may prove helpful.
year and it's your turn at bat in a game, there's a good
chance you'll strike out. As everyone knows, a little practice
before a game goes a long way toward ensuring success.
Likewise, the day your vehicle fails to start also should not
be the first time you switch on .our new digital voltmeter.
Simply having basic electrical knowledge is not enough:
you mast practice applying that knowledge by using a
multimeter on an operating circuit. This will provide
a better-than-average chance of hitting the ball the first
time (electrically speaking) when \omcthing goes wrong
with your car. And it's easier than you think.
Applying electrical theory to the real world is simply a
matter of knowing what reading to expect from
a volt/amp/ohmmeter display connected to a working
circuit before connecting it to a problem circuit. Antici-
pating what the reading should be and understanding what
die numbers mean allows visualization of an otherwise
invisible problem. By practicing on operating circuits with
known values, you'll gain the necessary confidence to figure
out what to look for in a circuit that isn't doing what it's
supposed to. Ixt's stan by dissecting a common 12-volt IX"
circuit—it doesn't get much simpler.
i r ^ n ^ x
Aample 12-vdtlxi3ery. wvrs. and ttftlMbnikgup3baste DCcirtwl
"THREE THINGS" ABOUT
12-VOLT DC CIRCUITS
Everything clcctrical in a vchiclc is part of a circuit. Circuits
arc simply layouts, or designs, of h o w clcctrical c o m p o n e n t s
are powered and controlled. Electrical c o m p o n e n t s f o u n d
in automobiles are usually divided into categories of circuits
( t h o u g h n o t always). For example, a lighting circuit is
c o m p o s e d of headlights, taillights, r u n n i n g lights, a n d
interior lights: a charging circuit includes an alternator (or
generator), voltage regulator (if used), and battery; typical
WW / )
fuel injection circuits have an electronic control m o d u l e
( E C M ) a n d various sensors a n d actuators.
W i t h i n each system are individual circuits that control
specific clcctrical c o m p o n e n t s . Headlights a n d taillights arc
part of the lighting system, b u t each operates via a separate
circuit within that system. Tills system within a system, or
subsystem, creates a big s t u m b l i n g block for m a n y "shade
tree" mechanics and professional technicians alike w h o arc
faced with problems in a u t o m o t i v e clcctrical systems. In
order to diagnose an electrical problem, a nonoperational
Urheberrechlllch g e s c h u t z t e s Ma'e
v \ mm i p\ i m i m /
GROUND
RETURN
/ " • S
POWER
SOURCE
I
Hg 1-1. Three dements of a
Dw tgtti btfb. irx3(3)Pv black <Mn a Pw ground return
circuit must he separated and isolated f r o m the overall
larger system of which it is a p a n . as well as from other
operating circuits w i t h i n that same system.
W h e n faced with an a u t o m o t i v e electrical repair, most
people typically turn t o m a n u f a c t u r e r wiring diagrams for
help. T h e y wrongly assume that since the diagrams provide
a blueprint of the electrical system, they will thus help with
the identification of specific inoperable circuits. However,
this approach is like looking for a needle in a haystack.
Manufacturers' wiring diagrams don't isolate or identic-
inoperable circuits; in fact, since they can show the entire
lighting system with all its circuits, or worse, the complete
electrical system for the whole vehicle, this approach can
prove d a u n t i n g unless you know what to look for.
T h e abiliry to identify- and isolate a circuit allows you to
simply c o n n e c t a voltmeter properly and anticipate the
respective readings. T h i s is n o t hard or intimidating if you
understand the " T h r e e T h i n g s " that m a k e u p all 12-volt
D C circuits. W h e n any o n e of the " T h r e e T h i n g s " goes
missing in action, the circuit stops working. While this may-
seem obvious, it is far less so w h e n looking at a complex
wiring diagram or actual wiring harness u n d e r the h o o d .
However, when you k n o w what t o look for. these " T h r e e
12
LOAD
\ /
GROUND
SIDE
T h i n g s " are easily identified as t h e primary c o m p o n e n t s of
every 12-volt D C electrical circuit.
T h e " T h r e e T h i n g s " listed—power source, load device,
and g r o u n d r e t u r n — a r e all necessary and must be present
in a circuit in order for it to operate
Power Source
Ever)- electrical c o m p o n e n t must have a power source in
order to operate. All clcctrical energy needed for the circuit
to d o its job is provided by a power source. In order for
electricity to move along a wire, s u b a t o m i c particles called
electrons (invisible t o the naked eye) interact to transfer
energy from o n e point to another, they provide power for
a circuit. Starting at a battery's positive terminal, electrons
are pushed t h r o u g h the circuit. Any problems with connec-
tions o n the power side of a circuit will afleci the entire
circuit. T h i s seems like a no-brainer. b u t o f t e n t i m e s techni-
cians a n d h o m e mechanics spend countless h o u r s trying t o
discover w h y something w o n t work only t o find o u t later
that a simple blown fuse is the cause.
T h e battery andVor alternator/generator arc the chief
power sources for all electrical and electronic circuits in a
vehicle. In a d d i t i o n , wires connected t o cither a battery's
 «/\IID/E mm mmm /
positive terminal or an alternators o u t p u t terminal arc
considered a power source. Consequently, relays, (uses,
junction blocks, and fusible links also provide power to
electrical c o m p o n e n t s because they connect to the battery's
positive terminal. Additional terminology used t o refer to
power sources includes: plus side, power side, hot or h o t
side, positive ( • ) . and batter}*.
Load Device
A load device is any c o m p o n e n t that uses u p voltage or has
resistance t o clcctrons flowing through a wire. Most load
devices simply a m o u n t t o n o t h i n g m o r e than electrical
c o n d u c t o r s of various lengths, sizes, a n d shapes. For
example, motors, relays, lights, solenoids, coils, spark plugs,
and c o m p u t e r s (black boxes) arc all load devices with some
resistance. T h e h u n d r e d s of load do-ices appearing in
wiring diagrams all p e r f o r m some type of useful work and
Two power sources found « ar reticles—the sUrage batfery and aatmator lor gemdtot In oldef vetoes}
arc included as p a n of the design of the circuit in which
they f u n c t i o n .
However, there is o n e type of load device we can all live
w i t h o u t : unwanted load devices. T"hesc run the g a m u t f r o m
corroded or loose connections to frayed sections of wire to
dirtv - contacts inside switches or relays. U n w a n t e d load
devices have resistance t o electron flow, use u p voltage
unnecessarily, and have an undesirable effect o n clcctrical
circuits. Worst of all. they don't show u p o n wiring
diagrams, so you have t o find t h e m yourself. ( C h a p t e r 2 o n
Voltage D r o p Testing will show you how.)
Ground Return
A ground return provides a route for clcctrons (electricity)
to return t o the battery after use by a load device. T h e s e can
be wires, metal b o d y panels, the engine block, the trans-
mission. or a vehicle frame. O t h e r terminology often used
13
V M H H
TT»»sc componeoa ray appe&r cXlferecl. !xj! meyre jus* load <3evc«
t o refer t o a g r o u n d return include}: g r o u n d , cold, earth, or
negative (-). This sequence of electron (low—power, load
device, a n d g r o u n d r e t u r n — i s k n o w n as a complete circuit.
If any of the " Three Things" is disconncctcd, the circuit is
broken and rendered incomplete.
Bocausc electrons arc invisible when flossing through a
circuit, its hard to get an idea of what's going on inside the
system. Consider a basic 12-volt circuit consisting of a batter)',
light bulb, and wires. T h e only s-isual confirmation that the
circuit is operating is that the bulb is on. If everything is
connecrcd and the light bulb Is off. one of the " T h r e e 'Things"
is missing and the only confirmation a technician receives that
something is wrong is that the bulb will not turn on.
Let's think of this concept a n o t h e r way. Water flowing
t h r o u g h a hose is a user-friendly way t o conceptualize what's
h a p p e n i n g inside an operating electrical circuit. Visualize a
tank full of water with an internal p u m p . T h e r e is an inlet
a n d outlet on the tank connccted via hoses to a load device.
W h e n water is p u m p e d o u t of the tank u n d e r pressure, it's
sent t o a load device that docs some f o r m of work. After the
14
H H H
resxtaFce to ttectronflowCoutImy '•'oongef Toyota
energy f r o m the pressurized water extracted via the Itud
device, a return hose (ground rcnirnl sends the ss-ater f r o m
the load device back to the tank where the sequence starts
over again.
For this process t o work continually, water must be
returned t o the t a n k at the same rate it's p u m p e d o u t . The
flow of electrons t h r o u g h an electrical circuit works in a
similar manner. Starting f r o m the circuit's power side,
electrons floss- to a load device svhere they provide energy
for s o m e type of work to b e accomplished. From the load
device they flow t h r o u g h t h e g r o u n d - r e t u r n svire back to
the battery.
"THREE MORE THINGS" ABOUT
12-VOLT DC CIRCUITS
You knesv it couldn't be that simple! O n l y three electrical
concepts t o keep track of) Don't worry; there's not u m
m u c h more.
T h e power source, load dcvice, and g r o u n d return are
physical objects that can actually be seen and touched. In
 I ™ . IP\"W~W
Fig 1-2. D&incusfy happy wotkjng etectrons ace pumped. ce pushed, out of the battery and travel through atoaddeuce back to the battery ria a ground return—
thus, makng a complete circuit.
addition t o these three physical objects, dicrc arc direc
basic, yet less tangible, concepts or principles for a standard
12-volt D C electrical system. U n d e r s t a n d i n g their signifi-
cance a n d interaction is just as i m p o r t a n t as u n d e r s t a n d i n g
h o w the three things form a circuit. Fortunately, t o help o u t
so you're not operating totally in the dark, the net effect of
the interaction of the three m o r e things can b e observed.
The "Three M o r e Things'* arc: voltage, amperage,
a n d resistance.
T h i n k of voltage as electrical pressure, amperage as the
a m o u n t of electricity used in the circuit, a n d resistance as
restriction o n t h e flow of clcctrons t h r o u g h the circuit.
These three concepts represent the electrical values of what s
actually occurring inside an operating circuit. H a v i n g a
clear idea of h o w they interrelate prov ides a concrete image
of what's right o r w r o n g with a D C electrical circuit.
Voltage
Voltage can be t h o u g h t of as pressure needed to push
clcctrons f r o m a battery's positive post, t h r o u g h a load
/ J
device, a n d back to the negative terminal. Voltage, or
electrical pressure, is similar t o pressurized air p r o d u c e d by
an air compressor. T h e compressor forces air i n t o a tank
where it is stored as an energy source. After c o n n e c t i n g an
air-powered tool t o the tank and squeezing the trigger, the
t a n k s high-pressure air is pushed f r o m the tank t h r o u g h
the air hose i n t o t h e tool so the tool can p e r f o r m work. T h e
higher the air pressure, the m o r e work the air tool can
accomplish. T h e same is t r u e of voltage. T h e m o r e voltage,
or clcctrical pressure present, the harder a n d m o r e forcefully
the electrons arc pushed along a wire a n d t h r o u g h the load
device. T h e r e are only 12.6 volts w o r t h of push in an
a u t o m o b i l e batter)'. W i t h the engine r u n n i n g , the alter-
nator raises this voltage t o a r o u n d 14.5 volts. W i t h only
these small a m o u n t s of push present, it's i m p o r t a n t n o t t o
lose any voltage across a connector o r along a wire.
However, there is a n o t h e r clcctrical system in vehicles
that d c s r l o p s considerably m o r e clcctrical pressure t h a n the
12.6 volts f o u n d at the battery. Ignition systems require
high clcctrical pressure because the load device for the
15
Urheberrechtlich geschutztes Material
 I....... 1
AIR PRESURE
ELECTRICAL PRESSURE
Rfl l-X Air pressure and voOige (etectncal pressuel are simitarr) that more Reiiitance
pmh equate mors wcrt produced try a toad dewe
ignition system circuit Is a set of spark plugs. A spark plug
has resistance to electron flow via the small gap of air
between two of its p a r t s — t h e center and g r o u n d electrodes.
Ignition voltage needs to be high enough t o overcome the
high resistance created by the air gap. The high voltage
creates a spark as it jumps from the spark p l u g s ccnter
electrode to the g r o u n d return elcctrodc. O n older ignition
systems. 2 5 . 0 0 0 volts were required to create a spark that
would overcome the air gap's resistance. T h e o u t p u t o n
newer ignition systems is considerably more, with m a n y
p r o d u c i n g well over 100.000 volts. If you've ever svorked o n
an ignition system with the engine r u n n i n g and been zapped
by a spark-plug wire, you k n o w what that push feels like.
Amperage
Amperage, or current, is the a m o u n t (or volume) of
electricity (amps) flowing t h r o u g h a circuit. A starter m o t o r
with a high amperage d r a w has lots of electrons that must
tras-el f r o m the battery, through the starter, a n d back to the
battery in a complete circuit for the starter to get e n o u g h
energy t o turn the engine over. As m u c h as 2 5 0 a m p s are
required to crank a large V-8 engine. In a starter circuit,
b o t h positive and negative battery cables have t o be large
16
enough t o allow for the unrestricted flow of electrons. In
other words, the diameter o f a cable in a starter system has
to be large e n o u g h to offer low resistance to the m a g n i t u d e
of current flow traveling t h r o u g h the system.
Conversely, the process o f illuminating a taillight
requires considerably less energy. Becausc the b u l b used in
a taillight circuit is a low a m p e r a g e load device, the wires
f r o m the power source to the b u l b and returning back to
the negative batter)- terminal are significantly smaller in
diameter t h a n the cablcs in a starter circuit. T h e minimal
resistance f o u n d in the smaller wires will not slow the
electrons substantially enough to prevent the transfer of
energy neccssary t o light u p a taillight which is only 2
a m p s . T h e a m o u n t of am|>eragc flosv in a circuit is
independent of the size of the wires used. Using a wire the
size of a battery cable t o construct a taillight circuit would
have n o effect on its operation. I lowevct. using a small
taillight-sized svire as a battery cable for a starter circuit
would not work. T h e small wire would not transfer enough
electrons (high amperage) into the starter motor, and it
would overheat a n d melt in half.
Resistance
is the restriction of electron flow in a circuit.
Resistance anywhere in a circuit lows the flow of electrons.
By definition, all load devices have r o i s t a n c e t o electron
flow. T h e relationship between voltage, amperage, and
resistance was discovered a b o u t 1 "70 years ago by G c o r g
S i m o n O h m . T h e theory explaining the interaction of these
principles is known as Ohm's I .aw. The primary
measurement of resistance is expressed as o h m s .
Automobiles have b o t h high a n d low resistive circuits.
For example, a d o m e light bulb m a y have high resistance
(12 ohms) t o electron flow a n d therefore may use o n l y a
small a m o u n t o f current or amperage. By contrast, a starter
m o t o r has a low resistance s-aluc (0.06 o h m ) a n d allows a
greater n u m b e r of electrons (high amperage) to flow f r o m
the battery to the starter. Because resistance restricts the
floss- of electrons in a circuit, it affects the path ( t h e wire)
the electrons travel d o w n . I.ike most o f us, electricity is
lazy—it takes the path of least resistance f r o m o n e p o i n t to
a n o t h e r in a circuit. For example, if o n e of t w o wires
connected to tsvo light bulbs has high resistance, the
electrons ss-ill flosv d o w n the other lower resistive svire
(lighting that bulb only).
RESISTANCE/AMPS RELATIONSHIP
Many electrical gremlins found in a u t o m o b i l e s arc
attributable to u n w a n t e d , high resistance svithin a circuit.
T h e presence of t o o m u c h resistance in a circuit slosvs the
The tottery cable X rt«a»i»V size atfows fl » carry as much as 250 amps in a sunt* crcut Mtrwuf ov&heatoj The smaller wee wtf accommodate only up to
2$ amps; using ttn a starter circuit wotid men a nhaB.

figure 1 -A. A high-amperage, bvr-rcstsmce starter orcuit reqvrres large cattos to aflow enough energy »reach the starter and return to me tottery However, a
taOighfs tugh-resstaxe. tow-ampenge fesnjn requires onty a smal wre to carry its etecmcai load.

17
v I 1
AS RESISTANCE GOES UP,

AMPS CO DOWN.

(VOLTAGE IS CONSTANT)

AS RESISTANCE COES DOWN.

AMPS CO UP.

(VOLTA6E IS CONSTANT)

Fig 1-5. ft you rerrvmbef notftng etse fromffwcfapter. rem&votnng the rtlatons/xpfiefwreiresistance and ainps and how they .vent? wtifun a craif is worth
its ivfrjfil m QcJd for money'), snce it wti htlp yvu Oagnosc many common dcctncaJ prc&cms tt amps are down. then the cause to be unwanted, hgh
resistance: it h&> amperage is present then the orcut resistance is low

How of electrons, causing low performance or
n o n o p c r a t i o n of load devices.
T h e r e is a direct relationship between circuit amperage
a n d circuit resistance. I t s critical to u n d e r s t a n d this simple
cause-and-eflect relationship because k n o w i n g h o w to
apply this knowledge is key toward providing solutions t o
m a n y a u t o m o t i v e electrical problems.
Both a slow t u r n i n g starrer and a d i m headlight arc the
result of an insufficient n u m b e r of electrons passing
t h r o u g h the circuit back to the battery ( f o r m i n g a complete
circuit). Somewhere along the circuit, high resistance has
blocked the flow of current. T h u s , an increase in resistance
causes a decrease in amperage.
However, the opposite occurs whenever resistance in a
circuit is t o o low; a decrease in resistance causes an increase
in amperage. For example, if a power source wire comes
i n t o contact w i t h a g r o u n d return (because of a loose
c o n n e c t i o n , frayed wire, o r another reason), t h u s bypassing
the intended load dcvicc, the low resistance present in the
g r o u n d return allows high amperage t o flow through t h e
circuit. If the wires are t o o small t o carry the increased
amperage, they could overheat and melt, which can
possibly cause a Are. Fuses are used to protect circuits when
resistance to electron flow becomes too low. T h e fuse heats
u p w h e n amperage increases; at some point, amperage gets
high e n o u g h to melt t h e fuse in half, causing an incomplete
circuit. Fuses provide a margin of safety in circuits sincc a
b u r n e d wire could cause an electrical fire. A n d a melted fuse
Ls easier to replace than b u r n e d wires.
It's i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r the ins-ene relationship
between resistance and amperage. W h e n resistance in a
circuit is decreased, amperage always increases propor-
tionally. Conversely, if a circuit has high resistance, the
available amperage is decreased.
DC AND AC CIRCUITS
In a direct current ( D C ) circuit, the floss- of amps always runs
in only o n e direction. For ease of explanation (and in confor-
mance with automotisr publications), all diagrams used in this
book depict dectriciry (electrons) lloss-ing through D C circuits
in one direction o n l y — f r o m a point of higher (positis-c)
voltage to a lossrr (negative) voltage. EJectron floss- from
positive to negative is called conventional electron theory. (In
reality, electron mos-ement at the subatomic lesxl travels only
from negative to positisr in a D C circuit. See Chapter 4 for
the explanation why.) However, since >1x1 can't sec the

18
 CAiin/E \F\~W W /

VOLTS • A M P S TIMES O H M S

O H M S - V O L T S D I V I D E D BY A M P S

A M P S - V O L T S D I V I D E D BY O H M S

WATTS - AMPS TIMES VOLTS

A M P S - W A T T S D I V I D E D BY VOLTS

Fig 1-6. These ar the Das* formulas needed to ffare out the 'numbers'in any 12-vott DC drcuK. To sobe tor any one unknown value. you onty need to few two
of the three values—volts. amps, or ohms. The unknown variable can be determined by the simple mathematical equations above.

electrons while working o n a circuit, the direction in which Furthermore, wiring configurations and c o m p o n e n t s for A C
the)- travel is irrelevant. T h e important thing to remember for current arc generally not compatible with D C circuits.
practical purposes is that in D C circuits electricity always flows
in only one direction. For purposes of illustration, the "hands- OH NO, MATH?
on" subject matter of this book uses the conventional view, Books o n electronics are always packed full of mathematical
based o n the simple assumption (even if not correct) that formulas. If you get that glazed, far-away look w h e n faced
clcctrons in a 1X2 circuit always flow from positive to negative. with cryptic equations like E • I / R , don't worry, this b o o k
By contrast, alternate current (AC) circuits (the type keeps it simple.
typically used in American homes) reverse the direction of W h e n diagnosing an electrical problem o n a car or truck,
voltage 6 0 times per second. These alternating cycles of understanding the dynamic relationship between
forward and backward electron flow are called h e r n (Hz). resistance, amperage, and voltage is critically more
T h i s voltage reversal, which also reverses current flow, gives i m p o r t a n t t h a n any m a t h skills you m a y (or may not!) have.
this type of electrical power its n a m e — a l t e r n a t i n g current. However, s o m e basic calculations will c o m e in h a n d y if you
A C circuits operate o n higher voltages t h a n D C circuits— i n t e n d to a d d electrical accessories to your car. For example,
cither 120, 2 4 0 , or 4 4 0 volts for an A C circuit versus only d o you have any idea h o w big the wires need to b e t o power
12 or 2 4 volts for a D C circuit. u p that 2.000-watt stereo you bought? Should you install a
Be aware that s o m e clcctrical c o m p o n e n t s in a u t o m o b i l e s larger alternator to a c c o m m o d a t e the stereo's power so you
produce only A C voltage, like the alternator a n d s o m e get the sound you want? D o you k n o w the size of the fuse
c o m p u t e r sensors. However, w h e n an alternator produces needed to protect the circuit f r o m meltdown?
A C voltage, diodes (which are electrical one-way valves that T h e formulas listed in Figure 1 - 6 are designed to provide
allow current to pass in only o n e direction) w i t h i n the alter- the basic math neccssary t o find voltage, resistance,
nator convert it to D C voltage before it reaches the battery. amperage, and watts (power) in any circuit. In general,
N o electrical systems used in vehicles operate on A C voltage. these should cover most c o m m o n circuitry design needs.
 [ < A I I B / C ]
Fig 1 -7. fovto >ott are preset*
on the red we between the
battery and bght but) (toed
dewcet The hght butt uses up an
arx)atie roOage Thus, the
ground return wvv reads 0 votes
ai the way back to the negattve
battery term/nal
SOURCE
12 VOLTS
To determine the a m o u n t of any u n k n o w n voltage,
amperage, or resistance present within a particular circuit, the
values of two of die dircc potentials must be k n o w n — t h e
third u n k n o w n value can be determined based on the values
of the other two. Performing a few simple mathematical
c o m p u t a t i o n s allows simple calculation of electrical loads.
To find the voltage used in a circuit, just multiply existing
amps by ohms. Similarly, o h m s c m be calculated by dividing
amps into voltage, likewise, amps can be determined by
dividing o h m s into voltage. If an acccssory you intend to install
is rated in watts and you want to find out how many amps will
be used in the circuit, just divide watts by volts. Conversely, if
you want to find watts, multiply amps by volts.
RULES OF OPERATION FOR
THREE TYPES OF CIRCUITS
T h r e e types of electrical circuits arc used in cars a n d trucks:
series, parallel, and series/parallel. Series a n d parallel circuits
are by far the most c o m m o n and can be f o u n d o n b o t h new
a n d older vehicles. Each type of circuit follows a set of
operational rules that govern h o w the circuit works. S o m e
rules apply to m o r e tlian o n e type of circuit; others apply
t o o n l y o n e type. K n o w i n g these rules and u n d e r s t a n d i n g
how each circuit operates gives you the advantage you need
to diagnose most electrical problems.
Series Circuits
Naturally, there arc "three rules" regarding h o w a series
circuit operates.
The first rule of scries circuits is: All available voltage in
a series circuit will be used u p by the load device.
20
I t s i m p o r t a n t to remember this rule. By keeping it in
m i n d , you'll be able t o d e t e r m i n e what t h e voltage should
be at any point in a scries circuit. It a voltmeter gives an
unexpected result, you'll k n o w where t o look for the
problem. Here's why:
Figure 1 - 7 shows a circuit's p o w e r source as the positive
battery terminal as well as the wire i o n n c c t i n g it to the light
bulb, which is the load device. A full 12 volts f r o m the
power source are present at every point along the wire
between the battery and load device (measured using a
voltmeter). W h e n 12 volts reach the light bulb, it uses u p
all the voltage in the circuit. Since the greedy light b u l b uses
all available voltage by t u r n i n g o n , n o n e is present o n the
g r o u n d return wire o r at the negative battery terminal. (Not
quite true! T h e g r o u n d return wire also has a small a m o u n t
of resistance to current flow, which causes some voltage to
be present). C o n s e q u c n d y . the g r o u n d wire will measure
d o s e t o 0 volts. C h a p t e r 2 o n Voltage I ) r o p T e s t i n g provides
in-depth explanations of what t o expect from voltage
readings o n g r o u n d return wires. l or now, consider the
g r o u n d wire essentially at 0 volts.
T h e second rule of series circuits is: W h e n m o r e than
o n e load device is present in a scries circuit, the individual
resistance of each load device divides the available voltage,
t h u s a d d i n g t o the total resistance of the entire circuit.
T h i n k of load dcvices in a series circuit as a strand of
Christmas tree lights along a wire connected in series. Because
each bulb has resistance to current flow, each adds to the total
resistance of the entire circuit. This cumulative increase in the
overall circuit resistance correspondingly decreases the
amperage available for all the bulbs, thus keeping the strand
 • • • • • • • • /
of Christmas tree lights at a nice fire-safe, low-level wattage.
In addition, each of the bulbs must share the available voltage
becausc all need some voltage to light up.
Voltage in a series circuit is not a constant. It is divided
between all tlx: load devices in the circuit, based upon the
individual resistance of cadi specific load device. Its important
to remember that each load device in a scries circuit requires both
a posscr source and a ground return to operate. Because the load
devices are linked together, the power source for one load device
simultaneously acts as the ground return for another.
l or example, consider three light bulbs connected in a
series circuit as in Figure 1-8. T h e first bulb (bulb 1) is
powered by the originating power source—a 12-volt batter)-.
T h e ground return for bulb 1 becomes the power source for
the second bulb (bulb 2). Bulb 1 uses 4 s-olts of posver from
the 12-volt posver source (to light up) and then passes the
remaining 8 volts to its ground return. Similarly, bulb 2 uses
u p 4 volts of as-ailablc voltage from the ground return of bulb
I (bulb 2 uses the same voltage as bulb 1 to operate). T h e
remaining 4 volts of power pass into its ground return. Bulb
3 takes the last 4 volts and uses u p all the voltage left in the
entire circuit; consequently, its ground return has 0 volts.
Figure 1 -8 illustrates the division of voltage along a scries
circuit. It also proves the first rule of scries circuits still holds
I
true; the load device uses u p all available voltage since all
the individual light bulbs c o m b i n e d cumulatively use u p all
the available voltage in the circuit (equis-alent t o a single
c o m b i n e d load device). T h u s , the g r o u n d return wire at t h e
last load device will measure d o s e to 0 volts. Figure 1 - 8 also
introduces the g r o u n d s y m b o l — t h r e e horizontal lines at
the end of the g r o u n d return wire. Anywhere this symbol
is placed indicates the wire is r e t u r n i n g t o the negative
battery terminal a n d / o r w h e n a g r o u n d strap, body, or
vehicle frame is used as a g r o u n d . O
T h e third rule of series circuits is: amperage is the same g
at all points t h r o u g h o u t a series circuit. (£
T h i s rule is t r u e for b o t h negative a n d positive sides of £
a d r c u i t . Figure 1-9 (on page 22) shows three ammeters ^
measuring current in a series circuit a n d h o w t h e amperage
remains constant o n b o t h the power a n d g r o u n d return
sides of the circuit. Rule three illustrates t h e simple concept
(but u n w a n t e d result!) that a bad wire or p o o r connection
(unsvantcd resistance) will affect d r c u i t amperage n o matter
w h i d i side of the d r c u i t it's located o n .
Parallel Circuits
Nearly all electrical circuits designed for cars or trucks are
parallel circuits. Fortunately, the rules for parallel circuits

Fig 1-8. Each 12-»ct1 but) (load Oerice) has a cfren. identical, tnayxXiaf resstance, resMng fn eouzl stunng offoeoverall avatiaiJe rottage The difference in
votoje the pchwr source and ground return for each txit) is 4 mfts. Conseoverty. each butb has enfy 4 kji» ofeiectrkaf pressure wiffj wftcft to operate
Smce att the MDs are designed to operate on 12 Wfs and not 4 rotts.frusshortfall n voltage tcr each but) causes alt ct ffvm to be dim

21
 [ 1 FN WW /
SERIES
A M P METERS

Fig 1 -9. Amperage wtibea* same cn both the power an) grow! sties c/ a crcut M three ammeters indicate the same amount of amperage (current' is flowing
throughout Ore circuit

are basically the same as for series circuits, b u t with a couple
of notable exceptions.
T h e first exception is: voltage will be equal (the same)
everywhere on the positive side of the circuit a n d will not
be divided between load devices, like in a series circuit. T h i s
is because each load device has its own wire, or conductor,
c o n n c c t i n g it to the power source. T h e same is also true on
the g r o u n d return side; each load device has its own g r o u n d
return. As a result, the g r o u n d return side of each load
device registers 0 volts because each individual load device
uses u p all original source voltage.
Figure 1 - 1 0 displays 0 volts present on the g r o u n d return
side of each individual bulb (load device) because each bulb
uses u p all of t h e original power source voltage. T h e g r o u n d
return side of each b u l b operates just like the ground return
side at the end of a scries circuit. However, with a parallel
circuit, it is helpful to t h i n k of each load device as a simple
scries circuit itself—with a separate power source, load
device, and ground return. Consequently, as more
load devices arc added to a parallel circuit, the greater the
amperage f r o m the power source t o the load devices needs
t o be (because total resistance of the entire circuit decreases
as overall amperage increases, as in Figure 1-5).
T h e second exception is: each additional load device in
a parallel circuit lowers the total overall resistance o f the
circuit a n d increases amperage.
Figure 1-11 (on page 24) illustrates h o w the addition of
more load devices to a parallel circuit causes the resistance
of the entire circuit t o decrease and the amperage to increase
(a teeter-totter effect)—unlike what occurs in a series
circuit where the resistance of each load device adds to die
total resistance of the circuit.
To u n d e r s t a n d this concept better, consider the following
analog)'. Imagine there are 2 0 people in a room svith only o n e
exit door, a n d everyone has to exit t h r o u g h the door, thereby
creating lots of resistance. I h e people represent amperage, the
room is t h e c i r c u i t , a n d their effort to get o u t is the resistance.
Because there is only o n e d o o r from which to leave, people
slowly get o u t because of the effect of their c o m b i n e d
resistance. N o w assume the same 2 0 people ate in a r o o m svith
2 0 doors. Everyone is able to exit the r o o m quickly because
each leaves through a separate door. Because there are

22
expert22 fl/i* http://rutracker.orq
 \ c r \ n n / r • 1
m o r e doors, there is less resistance in the flow of people. T h e
extra doors in the r o o m represent additional load d e s i c t t in a
parallel circuit. Resistance to electron flow is reduced because
a parallel circuit has m o r e d o o r s (load devices) f r o m which the
electrons can exit. As stated before, w h e n resistance decreases
in a circuit, amperage increases; so, a d d i n g m o r e load dcviccs
(doors) losverstotal resistance and increasescircuit amperage.
Figure 1-11 (on page 24) illustrates how each individual
circuit w i t h i n a parallel circuit operates like a series circuit.
Each has a power source, load device, and g r o u n d return.
T h e third exception is: a parallel circuit requires all the
power for t h e entire circuit t o c o m e f r o m the same power
source (the battery). T h i s means the total amperage used by
all the load dcviccs must pass through the 2 0 - a m p fuse.
Since each of the 12-volt bulbs in the individual circuits
uses 6 amps, the total c o m b i n e d amperage for all the bulbs
Fig 1-10. Unito seres circuits. M»n the hgtrt bubs (kad devices)tinidetrie tou< to.1age between rwn. ttie Goto in a parallel droit are ndrnduaoy bnghter
because each bulb operates on 12 vote and uses al of the penver source vottage
• • / J
( 3 bulbs x 6 a m p s - 18 amps) must pass t h r o u g h t h e 20-
a m p fuse. This isn't a p r o b l e m because rhe fuse w o n t melt
unless amperage exceeds 2 0 a m p s .
However, at the end of the circuit is an clcctric m o t o r
(another load device); it requires 12 a m p s to operate. As
long as the m o t o r switch is o p e n , the circuit uses only 18
a m p s to light the bulbs and the fuse is adequate for this
application. But if the m o t o r switch is closed (the m o t o r
n o w connects to the parallel circuit), the amperage
requirement for the entire circuit increases t o 3 0 a m p s (18
a m p s from the bulbs • 12 a m p s f r o m the m o t o r - 3 0 amps).
T h i s a m o u n t exceeds the rating of the 2 0 - a m p fuse, so the
fuse overheats a n d melts (in order t o protect the circuit),
thereby c u t t i n g off power t o the entire circuit. For this
circuit t o work, the 2 0 - a m p fuse has to b e replaced with a
I
fuse with a rating of more t h a n 3 0 amps.
23
H I <AI

BULB 1*2 OHMS

(6 AMPS)

§
BULB 2 * 2 OHMS
AMPS)

( /) BULB J " 2 OHMS

(6 AMPS)
SWITCH

MOTOR • 1 OHMS (12 AMPS) ^ B / "T"

Fig 1-11. In a paraM orcut. each adtttonaltoaddewe lowers the droit's total cumber of ohms (resistance), thereby mersely raising tht overall amperage
flowing through the circuit. A hyher-raled his find larger wires are required tor this croM to operate without mettrtg wires or D towng the 20-amp fuse

Series/Parallel Circuits quendy, all load devices connected to the circuit can be
Series/parallel circuits arc rarely designed for automobiles, affected by the resulting reduced voltage a n d amperage.
b u t they can be created whenever a poor connection is Figure 1 - 1 2 displays a series/parallel circuit designed
present in a parallel circuit. Remember, any form o f t o o p e r a t e a headlight a n d taillight. T h e a d d i t i o n o f a
resistance is considered a load device. Loose o r corroded light b u l b b e t w e e n the battery a n d the other load devices
connections have resistance; therefore, whenever they are represents a bad c o n n e c t i o n that is in series w i t h the o t h e r
present, a scries or series/parallel circuit is f o r m e d . T h e load load devices. T h e presence of t h e bad c o n n e c t i o n (bulb)
devices in circuits with u n w a n t e d , high resistance operate adds resistance, lowering the available voltage and
with less voltage and amperage than intended; consc- amperage necessary for the intended load devices

24
 • H H H H / I

HEADLIGHT

SOURCE
12 VOLTS

THE BULB'S RESISTANCE

REPRESENTS A
POOR CONNECTION

Fig 1-12. The presence of loose or corroded connectors (represented by the smelt bgtrt but» have tuned Wis parallel circuit Mo a senes/paraM circuit. The bod
comectron/butb is in senes wto tne headlight and taittght and divides the votage between them. Thus, trte ongmaiy intended load devtts won t twe enough
mtage or amperage to operate property.

(headlight a n d taillight) to o p e r a t e . Because t h e b u l b uses incorrect solution is a t t e m p t e d . T h e only way to repair what's
s o m e voltage f r o m t h e p o w e r source, less t h a n 12 volts really w r o n g is to find the bad c o n n e c t i o n ; in this case, simply
arc present in the wires g o i n g t o the t w o lights. Since t h e replacing the small bulb with a section of wire will eliminate
headlights a n d taillights are designed t o o p e r a t e o n 12 t h e u n w a n t e d , high resistance so both the headlights and
volts a n d n o t less, t h e y won't w o r k as i n t e n d e d and arc taillights will shine brightly a g a i n . T h e trick is to find the bad
consequently dim. connections without unraveling wiring harnesses or
Replacing a headlight, taillight. o r battery won't solve this removing parts, a n d that is what C h a p t e r 2, Voltage D r o p
p r o b l e m e i t h e r — b u t you'd be surprised h o w o f t e n this Testing, is all a b o u t .

25
CHAPTER 2
VOLTAGE DROP TESTING
WHAT VOLTAGE DROP TESTING DOES
C o n s i d e r the following scenario: T h e owner (lets call h i m
Bob) of a six-vcar-old car tries to start the engine o n a cold
m o r n i n g . T h e starter cranks slowly a few times and then
makes a clicking s o u n d . A tow truck is callcd a n d after a
j u m p , it stans right u p . Bob takes the car to a local
mechanic w h o claims he can fix the problem by replacing
t h e batter)-. H e docs so, a n d the engine starts right u p .
Problem llxcd? Maybe. Lucky for Bob. the car starts a n d
runs okay every m o r n i n g for a few sveeks. Bob is h a p p y the
problem has been fixed. Several weeks later, t h o u g h , the
same t h i n g happens again; the engine cranks too slowly.
Bob, n o w angry, takes the car back to the mechanic and
d e m a n d s an explanation. H e gets o n e . T h i s time t h e
mechanic says it has to be a faulty starter. Bob reluctantly
replaces tlie starter, having lost confidence in the mechanic.
T h e car works fine until ses-eral days later Bob gets the same
result again. S o u n d all too familiar? Aftci s p e n d i n g S I 0 0 o n

Mtage drop testing isthe only reliable way to determine it a connection. cr wire, can pass enough amperage to run a orcut With the starter operating, the starter
solenoid on this Ford truck is being tested lor ifwanted. high resistance using the vottage drop method. Coutesy FliAe Corpora ten
( k jj m — k \
a new baiter)-, $ 1 5 0 o n a new starter a n d S i 7 5 for labor,
not to m e n t i o n all his wasted time and aggravation, the
original p r o b l e m is still there.
As it turns out, the cause of the slow-turning starter is a
loose bolt that attaches the batter)- g r o u n d cable to the
engine block. Poor electrical connections arc the most
c o m m o n cause of many electrical problems. W h i l e this
statement may seem obvious, in reality, few mechanics think
to look first t o the elcctrical connections as the source of an
electrical-related problem svith the car. In fact, this scenario
can happen with almost any elcctrical c o m p o n e n t — a l t e r -
nators. heater-blower motors, headlights, windshield
wipers, a n d others. H o m e mechanics, as well as m a n y
professional technicians, have the same difficulty
diagnosing this type of problem.
Fortunately, there is a simple way to test for bad connec-
tions. switches, or wires as the likely cause of a problem with
an clcctrical circuit—a method called voltage d r o p testing. It
measures resistance within a circuit using a voltmeter (not an
fwn a good otmvetor. Wee this
Rukt 175, is only ate to
indicate that a tottery cable is.
essendaty. not cut m halt Vihte
continuity can be shown on an
ohrrmeter, the battery cable
could stNttwe unnamed, high
resistance that can only be
measured by a voltage drop test
Courtesy FUke Cape* at on
ohmmctcr). Voltage d r o p testing is the easiest m e t h o d to rule
out the svires, connections, battery cables and terminals,
relays, and switches as the causes of an operating problem
with an electrical circuit. "I"hc major ads-anrage of performing
this test is that nothing needs to b e disconnected in order to
perform i t — n o unraveling of the wiring harness and n o
removing starters, alternators, or any other components.
Simply bccausc a wire or clcctrical c o n n c c t i o n looks
good doesn't mean it is good. T h e only way to d e t e r m i n e if
unss-antcd resistance is slowing d o w n the flow of electrons
passing t h r o u g h a c o n n c c t i o n , or along a wire, is to measure
the d r o p in voltage within t h e circuit as it operates.
DON'T USE A N OHMMETER
M a n y shade tree mechanics, and even some professional
technicians, insist that f i n d i n g a bad wire, switch, or
connection can be accomplished using an o h m m c t c r . W h i l e
this is partly true, it is certainly n o t the best m e t h o d (or
even a good one!) for diagnosing loose connections and
27
 Hg 2-1. Highresists/iceetjvafs
low amperageft»rm Bus battery
cable. The ohmmeter registers
contnuty between the ends ot
the cable, but tfts batter/ cable
stM wonl start an engne
because ottngh resistance
o t h e r similar electrical resistance problems. A t t e m p t i n g to
test a wire using an o h m m c t c r can reveal only o n e limited
f a c t — w h e t h e r the wire has c o n t i n u i t y (a c o n n e c t i o n exists)
between the two points being measured. However, i t s the
quality of the c o n n e c t i o n a n d / o r wire that will d e t e r m i n e if
the circuit can carry e n o u g h amperage to operate.
W h e n checking continuity' using an ohmmctcr, the
m e t e r s internal hattery sends out only a few milliamps
(thousandths of an a m p ) of current through the wire or
conncction, thereby enabling the meter to read in o h m s .
Battery a n d alternator cables and wires arc capable of carrying
h u n d r e d s of amps. Even heater-blower or windshield-wiper
m o t o r circuits may require 15 to 3 0 a m p s to operate. T h e
few milliamps from an o h m m c t c r cannot simulate the
operating conditions that the wire or connection being tested
is subjected to by high amperage load devices.
Figure 2-1 illustrates the p r o b l e m of using an o h m m c t c r
to check a bad battery cable. W h i l e the o h m m e t e r registers
continuity, the cable obviously docs n o t have e n o u g h
capacity to carry the current required to srart an engine.
U n w a n t e d , high resistance in the battery cable will n o t
show u p when using an o h m m e t e r for testing.
Another p r o b l e m with a t t e m p t i n g to use an o h m m e t e r to
measure a wire's resistance is its inherent inability t o measure
low resistance. Using an a u t o m o t i v e o h m m c t c r to check the
resistance of any wire or load device (such as a starter m o t o r )
will n o t work because resistance could b e as low as 0 . 0 5 o h m .
To accurately measure resistance less t h a n 0.1 o h m requires
a laboratory-grade o h m m c t c r , which costs thousands of
dollars. Since resistance measurements in this low range are
28
S •
-• B E E P ! s-
also affected by t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity, an a u t o m o t i v e
o h m m c t c r simply docs not have the required sensitivity.
The only reliable method for locating a poorly
c o n d u c t i n g wire or c o n n e c t o r is to use a voltmeter t o
measure the voltage d r o p across the section of circuit being
tested. Voltage d r o p testing works because even inexpensive
digital voltmeters can accurately measure small a m o u n t s of
voltage—as low as 1 / 1 0 0 0 volts (1 millivolt). Voltage d r o p
testing provides a comparison of voltage between two
points in an operating circuit by displaying the difference
or loss in voltage between t h e m . T h e greater the u n w a n t e d ,
high resistance, the greater the voltage drop.
HOW A VOLTMETER MEASURES VOLTAGE
Bccausc voltage d r o p testing requires the use of a voltmeter,
u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w a meter actually measures a n d displays
voltage will h e l p explain the results of a voltage d r o p test.
A voltmeter displays a reading o f 12 volts when connected
to a 12-volt battery. T h i s may vcem obvious, but this
reading actually represents the difference in electrical
pressure between die positive and negative battery
terminals. T h e red m e t e r lead sen-.es 12 volts; the black
meter lead senses 0 volts. T h e c o m p u t e r c h i p inside the
voltmeter simply subtracts the value of the black lead Irom
the voltage level present on the red lead a n d displays the
difference. Figure 2 - 2 (on page 19) exhibits the m a d i
occurring inside the voltmeter. An analog voltmeter (with
a needle) uses t h e voltage difference between t h e red a n d
black leads to power a small internal motor, which swings
the needle across a numerical scale.
 Hg 2-2. A vottmeier measures the
difference n electiol pressure
between its leads. Pie value of
the negatw lead O voes) s
subtracted from the posKnv lead
(12 vdts) to disptay the battery's
btat voltage—12 volts

Fig 2 - 1 This starter crcut /as low resistance, as shown mdrecily on the j/rowttr, A carries enough cunent (200 imps) torn the tuitery to start the engne. The
voltmeters indicate no voltage <s lost on either the posttrre or negative side tf the starter circuit.

Fig 2-4.4 aw banery cable can (revert suKatrt amperage from reactmj rr*? sorter As a resist. cv engv*? tisns tx sk>»ty io start because the pc&tve caOe
looses 2 vote between the connection at tf>e battery andtoestarter motor.
TESTING CIRCUITS DYNAMICALLY
D y n a m i c testing occurs w h e n the circuit being tested is
actually operating. T h i s type of testing stresses all t h e
c o m p o n e n t s w i t h i n a circuit a n d is m o r e indicative of real-
world o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s than other f o r m s of testing.
C u r r e n t must be flowing t h r o u g h the circuit to measure
voltage d r o p . Figure 2 - 3 illustrates the voltage present at
various points in an o p e r a t i n g starter circuit. W i t h the
starter c r a n k i n g the engine, an a m m e t e r reads 2 0 0 a m p s
flowing t h r o u g h o u t the starter circuit. Battery voltage
normally d r o p s t o a r o u n d 11 volts because of the amperage
load f r o m the starter. Voltage measured at the starter is also
11 volts. This d e m o n s t r a t e s that the positive batter)- cable
has low resistance a n d n o voltage is lost between the
positive battery terminal a n d the starter. T h e voltmeter
reading for voltage d r o p o n the g r o u n d return side o f t h e
starter circuit is 0 volts—this indicates the g r o u n d cable
and all c o n n e c t i o n s back t o the batter)- have low resistance
a n d n o voltage is lost. T h e reason the g r o u n d side of the
H I 6 H RESISTANCE
B A D CABLE
circuit reads 0 is because the load device (the starter) uses
u p all available voltage.
Figure 2 - 4 shows svhat h a p p e n s when high resistance (in
this case, a bad battery cable) is present in a starter circuit.
T h e starter cranks the engine t o o slowlv for it to start. T h e
positive battety terminal has 11 volts, hut only 9 volts reach
the starter m o t o r — n o t e n o u g h clcctrical pressure t o crank
it fast e n o u g h to start the engine. T h e starter m o t o r is
designed to operate on a m i n i m u m of 11 volts, not 9 volts.
H i g h resistance in the positive battery cable causes a loss of
2 volts between the battery a n d starter. Because resistance
is high in the circuit, amperage decreases a n d only 110
a m p s flow through t h e circuit (indicated by the ammeter)
instead of the 2 0 0 a m p s the starter requires.
As m e n t i o n e d above, a n o h m m e t e r simply cannot
accurately measure the high resistance present in t h e battery
cable s h o w n in Figure 2-4. Figure 2-5 illustrates why. To
find the actual resistance present in the battery cable, b o t h
voltage a n d amperage must b e measured. T h e m a t h is
Fig 2-5. WIV) only 9 volts and tiO turps measured M this starter clrn.il resistance Is calculated as O.OS ohm. far tootowtor an automotive type of otmmttr to
measure accurately.

RED LEAD 11 VOLTS

Fig 2-6. When performing a voltage Crop test on the positive sHeofa ckcon connect the poMv$ lead to e>e source of highest waage-the tottery* positive
termnal Connect the negative lead to the point where the vottage is tryingtoget to—in this case, trie starter tetery terminal
 RED LEAD O VOLTS
BLACK LEAD O VOLTS
ftg 2-7. The starter should use all the avariable vchaje wtten it's operatng The starter's metal case is pari <y 4s ground path back ft Xc battery's neg3tM termrul
The voftaye drop between the case and negttue battery termral should be 0 ttfts, w&cattng no voltage loss
simple: 110 a m p s divided into 9 volts equals a resistance o f
0 . 0 8 o h m . or 8 / 1 0 0 o h m — f a r too low a value for an
a u t o m o t i v e o h m m c t c r t o measure.
VOLTAGE DROP—POSITIVE SIDE
In the examples of voltage d r o p testing presented so far, it
would be necessary to use several voltmeters to determine
voltage d r o p in a starter circuit. However, only o n e voltmeter
is needed w h e n this test is performed. Figure 2 - 6 (on page
31) shows how the test is accomplished using only o n e
voltmeter to measure the voltage d r o p on the positive side of
the starter circuit. T h e red meter lead is connected to the
power source, or the highest point of potential voltage (in this
case the positive battery post), and the black meter lead is
connected to the point where the voltage is trying to get to,
which is the load device (starters positive terminal).
T h e potential difference in voltage between the battery's
positive terminal a n d the cables c o n n e c t i o n at the starter is
2 suits, which is displayed on the meter. Remember, the
voltmeter reads the value on the black lead, subtracts it from
32
H I C H RESISTANCE
BAD CABLE
the value of the red lead, a n d displays the difference. If, by
mistake, the meter leads are connected backwards (red to the
load device and black to the positive battery post), a digital
voltmeter will display a negative n u m b e r — t h i s isn't a
p r o b l e m if you simply ignore the m i n u s symbol when you
read the display. However, if an analog meter is connected
backwards, the needle will g o to the far left, just zero, and
n o reading is possible. A simple rule to remember in order
to c o n n e c t voltmeter leads properly w h e n p e r f o r m i n g a
voltage d r o p test is: the red lead gets connected to the point
where voltage is highest. I his will always be the power source
for the load device—usually the battery's positive terminal.
T h e black lead gets connected to the lowest point of voltage,
or where the source voltage is going t o — t h e load device.
VOLTAGE DROP—GROUND SIDE
It's i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d that once a voltage d r o p test
has been p e r f o r m e d on the positive side of a circuit, you're
only half finished. Don't forget t o voltage d r o p test the
g r o u n d return side of the circuit! C h e c k i n g for rcsivtancc
Fig 2-8 Bta use o( hi$h a/Wrrutor ampmge output.raSap?drop in late model alternator arcvrts <s greater than on older models (Stfxrt ooty product about 60
amps). The ground side voltage drop ol 04 is acceptable for the droit
o n the g r o u n d return is of equal importance as testing for
it o n the positive side. R e m e m b e r the three rules of D C
circuits? O n e o f t h e m states that: All available voltage in a
circuit is used u p by the load device. Although o u r example
tests a starter circuit, this rule holds t r u e for voltage d r o p
testing of any circuit. If the g r o u n d return side of the starter
circuit has low resistance, there should be n o voltage lost on
its g r o u n d return path. T h i s path consists of the starter's
metal case, negative battery cable, and the negative battery
terminal. T h e r e should b e a O-volt difference between che
starter's metal case a n d the negative battery terminal, thus
indicating low resistance t o current flow. T h e had positive
battery cable present in Figure 2 - 7 will have n o effect o n
t h e g r o u n d side voltage d r o p rest.
To measure voltage drop on the ground side of the starter
circuit, connect the red lead t o the point with the highest
potential source of voltage—in this case, the metal housing o f
the starter motor. ( W h e n performing this test on other types
of load devices, the red lead would be connected t o the ground
return svire.) T h e black lead is connected to the negative
battery p o s t — t h e losvcst point of voltage. O n c e the starter
is cranked, the voltmeter will display the difference between
the voltage potential o n the red and black leads. In this
example, the voltage d r o p on the ground side of the starter
circuit is 0 volts. In other words, the ground return side has
low resistance because n o voltage is lost. In the real world,
some loss of voltage will always occur between connectors
and along wires or cables within a circuit because there is
always some resistance to current flow, c s r n in circuits that
are operating properly. H o w m u c h voltage d r o p is too much
is always a matter of opinion.
H O W M U C H IS T O O MUCH?
T h e r e are two reasons voltage d r o p n u m b e r s sary. T h e first
is that the greater the amperage in a circuit, the greater the
voltage d r o p . For example, an alternator p r o d u c i n g 4 0
a m p s will only have a voltage d r o p of 0 . 2 volt, assuming
there is n o u n w a n t e d rcsistancc. Alternators f o u n d in lace-
model vehicles can produce over 100 a m p s and can have
voltage d r o p n u m b e r s a r o u n d 0 . 7 volts or higher. O t h e r
( k JJ

The red lead e connected to the big wve on the back of animator. The black lead is connected to the positive battery post WW» 1 ekctw accessories on and
the engtie holding at 2.000 rpm. the voeage drop on the positive power sde of the aMmator cecut mB be Ospiayed

factor* affecting circuit voltage d r o p arc wire length a n d / o r
size. For example, the positive wire between a vehicles brake
switch and the brake lights on a 30-foot trailer the vehicle
is tosving has a greater voltage d r o p than t h e same wire
going only to the vehicle's brake lights. T h e longer length
of wire connected from the vehicle to the trailer increases
its resistance, thereby lowering the voltage present at the
trailer's brake lights.
In general, voltage loss o n the g r o u n d side o f a circuit is
almost always less t h a n o n the positive side. G r o u n d r e t u r n
circuits o f t e n c o m p r i s e t h e f r a m e of a vehicle, e n g i n e
block, or o t h e r large metal objects. T h e s e large vehicle
c o m p o n e n t s can be m o r e simply t h o u g h t of as really big
wires, a n d as s u c h , they will b a s e low resistance to c u r r e n t
flow, causing a smaller voltage d r o p . T h e positive p o w e r
side of a circuit will always be a wire o r cable of s o m e l e n g t h
a n d size a n d . therefore, will have greater resistance to
c u r r e n t flow t h a n t h e g r o u n d side o f a c ircuit. t h u s creating
a greater voltage d r o p .
T h e following is a ballpark guide to refer to w h e n
p e r f o r m i n g voltage d r o p testing o n various types of
a u t o m o t i v e electrical circuits.
S t a r t e r C i r c u i t , M a x i m u m Voltage D r o p
Positive Side. Small Srarter/four-cylinder engine. 0 . 3 volts
Positive Side, l a r g e Startcr/V-8 engine. 0 . 5 volts
Negative Side, 0 . 4 volts
Starter Solenoids, 0 . 2 volts
• k u
£ ten if a battery cable connecton looks okay, it stti may tune tugti resistance Performing a voffjge drop test wtule me starter motor is cranking tne engxie can
expose a poor connecOon wrttnut ttie need tor remomg fw battery cable.
Battery Terminals, 0 . 2 volts
C h a r g i n g C i r c u i t s , M a x i m u m Voltage D r o p
Positive Side, 0 . 3 volts (alternator charging at 4 0 amps)
Positive Side, 0 . 7 volts (alternator charging at 100 amps)
Negative Side, 0.4 volts
Accessory C i r c u i t s ( H e a d l i g h t s , B r a k e L i g h t s , a n d
Taillights), M a x i m u m Voltage D r o p
Positive Side, 0 . 2 volts
Negative Side. 0 . 2 volts
C o m p u t e r C i r c u i t s ( I g n i t i o n M o d u l e s a n d Fuel
I n j e c t i o n Sensors), M a x i m u m Voltage D r o p
I\>sitise Side, 0.1 volts (computer circuits are losv amperage)
Negative Side. 0 . 0 6 volts ( c o m p u t e r g r o u n d s are very
sensitive t o loss o f voltage)
n
o
H
o
V
s
3
z
0
LOCATING THE BAD SPOT
In Figure 2 - 9 (on page 36) is an example of how a voltage
d r o p test can be used to locate a bad switch in a circuit. To
isolate a point of high resistance in this light circuit, a
s-oltmctcr is connectcd to the positive battery post and the
light bulb. T h e voltage d r o p (resistance t o current flosv) of
0.5 volts is too high and causes tlic light to be d i m . To
determine if the switch or connector is at fault, a voltage d r o p
test is performed across the switch and connector. T h e
minimal d r o p in voltage of 0.1 volts at the connector
indicates there is no excessive resistance to current flow—
thus, the connector is good. However, the voltage measured
across the switch is 0.4 volts—way too high. T h e switch is
causing the light bulb to be d i m . Simply cleaning the switch
35
 TOTAL
VOLTA6E
DROP

0.
g
D

1
III
a

Bq 2-ft. Br movtno r v rttmetef akng the artuil the pomt ot tugh resatance an he bated The switch in ths occult has an unacceptable wtoge ttop of 04**1
Time lor a new switch'

will lower its resistance and increase the voltage going into
the hull), thereby n u k i n g it shine brightly again. This
m e t h o d of moving the voltmeter test leads along the circuit
t o locate the point of high resistance will work on any circuit.
Voltage d r o p testing is a good way to save a great deal of
t i m e and m o n e y in the quest to solve m a n y clcctrical
problems. T h e entire length of b o t h positive a n d negative
sides of a circuit can b e checked w i t h o u t disconnecting any
wires or connectors. For example, if the brake lights o n a
car arc d i m w h e n the brakes are applied, it may only take
t w o or three measurements t o find t h e point o f high
resistance. To measure the voltage d r o p for the entire
g r o u n d side circuit, connect the voltmeter's red lead to the
g r o u n d wire for the brake light and the black lead to
the negative battery post. (Don't forget to step o n the brake
p e d a l — t h e circuit must be operating d u r i n g a voltage d r o p
test!) If the voltage d r o p o n the g r o u n d side is acceptable,
high resistance will likely be f o u n d on the positive side of
the circuit. Since a brake circuit uses a switch t o control
power t o the brake light, p e r f o r m i n g a voltage d r o p test
across the switch is the most likclv place t o find high
resistance. After c o n n e c t i n g the red lead to the power source
for the switch a n d the black lead to the other side of the
switch, the resulting voltage d r o p v. ill tell you if the switch
needs to be replaced.
TEST, D O N T GUESS
Here are a few simple things to keep in m i n d when
p e r f o r m i n g voltage d r o p testing: (1) M a k e sure the circuit
being testing is operating—if n o current is flowing in the
circuit, there is n o voltage d r o p to measure. (2) Test both the
positive and negative sides of the circuit. If the voltage d r o p
is too high on o n e side of the circuit, s u n isolating the point
of high resistance by moving the test points along the <. ircuit.
(3) Most importantly, practice voltage d r o p testing on
circuits that are working properly. T h a t way, when you luvc
to actually test a problem circuit, you'll k n o w what's normal
and svhat's not. (4) Finally, voltage d r o p testing is far easier
than removing a starter or alternator, or replacing a battcty.
So, test, don't guess, before wasting time o r money.

36
SECTION II
TOOLS
CHAPTER 3

U sing a car's factory jack a n d lug w r c n c h is okay for

changing a flat tire, b u t the job is m u c h easier using a
hydraulic floor jack a n d 1/2-inch impact g u n connected to
an air compressor. Both sets of tools get the job d o n e , but
the latter is less work (and w h o likes extra work?). T h e same
concept applies to a u t o m o t i v e electricity. Using only a test
light only gets limited results when trying to solve an
elcctrical p r o b l e m . Add a $ 1 0 voltmeter and diagnostic
potential dramatically increases. Although friends or loved
ones may complain a b o u t you o w n i n g ever)- tool k n o w n t o

An anakg meter (right) uses a needle to Osptay readings The meter's dm< must be set to the ngtrt scale to read correctly Modern digital meters (felt) prwtde readings
with OectrcncaTy Ospiryed numbers. Some, tike tha Fluke 175. have an analog bar graph that acts ike an electronic needle—the best of both old and new.
Courtesy Fluke Corporation

37
 If tOMcn to us«!? heaver gauge wre. a quahty test light (upper left) has a strain relief {metal spnng or rubber) shield located where the wire exits the test fight's
body This guard prevents the wvp from breaking, men after years ol use.
m a n k i n d (or wishing you did!), you can tell t h e m you've
only scratched the surface since you only have just e n o u g h
tools necessary for the job at h a n d . W h e n the next task
comes along, you just may have to buy more. Like
wrenches, sockets, and screwdrivers, you may never actually
finish purchasing electronic test tools.
You may w o n d e r if a $ 5 0 0 digital m u l t i m e t e r is really
required to work o n a u t o m o t i v e electrical systems. T h e
answer depends u p o n your diagnostic goals. If you're
w o r k i n g o n b e c o m i n g a professional technician (or already
arc!) time is m o n e y . . . so an expensive digital m u l t i m e t e r
( D V O M ) . with all its bells and whistles, will save you hours
when diagnosing a p r o b l e m . H o m e technicians usually
don't have the same time constraints professionals d o a n d
can m a k e d o with less clalsorate test e q u i p m e n t , so the
purchase of an expensive multimeter may not be warranted.
Kven so. you should always buy quality tools. After w o r k i n g
a r o u n d cars for any length of lime, people learn that the
socket set bought at a local mass retailer is good e n o u g h for
the toolbox in the t r u n k of a car or u n d e r the seat of a
p i c k u p truck, b u t for a n y t h i n g other than emergency
repairs it's problematic.
38
Buying a quality digital multimeter and test light is
a good starting point. Adding a logic probe ro your electronic
toolbox will also increase your ability to solve
electronic ignition a n d onboard c o m p u t e r dilemmas. Let's
s t a n with t h e most basic t o o l — a 12-volt test light.
TEST LIGHTS
An automotive test light is a b u l b m o u n t e d inside a plastic
housing w i t h a pointed p r o b e at o n e end a n d a length of
svire exiting the other e n d with an attached alligator clip.
W h e n the alligator clip is attached to g r o u n d , the p o i n t y
end of the test light can be used t o p r o b e svircs or fuses to
check for the presence of voltage. O n c e the probe of a
grounded test light (alligator clip attached to g r o u n d
return) touches a power svire, the internal bulb lights u p .
Automotive test lights have been around a long time a n d
arc great tools for testing for the presence of s'oltagc.
However, test lights will not indicate levels of voltage. In fact,
anything below 8 volts may not even make t h e m light u p .
T h e y arc also useful for activating relays and solenoids. T h e
probe of a grounded test light can be touched t o the trigger
of the terminal/wire of a relay to energise it. A g r o u n d e d
^ f l A A A A A J ^ f t l l ! skkt; .

h addton to readng voltage and

ohms, tne Ftuke 175 is a true
fWS~ type multimeter lhat can
accurately read frequency
produced by autamotve type AC
ptciojp cons. Courtesy of Fbk«
Corporation

jumper wire will d o the same thing, but a test light is safer.
If you touch the probe t o the wrong wire/terminal at the
relay, the test light will just light u p instead of causing a spark
that could possibly damage the circuit.
Test lights can also IK used in place of an A C pick-up coil,
hall-effect switch, o r optical distributor trigger t o send a
signal to an ignition module. In essence, the test light fools
the ignition m o d u l e into reacting as if it is receiving a signal
from an engine speed sensor. If the m o d u l e is working, it
will produce a spark from the coil—this is k n o w n as a "tap
test." A test light can also b e used o n an ignition coil t o check
whether an ignition systems primary circuit is switching o n
and off properly, or for an injcctor pulse f r o m the vehicle's
computer. (These tests are covered in later chapters.)
 However, not all test lights work in all of these tests
because some have bulbs with too much resistance—not
enough current can pass through them to provide a trigger
for ignition modules or relays, 'lest light bulbs should have
less than 10 ohms of resistance to trigger relay's and perform
ignition tap tests. If the test light being used has more
resistance, simply replace the bulb with one of higher
wattage (lower resistance). Ironically, many of the more
expensive test lights by Snap-On, Mac, and Mateo use high
resistance bulbs.
^ Test lights range in price from as little as S5 to over $25.
O So. what's the real difference between them? 'flic more
y expensive ones use a quality wire for the lead and a better
Z alligator clip. In addition, a metal spring or rubber strain
£ relief guard is provided where the wire exits die plastic body
J® of the test light, preventing it from breaking, even after hard
U use. Most importantly, quality test lights use hardened steel
Z probes that don't require frequent sharpening and strong.
§ durable plastic housings. Cheap test lights may break if
dropped or banged about under the hood—so by the time
•jj you have bought several replacements, the cost of a good
HI one would have been far exceeded. While both inexpensive
and quality test lights do the same job with the same degree
of accuracy, you'll get more life out of a quality tester; so,
save up and spring for the better quality. It's worth it in the
long run (or handle your cheaper test lights carefully!).
Always test your test light before using it to check a
circuit. Connect the test light to a good ground and touch
the pointy end to something you know is hot—such as a
positive battery terminal or fuse. Remember, test bulbs do
eventually burn out. If you don't check your test light once
in a while, you'll go crazy wondering why everything you
test doesn't seem to have any power.
MULTIMETERS
The term voltmeter is practically a misnomer today since it's
almost impossible to find a meter that reads only voltage,
unless you're looking in an antique shop. The correct term
for voltmeter is digital multimeter, or digital voltmeter. If
you're serious about diagnosing and/or repairing electrical
problems in your car or truck, a good digital voltmeter is as
basic and necessary a tool as a 3/8-inch drive ratchet and
socket set. Many amateurs, and even some professional
technicians, try to find their way around a problem circuit
using only a test light. Depending upon the type of infor-
mation being sought, this method has its place; but more
often than not. knowing only that voltage is present, but
not how much, is simply not enough information to figure
out what's wrong w ith a problem circuit. A good multimeter
is essential if you don't want to waste a lot of time.
40
Over the last 20 years voltmeter* have followed the
pocket calculator, and most other electronic technology, by
continually dropping in price and increasing the number of
extra features available. Multimeters come in two basic
flavors: analog and digital.
Old analog meters use a needle and fixed numbered scale
to display readings. Analog meters arc difficult to read
accuratdv because it's hard to line up the needle with the
numbers on the meter's face. In addition. if an analog meter
is dropped, the mechanical movement <>! the needle van In-
damaged. producing inaccurate readings of which the user
may be unaware. Nowadays, you have to look hard to find
a new analog multimeter (again, try the antique shop) since
most have been replaced by digital electronic v
A DVOM offers several advantages over analog meters.
It displays electronic numbers via a liquid crystal display
(LCD). Even if the meter gets banged about a bit, as long
as the display is working, the meter's most likely still okay.
Another major difference between the two types of meters
is their internal resistance—an analog meter has low
internal resistance (usually only around 100,000 ohms),
while a digital meter typically has 10 megohms
(10,000,000 ohms). Consequently, an analog meter will
give false readings if used to measure high resistance
computer circuits and can even cause damage to some
automotive clcctrical components.
Voltmeters, multimeters, and DV( )Ms arc all capable of
measuring a variety of electrical inputs. All read v.slts (both
AC and DC) and ohms. Other test functions performed
include amperage, frequency, continuity, diode, tapaci-
tancc. and temperature. Additional features include auto
shut-off. digital smoothing, internal fuse protection,
display backlighting, and analog bar graph display.
You can spend as little as $10 or as much as S500 for an
automotive-type DVOM. Just as a 550 car stereo plays the
same music as a $2,000 stereo, all digital voltmeters read
clcctrical values, but all are not the same. The one that's best
for you depends on the level of automotive diagnostics you
want to pursue. Spending more money on a quality
DVOM buys you durability, ease-ol-use. extra features
(oftentimes the only way to figure out a problem), quality
meter leads, availability of accessories and product support.
AUTO-RANGE FEATURE
The majority of DVOMs sold today have an auto-ranging
feature that senses volt or ohm input levels and automati-
cally displays correct readings, including the rounding of
numbers and correct placement of a decimal point. Using a
meter without this feature requires a user to choose the
correct scale before a meter reading can be interpreted. For
The Fluke 175 O&UI multimeter (lefl) has a tor graph feature nottoon}on less expensive dpta) meters Radio Shack's pocket digital mutonetcr Power right) has
mere functions and gives more bang tor your buck thin other meters cossng several hundred (Mars a tew years ago Caxtesy ot Ruka Corpora Ben

example, t o read voltage from a 12-voIt battery o n a D V O M
w i t h o u t auto-range, the 0 - 2 0 - v o l t scale must be selected,
t h u s allowing the meter to read between 0 and 2 0 volts.
Measuring resistance can be more difficult d u n reading
s-oltage when using either an auto- or nonauto-ranging meter,
since resistance values can cover a wide range of 1 to more than
1 million ohms. There are a few simple rules to help interpret
o h m reading* on both meter types. We'll use the resistance of
an ignition coil to demonstrate how to d o this.
An ignition coil's secondary windings have a resistance
of 11,800 o h m s . Using a D V O M with an auto-ranging
feature, connect the meter leads to the coils secondary
terminals and set the function switch t o o h m s ; a reading
should display. T h e meter's auto-ranging feature senses the
coil's resistance a n d displays the correct reading—11.80k
o h m s . T h e "k" (thousand) symbol means you should add
three zeros t o the right of the decimal, n u k i n g the reading
11.800 o h m s — n o t 1.180 o h m s ; if the "k" symbol is not
displayed, the reading would be c o m p l e t e — 1 . 1 8 0 o h m s . If
the coil's secondary w i n d i n g s arc o p e n , the reading ss-ould
be 11.80m o h m s . T h e "m" (million) symbol replacing the
"k" symbol means you move the decimal point six places to
the right (the display docs not have e n o u g h room to show
this). T h e reading is n o w 11 million o h m s , or 1 1 . 8 0 0 . 0 0 0
o h m s . T h e s e same rules apply to n o n a u t o - r a n g i n g meters.
W h e n using the 2k scale to measure o h m s , the readings are

Before reaang voltage or resistance, tms Yiasa d>gitai meter without an auto-
ranyng feature must be set to the correct scale. Courtesy Yuasa Battery
between 0 a n d 2 , 0 0 0 o h m s . By selecting the 20k scale, the
meter will read between 0 a n d 2 0 , 0 0 0 o h m s : similarly,
the 2 0 0 k scale reads between 0 and 2 0 0 . 0 0 0 o h m s .
FLUKE MULTIMETER FEATURES
T h e Fluke corporation has been m a n u f a c t u r i n g digital
meters for the a u t o m o t i v e market for years. Its Series 170
is a good example of an a u t o m o t i v e digital m u l t i m e t e r
available in a mid-range price (around $ 1 9 0 ) .
T h e r e are two basic designs of voltmeters—averaging
a n d true R M S (root m e a n square). Both meters measure
voltage a n d o h m s , b u t the R M S model m o r e accurately
assesses distorted sine waves. A C p i c k u p coils a n d other A C
42
expert22 fl/is
SAA/V M
v o l t a g e - p r o d u c i n g speed sensors have lopsided svaveforms
(sine waves). An averaging type of meter m a y not be able
to read the o u t p u t from a distorted sine wave. T h e Fluke
175 is a true R M S type of meter that can accurately read
the frequency p r o d u c e d by A C a u t o m o t i v e p i c k u p coils.
A n o t h e r difference between D V O M s is an analog bar
g r a p h . Meiers with this feature provide b o t h digital a n d
analog displays. T h e bar graph acts the same as an electronic
needle, only m u c h faster. O n a Fluke 175, the bar graph
updates about 4 0 times per s e c o n d — 1 0 times faster than a
digital display—allowing a user to dctcct changes in
readings that occur too quickly for meters not e q u i p p e d
with bar graph features t o display. T h i s feature is also useful
w h e n checking for a bad throttle position sensor ( T P S )
signal or w h e n watching t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of a speed sensor
with an intermittent p r o b l e m — b o t h tests arc only possible
using a meter with an analog bar graph display.
A Fluke Model 175 Digital Multimeter is a good example
of a meter loaded svith various features and functions, which
can be accessed via a rotary switch and n u m e r o u s b u t t o n s
f o u n d o n the meter face. O t h e r manufacturers offer similar
bells and whistles. T o show the range of functions a m o d e r n
digital multimeter is capable of p e r f o r m i n g , what follows is
a description of the various features f o u n d o n a Fluke 175
Digital Multimeter.
Rotary Dial Positions
T h e rotary dial on the m e t e r face is rotated to select various
tests a n d f u n c t i o n s . Rotary switch selections are identified
by yellow a n d w h i t e letters or symbols. All yellow f u n c t i o n s
arc acccsscd via the yellow f u n c t i o n b u t t o n located o n the
top-right of the m e t e r face just u n d e r the display. Pressing
this f u n c t i o n b u t t o n twice returns t h e meter t o the tests
a n d f u n c t i o n s indicated by w h i t e symbols o r letters—these
are accessed by simply t u r n i n g the rotary switch. H e r e arc
the c o m m o n rotary switch positions a n d their corre-
sponding functions:
1. O f f : Switches the meter off. If n o input readings
c h a n g e for 2 0 minutes, the meter automatically enters i n t o
sleep mode, thereby saving its battery. T h i s feature can be
disabled for recording voltage over time.
2. A C V o l t s / H e r t z j Measures A C voltage between 0.1
millivolt (mV) and 1.000 volts. Pressing the yellow-
f u n c t i o n b u t t o n switches the meter to A C capabilities,
e n a b l i n g it t o read A C voltage frequency or hertz. A C
voltage frequency testing is useful when checking A C
p i c k u p coil types of sensors.
3. D C V o l t s / H e m s Measures D C voltage between 1
millivolt a n d 1.000 volts. Pressing t h e yellow f u n c t i o n
h t t p : / / r u t r a c k e r . o r q
b i u i o n switches t h e m e t e r t o D C m o d e , e n a b l i n g it to read
D C voltage frequency- o r hertz. D C voltage readings arc
the most c o m m o n l y used f u n c t i o n o n any meter. DC
voltage frequency testing is useful w h e n c h e c k i n g sensors
w i t h digital o u t p u t s , like l ord m a n i f o l d absolute pressure
( M A P ) sensors or General M o t o r s ( G M ) mass airflow
( M A P ) sensors.
4. D C Millivolts: Measures I X ! voltage between 0.1
a n d 6 0 0 millivolts. Performs essentially all of the same
(unctions as the o n e m e n t i o n e d previously, cxccpr this
function is useful for measuring voltages o n a smaller scale
(usually measurements less than 0 . 6 volts).
5. O h m s / F a r a d s : Measures resistance in o h m s between
0.1 and 5 0 million o h m s . T h e o h m s function is useful for
measuring resistance of sensors, relays, switches, plug wires,
a n d other c o m p o n e n t s . Pressing the yellow f u n c t i o n b u t t o n
switches the meter to farad mode, e n a b l i n g it to read in
farads. This f u n c t i o n is used to measure capacitance o r
capacitors: however, capacitance f u n c t i o n is seldom used in
a u t o m o t i v e applications.
6. B e e p e r / D i o d e : Beeps whenever the meter leads touch
each other, this being ihe test for continuity. C o n t i n u i t y
testing is useful for d e t e r m i n i n g if a wire is b r o k e n . Pressing
the yellow f u n c t i o n b u t t o n switches the meter to test diodes
like those used in alternators, or spike diodes used in other
automotive circuits.
7. A C / D C M i l l i a m p s : Measures A C / D C milliamps
f r o m 0 . 0 1 t o 6 0 0 . Used to measure small current d r a w a n d
for checking parasitic amperage draw from onboard
computers, radios, clocks, a n d other dcviccs. Pressing the
yellow f u n c t i o n b u t t o n switches the meter t o read A C
frequency f r o m 2 hertz t o 9 9 k hertz.

to iMtior Jo readng k>cs. tnps. ohms and frequency thsHukeSenes 170 mulbmeter tas 'Hold' and 'N/rMax' features The yellow button swfehes the meter s
readmg modes between and yeHow lettered dial functions Coirtesy of FliAe Corporation

43
^ O A A A A U m m M - r
8. A C / D C A m p s / H e r t z : Measures A C / D C a m p s f r o m
0 . 0 1 10 10. T h e a m p f u n c t i o n is protected by a n internal
fuse; it's useful for checking circuits u p t o 10 amps.
Pressing the yellow f u n c t i o n b u t t o n switches the meter
t o read A C frequency u p t o 9 9 k hertz.
9. H o l d B u t t o n : H o l d s or freezes the display when
pressed. Pressing the hold b u t t o n twice switches the display
to a u t o hold. In this m o d e , the meter holds the reading
until it detects a new stable reading; then die meter beeps
and displays the n e w reading. This feature is useful when
you can't see the meter (like when you are working u n d e r
the dash) b u t want to k n o w if you've probed a wire with
power or other signal on it.
10. M i n M a x B u t t o n : Pressing the M i n M a x b u t t o n lets
the meter record m i n i m u m , m a x i m u m , and average values
over time. By pressing the b u t t o n once, the meter takes
three stepped readings over time. H o l d i n g the b u t t o n for
o n e second ends the M i n M a x recording. T h e meter's sleep
The FkikeMOACOC current
damp can be used with any
digital rn/bmetcf capable of
reading n mUnolts. Tltts current
damp mD measure up to 400 DC
amps and Is ideal tor starting
and chargng systems Oagncscs
Courtesy ot fluke Corporation
44
T S ^
m o d e is disabled in M i n M a x record m o d e . T h i s function is
useful for reading changes over time when you can't keep
an eye o n the display, and works really well svhen trying to
figure o u t intermittent electrical problems.
11. R a n g e B u t t o n : Powers u p in auto-range m o d e .
Pressing the range b u t t o n changes the meter t o manual
range, t h u s allowing you t o change where the decimal i»
located. Pressing the b u t t o n moves the decimal point o n e
place in the display. T h i s feature is useful when you only
need to k n o w large changes in voltage or resistance.
12. Yellow Button: Switches the meter between
different modes. This b u t t o n also disables sleep m o d e if
presses! when the meter first powers up.
Terminal Jacks
T h e Fluke 175 meter has four terminal jacks. T h e c o m m o n
or g r o u n d ( C O M ) jack serves as the g r o u n d return for all
measurements. l~he v o l t / o h m / d i o d e jack (upper right) i\ lor
Tlus Radio Snxk logic probe can detect signals from AC pickup axis and haB-effect switches ft can also sense a M injector pulse from the vehicle's electronic
conttf modiie (ECU).
testing voltage, continuity, resistance diodes, capacitance,
and frequency measurements. Both jacks o n the left arc for
measuring amps; each is protected by an internal fuse that
can be tested by using the meter leads. By t o u c h i n g the leads
together, the fuses can be checked without taking off the
meter cover. Also, the meter has a built-in safety mechanism
that warns the user against inadvertently connecting the
leads incorrectly. For example, if the leads are plugged into
the jack for voltage testing b u t the meter is accidentally
switched t o read in a m p s (or vice versa), the word "lead" is
displayed. T h i s warns the user to move the meter leads to
o n e of the a m p jacks to prevent melting the fuse.
MEASURING AMPERAGE
T h e r e arc t w o rypes of ammeters used to measure c u r r e n t —
series a n d inductivc. S o m e digital voltmeters ate designed
with built-in scries a m m e t e r s that can measure as m u c h as
2 0 a m p s (a 10-amp capacity is m o r e c o m m o n ) . A series
a m m e t e r is useful w h e n try ing to find a parasitic a m p draw,
xs it can be connected in series with a circuit that is causing
a drain on the battery. T h e Fluke 175 has two ranges for its
series a m m e t e r — 4 0 0 milliamp and 10 amps. T h e 400-
milliamp range can b e used t o m o n i t o r small a m o u n t s of
current c o m m o n l y used by onboard computers, clocks, a n d
radio m e m o r y ; the 10-amp range can help locate a stuck
relay or interior t r u n k light. Both ranges are protected by
internal fuses.
For measuring starter motor or alternator output
amperage, an inductivc current p r o b e should be used.
Current probes arc self-powered (usually by a 9-volt
battery) and produce a millivolt o u t p u t . As current flows
t h r o u g h the starter cable or alternator o u t p u t wire, a
magnetic field f o r m s a r o u n d the wire. T h e inductive a m p
probe measures this field and converts it to a millivolt
signal, which can b e read directly on a voltmeter (I millivolt
equals 1 a m p ) . T h e Fluke i410 A C / D C clamp can measure
A C or D C a m p s f r o m I t o 4 0 0 . T h e clamp will plug i n t o
any voltmeter that accepts a banana-plug jack style. Be
carcful w h e n considering a purchase of an inductivc a m p
clamp; most only measure A C amperage, which is not
45
 Snap-On and other manufacturers market a ted ana green test fight This product s s*rpy a heavy duty verscn of atogicprobe
useful for a u t o m o t i v e use. T h e Fluke i 4 l 0 c o s t s about Si 55
and is really svorth the m o n e y if you anticipate diagnosing
starter or alternator problems.
LOGIC PROBES
O n e of the most useful and inexpensive electronic test tools
for a u t o m o t i v e use is a logic probe. Exclusively used for
electronic board testing, the logic probe has finally n u d e its
way i n t o a u t o m o t i v e use over the last several years. 'I"hese
h a n d y little tools are sometimes referred t o as "red and
green" test lights. A logic probe can only sense t w o t h i n g s —
high or low voltage. However, its real value is its ability to
detect electronic pulses. T h e o u t p u t s from the following
c o m p o n e n t s can all be detected (though not measured)
using a logic probe: A C p i c k u p coil speed sensors, digital
%quare wave sensors (like Ford M A I ' or C M M A F sensors),
optical distributor o u t p u t s , and fuel injcctor pulses from a
s-chiclc's computer. Because of its high internal resistance,
a logic probe is a safe tool to use on any sensor or c o m p u t e r -
generated o u t p u t .
A logic p r o b e is powered by c o n n e c t i n g the p r o b e s red
lead to any 12-volt power source and the black lead t o any
g r o u n d return o n the circuit being tested in a vehicle. The
p o i n t y e n d of the p r o b e is used to detect pulse o u t p u t s f r o m
46
various sensors. A green light e m i t t i n g d i o d e (LED)
indicares w h e t h e r i n p u t voltage levels are below the
threshold level of 0 . 8 volts—a red I . E D lights u p if voltage
is above the high threshold of 2.2 volts. If a pulse is present
at the probe tip. the I.F.D will flash or flicker.
Radio Shack's logic p r o b e (part n u m b e r 2 2 - 3 0 3 ) costs
about S 2 0 and has an orange L E D that Hashes if a pulse is
detected. In addition, it has a beeper that changes tone
d e p e n d i n g on voltage level. Searching u n d e r "logic probe"
or "red and green test light" on the Internet will yield other
brands that suit y o u r needs as well. They all d o about the
same thing, and all are invaluable when w o r k i n g o n
electronic ignition a n d fuel injection systems.
NOID LIGHTS
A noid light is a specialty tool, specifically designed t o check
for the presence of a fuel injector pulse at the injector wiring
harness. A noid light plugs i n t o the wiring harness in place
of a fuel injector. W h e n the engine is cranked over, the light
Hashes or flickers if a pulse is received. A set of noid lights
can be purchased o n the Internet or at most car parts stores
for about $ 2 0 . Most sets typically c o m e with a n u m b e r of
different lights and connectors to a c c o m m o d a t e various
si/es of m a j o r manufacturers' fuel injcctor connectors.
 — T
However, as m e n t i o n e d earlier, a test light can also p e r f o r m
this same function and is equally safe t o use on all electronic
fuel injection (EF1) systems. However, s o m e EF1 systems
use a series resistor with t h e injector, a n d these systems may
not pass e n o u g h current t o light the test light. N o i d lights
usually require less voltage/current t o light u p and may
work better in this respect.
SHORT FINDERS
If the same fuse keeps blowing, it's easy e n o u g h to look at
a wiring diagram to d e t e r m i n e the accessories powered by
that circuit. However, it's altogether a n o t h e r matter t o
actually find the section of wire or connector that has
shorted to g r o u n d . Service manuals rarely provide wiring
harness routing locations, so o f t e n t i m e s , the only way t o
find a bad section of wire is by taking lots of things a p a r t —
dashboards, engine wiring harnesses, head liners, a n d so o n .
%4
•
' ?. e
Oju
Z+4
OTC
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FORD TBI
tach at these Nad tgfts lit afferent tuet-nficw wiring harnesses Htwn connected, tney hash wtenever an vyector putse tront tfie ECU is present
Cowresy ol SPMJTC
' a t k
T h e task of finding a short in a circuit is m u c h easier
when you use a simple "short finder." which can be m a d e
at h o m e using a rcscttablc circuit breaker a n d compass.
(Self-setting circuit breakers can be purchased at most a u t o
parts stores, while sporting goods' dealers can supply a
compass.) T h e circuit breaker c o n n e c t s directly to the fiisc
box and takes the place of the b l o w n fuse. T h e bimetallic-
strip inside the circuit breaker heats and cools as current
passes t h r o u g h it, causing the circuit t o turn on a n d off.
Each time the circuit receives povser, a magnetic pulse b
generated in the wire. Placing the compass needle near the
wire causes it to deflect each time the breaker resets. By
moving the compass along a wiring harness, the location of
the short can be d e t e r m i n e d by watching the needle
m o v e m e n t in the compass. It b always about the same
strength until it is placed just beyond the shorted wire. As
the compass needle moves less a n d less, you arc m o v i n g
,
*<v
OTC
7602
GM PFI
O T C DIVISION
47
 . ass-

77ns homemade short Under

consists ot a 5-amp resetting
cncmt breaker, me kuds with
attgatx elm. and a compass

This homemade stmt tinder

uses either a 5- or F 0-ATJP
rvsctlng crcuit breaker. In
addition, it flashes a kght and
beeps Ofier functions todude a
20-amp breaker for testng
vmng harnesses orpowertng up
a fuel pump

48
 - - m - B

A personal can never have too marry tonper wires They come in an afferent sues, as shown here The large set of fimpers was homemade usng 14-gaugetamp
cord, il comes « mighty handy for getting (XMW from the front ID the t>ack of a or trailer

farther away from the shorted wire. W i t h a little practice,
you should he able to narrow d o w n the location of the
shorted wire t o within 6 inches. Also, the compass can sense
a magnetic pulse t h r o u g h sheet metal, upholstery, and just
about everything else. You can either m a k e your o w n short
finder (as described above) or purchase o n e online by
searching the Internet u n d e r "automotive short finder." the
cost should be a r o u n d 5 2 0 .
JUMPER WIRES AND ACCESSORIES
J u m p e r wires arc basically n o t h i n g more than \-arious
lengths o f wire with alligator clips connected t o their ends.
J u m p e r wires have n u m e r o u s uses and a serious technician
always has at least two (red and black) clipped to the outside
of a toolbox. T h e best jumper wires can be easily m a d e f r o m
silicone svirc a n d good quality alligator d i p s . Heavy lamp
cord (14 gauge) with larger clips also works well w h e n you
want the convenience of having b o t h power a n d g r o u n d
sources at the rear of a vehicle in order to test fuel p u m p s
or when w o r k i n g on trailer lights. If you don't want t o m a k e
your o w n , packages of j u m p e r wires in most sizes can b e
purchased at Radio Shack o r via the Internet.
Measuring voltage or other o u t p u t s on wires that
disappear i n t o a connector or sensor can prove problematic.
Picking u p a knife or wire stripper to scrapc o f f wire
insulation is not a good way t o tap i n t o a wire since it could
cause d a m a g e to the wire. A better m e t h o d for testing
connector or sensor wires is to use a seamstress dress pin
(available at most fabric stores). T h e dress pin can b e
inserted between a wire a n d connector until contact with
 A JS f\xw aXigator dp flop) equipped with a bed-of-naits. Tha tool can pierce wvv insulation and provide a place to cxmvct a voltmeter The T-shaped pas
(tottom) are avatatie from any fabric store and ivort to back probe connectors

the terminal inside the connector is made. 'Hie T-shaped COIL TESTERS
end also provides a place to attach meter leads. Testing an ignition coil is oftentimes problematic. W h e n
Furthermore, when the pin is removed, there's n o d a m a g e using an o h m m c t c r t o measure the resistance of the coil's
to the wire or connector. p r i m a r y and secondary windings, does it mean the coil is
T h e best tool a r o u n d for tapping i n t o a wire with n o okay if the resistance of the windings is within specification?
connector is a JS Popper alligator clip by Mueller Electric N o t necessarily. Sometimes an ignition coil with internal
Company. This company's JP-8783 alligator clip is resistance that meets specifications svon't produce a spark
e q u i p p e d with a bed-of-nails (sharp spikes clustered close when connected to the vehicle's ignition system, even
together). "I"hcsc clips arc designed to reach the c o n d u c t o r t h o u g h the windings check o u t okay with an o h m m c t c r . A
inside a wire by piercing the insulation without causing better way to test a coil is to use a universal ignition coil
d a m a g e to the svire. T h c v can attach directly to meter leads tester, which can be m a d e simply with a condcnscr and
or j u m p e r wires. Search for this specialty tool on the s o m e j u m p e r wires. A coil tester basically functions like a
Internet u n d e r "JS Popper" or "Mueller Elcctric." set of ignition points a n d can be used to fire any type of

50
An <M test fgM txxtf. condenser, wire, and some alligator dips can be comb/nod to create a homemade cod tester. U a coirs good, then the tod will make it
produce a spark.
ignition coil. W h e n connected to an ignition coil with
batten- power, the coil tester will cause the coil to p r o d u c e
a spark if i t s good. T h i s d y n a m i c test is truly effectis-e for
discovering a bad coil w i n d i n g chat could break d o w n u n d e r
an electrical load. A m o r e c o m p l e t e description of h o w a coil
tester works can be f o u n d in C h a p t e r 6 o n ignition systems.
SPARK TESTERS
Using a j u m p e r wire held close to g r o u n d as a m e t h o d of
testing for ignition coil spark o u t p u t will work, but it can
zap you if you're not careful. A high energy ignition ( H E I )
tester is a safer device to use. It is basically a spark plug with
n o g r o u n d electrode and wich an alligator clip welded co it.
About 2 5 , 0 0 0 volts are needed f r o m the ignition coil to
p r o d u c e a spark at the tester, indicating a good coil that
should be capable of p r o d u c i n g enough energy for the
ignition system. Consequently, this tester may not ss-ork on
some points-type ignition systems because their secondary
voltage o u t p u t is t o o low.
A n adjustable spark tester will also w o r k and will pros-ide
an approximation of spark o u t p u t in t h o u s a n d s o f volts.
T h i s tester has an electrode that can be adjusted to increase
the air gap the spark has to j u m p . A printed scale o n the
tester indicates h o w m u c h voltage is required to j u m p
the resulting air gap. Both testers work equally well, sell for
less than $8. a n d can be f o u n d at most a u t o parts stores.
51
 By oosenwg the distance a
spark /urea on the spark tester
on the left you can get some
aoproMimaton ol nork-piug-
frtng voltage The or gapS width
can be set by the user to
increase or decrease the firing
voltage required to jump the xr
gap The MO spark tester on the
nghthasa fued or gap that
requres about 25.000 vc/ts from
the tgriton codtojump its art
gap Tha is a good ntcabon of
cot strength 00 most electronic
igrtbon systems

Any nducbve tmng tight can

asofUKKnasapoormans
scope. When connected to on
igntion wire. the ftashmg tight
vnl slop a Bash whenever a
mtsfre occurs.

52
 — *T

IGNITION TIMING LIGHTS

In addition to adjusting distributor ignition timing, an
inductivc t i m i n g light can also be useful for dctccting
ignition misfires. By installing the inductivc clamp o n the
coil wire and then p o i n t i n g it at y o u r face, you can actually
sec misfires because the light skips a flash whenever a misfire
occurs. T h u s , rhe h u m a n eye and t i m i n g light serve to
create a poor man's ignition scope. T h i s technique also
svorks o n distributor-less ignition systems (DIS) as well. A
timing light can also IK used t o detect an E C M that is n o t
firing a fuel injcctor. By c l a m p i n g the inductivc probe
a r o u n d o n e of the wires going to a fuel injcctor. injcctor
misfires can be observed in a similar manner. By connccting
a t i m i n g light to a throttle b o d y injector svire and p o i n t i n g
it at the injector, you can actually sec the injcctor spray
O

3
pattern w h e n the light flashes in rime with the injector
pulse. Any inductive-type t i m i n g light will work for these
tests. ' l i m i n g lights arc available at most a u t o parts stores
and online. z
a
§
z
BATTERY TESTERS
Using only an a m m e t e r and starter m o t o r to test a battery
is a t i m e - c o n s u m i n g task. T h e r e arc a n u m b e r of hand-held
automotive battery testers o n the market that m a k e this job
a whole lot easier a n d faster. T h e O w a t o n n a Tool C o m p a n y
( O T C ) makes several types of battery testers. Its M o d e l
3 1 8 0 battery' tester can load a battery to 1 0 0 amps. T h e
tester consists of a s-oltmctcr, relay, a n d heavy-duty resistor.
After c o n n e c t i n g the tester cables t o a battery, turn the load
switch o n for 10 seconds. Before releasing the switch, read
the voltage display to d e t e r m i n e if the batter)' is good or
b a d . T h e battery has to be at least 7 5 percent charged in
order for all load-type testing to produce reliable results.
O T C ' s M o d e l 3 1 8 1 battery tester draws 130 a m p s and has
clamps that work on side-post battery terminals. Both O T C
testers can test 6-volt or 12-volt batteries a n d have starter
a n d c h a r g i n g tests as well. H a n d - h e l d batters' load testers
can b e f o u n d at most a u t o parts stores and online.

If you want s o m e t h i n g a little m o r e high-tech. O T C also

makes a digital battery tester (part n u m b e r 3 1 9 1 ) , which uses
conductance technology to d e t e r m i n e a battery's condition.
T h e s e testers indirectly measure the available plate surface
area of a battery needed to p r o d u c e the chemical reaction
that creates current. T h u s , c o n d u c t a n c e testing provides a
reliable indication of the overall batter)- state-of-health (how
m u c h life is left) and has a direct correlation t o a battery's
capacity t o start an engine. C o n d u c t a n c e testing can also be
used to detect bad cells, shorted plates, and o p e n circuits
within a battery. Furthermore, unlike load-type batters-
testers, digital testers can also test a discharged batter)'.
An OTC 3180 Stmcertotterytesttf puts a 100-mp ttitf dvmgtotterytesting
Hand-Mdtotterytesters are more convenient trun using tfie engine's stancr
motor fitter a 6-wX or 12-mittotterycan tie tested Cowtesy at SPX"0TC
Testing takes only a few seconds and the digital display
includes actual cold cranking a m p s (CCA), o p e n circuit
voltage, and battery health. Unfortunately, these testers don't
c o m e cheap! Because of their price (S350 and up), these
testers are mostly used only by professional technicians.

53
 LAB SCOPES
Oscilloscopes arc commonly used in laboratory settings,
but have also been used widely in the automotive industry
since the 1950s. In the automotive repair industry, they
were almost exclusively used for diagnosing ignition system
problems until the late 1980s. At that time, newer digital
lab scopes were introduced as tools that could "see" various
inputs and outputs from electronic fuel injection systems.
Computer sensors, including MAP, barometric pressure
(BARO), AC pickup coils, hall-effect switches, optical
distributors, and MAP all produce waveforms. A waveform
is a shape derived from displaying voltage-over-rime for a
signal output. A lab scope can view and display sensor
waveforms and, additionally, can measure and record
waveforms from actuators, including those from fuel
injectors, idle controllers, solenoids, and relays.
Why. you may wonder, should you use a lab scope when
most (but not all) of the signals from the previously
mentioned sensors and components can be measured with
a multimeter? There are a few good reasons. For example.
54
a Ford MAP sensor produces a square wave that a
multimeter displays in hertz frequency. As a MAP sensor's
signal changes, the number of hertz increases or decreases;
however, if the sensor has an intermittent problem, a
multimeter will not be able to detect it. In some instances,
use of a lab scope is the only way to actually see the square
wave break down. This is most useful in those instances
when the quality' of the signal is of greater importance than
the presence of the signal.
Another good example of a lab scope as the preferred tool
is when measuring fuel-injector pulses from the ECM. A
flashing noid light, test light, or logic probe connected to an
injcctor harness will only confirm a signal exists; but again,
the quality of the signal cannot be determined by these test
methods. By contrast, a lab scope not only verifies an injector
signal is present, but by analyzing the scope's digital display,
you can determine if there is a problem with the vehicle s fuel
injection computer. A lab scope can even detect a bad fuel
pump motor or cooling fan motor before they quit working.
By observing the waveform either motor produces, a bad
^ S A A A A A J ^ i : : : - T
A Fluke 98 Scope Meter can record an1 play back both analog and <tgta)
electronic tutl lo/ecfoo signals ft can atso meastxe secondary ign&on voltagesoftware lets the user view, record, and store waveforms.
and display spark plugfiringpatterns. Courtesy ct Ri*e Corporation
m o t o r brush or armature winding can be diagnosed.
A b o u t 7 0 percent of the time, the use of a logic probe
or m u l t i m e t e r is good enough to d e t e r m i n e if a c o m p u t e r
sensor or other electronic c o m p o n e n t is working. I t s the
exceptions thar really cause diagnostic headaches. Most
h o m e mechanics won't have the need, or can justify the
expense, of o w n i n g a lab scope. Professional technicians
work o n a wider variety of vehicles with more c o m p u t e r -
related issues; a lab scope can save t h e m hours o f time w h e n
trying t o solve s t u b b o r n electrical problems. T h e price of
digital lab scopes has c o m e d o w n in recent years, b u t they're
still cxpensis-e—ranging from S 8 0 0 to well over S3,000.
Search the Internet u n d e r "automotive lab scope" and you'll
get an idea of what's available.
T h e r e is a new, interesting alternative to a digital lab
The abAty to piay back this recording of a has-effect switch e sometimes the
only way to 'see'an electncat gUtcn that could cause an igmbon mafire.
Courtesy of FkAe Corporation
scope if you already o w n a personal c o m p u t e r (PC), laptop,
or personal digital assistant ( P D A ) — a scope interface (a
box with leads c o m i n g o u t of it a n d a universal serial bus.
o r USB. port). It plugs into a P C or P D A a n d its included
O T C makes a Palm Scope interface (part n u m b e r 3 9 6 1 ) for
use with a H a n d s p r i n g Visor P D A . O t h e r software a n d
interface devices typically run about $ 3 0 0 and can be f o u n d
o n the Internet.
Another alternative is to use an analog lab scope. Unfor-
tunately, these tools are not designed for a u t o m o t i v e use
a n d d o have limitations. Analog scopes operate in real time
so they cannot record waveforms, consequently making it
difficult t o find intermittent electrical glitches. Analog
scopes can be purchased n e w for as little as $ 3 5 0 , a n d even
less, if used.
SOLDERING TOOLS
H a v i n g the right tools to repair electrical problems is as
importanr as having the right electronic testing tools to find
problems in the first place. Basic soldering tools arc essential
for repairing a n d splicing wires, a d d i n g connectors, a n d
overall general elcctrical repair. T h e electric soldering g u n
 Atuloe saves are not designed tor autonvtive ise and have kmltatxns. They can onfy operate r> real tune and can't record wairArrnx They can be purchased nen
tor as dtts* as $350

Wettfrs heavy-Duty Soidenng

Iron Kit (part number SPG801)
produces 80 natts olpoivcrand
comes with Mo ttps A safety
uxxcator tght lets you know the
iron eon Courtesy of Wefler

56
 This Weter Dual Heat Range
Soldenno Gun Kit (model
820GPK) is standard issue for
automotive electncal node
Soldering guns heat iv QuxMy
and are easy to work mm; sow
even hare a work light to
itkmnato what you're soldering
Courtesy ot Wefler

Wcllcr

Welle/'s Portasol~a completely portable, butane powered sddemg ton Ths tool is convenient and invaluable when working on trailer wmg. under the dash, at the
racetrack, won those dreaded roadside repairs. Heat« adjustable andigntonisvaapietoeiectesystem—iustn&theONSMtch The tool can be charged with
butane using the same canisters that fJI ogarette bghters. One M op lasts several hours—more than enough time to solder entire wiring harnesses. Courtesy ol Wcflet

has been a r o u n d for years—oss-ning a quality o n e will m a k e
all electrical work go smoothly. Wcllcr, a division of C o o p e r
Tools, has m a n u f a c t u r e d a variety of soldering tools for
m a n y years and is considered the standard in both
a u t o m o t i v e a n d electronics industries.
T h e Weller 8 2 0 0 P K m u l t i p u r p o s e soldering g u n kit
features a dual heat range ( 1 0 0 / 1 4 0 ssatts) element. By
pulling the trigger to the first position. 100 ssatts of possrr
and heat arc produced at the gun lip. T h i s setting works well
for smaller wires (up to 14 gauge). W h e n working with larger
wires (10 and 12 gauge), the second trigger position is
capable of producing 140 w a n s . Ill is range works best for
most automotive clcctrical work. If you need to work with
heavier wire or terminals, Wcllcr D 5 5 0 P K develops 2 0 0 / 2 6 0
watts of posver. Both models have built-in lights—great
when working in dark spaces under a dash or hood. Howcser,
since most available spaces on a vehicle are not large e n o u g h
to a c c o m m o d a t e a soldering gun, a pencil size soldering iron
is also asailable to get into those cramped quarters m u c h
easier. In addition to standard electric soldering guns. Welter
also makes butane-powered soldering irons for the ultimate
in portability.

57
SECTION III
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 4
STORAGE BATTERY
L ike most people, y o u probably don't spend a lot of time
worrying about the batters' in your vehicle, until the
engine won't start; then the battery gets 100 percent of your
attention. Fortunately, an engine can usually be j u m p -
started by a n o t h e r vehicle, but the bigger p r o b l e m is
whether it will start again once you've reached your desti-
nation. C h a r g i n g the battery may be only a temporary fix.
In addition to not starting an engine, a weak or old battery
can also cause drivabilitv issues with EFI vehicles, as well as
problems with the charging system. In fact. C h a p t e r 5,
C h a r g i n g and Starting Systems, stresses that the battery
should always be fully charged and tested before diagnosing
potential charging-relatcd problems in a vehicle. Under-
s t a n d i n g h o w a battery works and how to test it will help
when you a t t e m p t to solve clectrical-relatcd issues in your
car or truck.
This Optma Red Top batmy has 800 cold cranking amps (CCAI and 110
minutes of reserve capacity. The battery is leak-proof arxj can be mounted
anywhere mside a vetttde and m almost any position Courtesy ct Op una
Batteries and Summl Racing Etwpmenl
Batteries have three basic functions: (1) to provide
electrical power to start the engine. .11 t o supply additional
current when the charging system can't keep u p with
electrical d e m a n d , and (3) t o act JS a voltage stabilizer for
the vehicle's charging system.
A battery's primary job is t o start the engine, and in this
case, size does matter. Engine displacement is the key factor
in determining amperage requirements, which varies
according to the type of engine installed for engine starting
and related battery capacity: Iour-cyliudcr engines use
between 50 a n d 150 amps, six-cylinders and small V-8s
need between 7 5 a n d 175 a m p s , while large V-8 engines can
use as m u c h as 2 7 5 a m p s for starter cranking. A battery's
cold-cranking amperage rating is directly proportional to
the vehicle's engine size since every engine requires a
m i n i m u m level of amperage t o start, which must be met or
exceeded by the battery's capacity. Batteries w i t h less
capacity are capable of starting a large displacement engine,
but not reliably, especially in colder climates. Flow batteries
arc rated is covered later in this chapter O t h e r lactors
c o n t r i b u t i n g t o starter current d e m a n d (and related battery
size) include: engine/starter cranking ratio, internal starter
gear reduction, oil viscosity, ambient temperature, and
overall starter circuit resistance.
A battery's second job is to supply current when a
charging system is overworked. T h i s usually occurs (though
n o t always) when the engine is idle. If a vehicle's electrical
system is creating a high d e m a n d (headlights o n , heater
blowers o n high, windshield wipers operating) and engine
speed is t o o low for the alternator/generator to supply
enough current, die battery will make u p the difference.
T h i s can also occur whenever attcrmarkct electrical acces-
sories have been installed, since high-watrage sound
systems, driving lights, c a m p e r or trailer h o o k u p s , or other
accessories can all exceed the charging system's current-
p r o d u c i n g capacity. W h e n the alternator/generator is at
m a x i m u m capacity, the battery supplies any additional
current required. But only for a short time! If the charging
 S I N G L E CELL B A T T E R Y

LEAD
DIOXIDE

SPONCE
LEAD

SULFURIC A C I D • WATER *
ELECTROLYTE
Fig 4-1. Tha angle cell battery has one positive an) aw negasn plate The plates s*vn m an etectrotrfe sdvbon ot su/ftnc add and dotted vrater

system is already unable to keep u p with the vehicle's CHEMICAL REACTIONS

clcctrical loads, it can't also supply battery charging current A battery is basically nothing m o r e than a simple chemistry-
for long. set that stores clcctrical energy. It's important to understand
T h e last f u n c t i o n of a battery is to act as a voltage stabi- a battery docs not store electricity, rather, it stores chemical
lizer for t h e charging system. T h e alternator needs energy necessary to produce electricity. W h e n a battery-
s o m e t h i n g to "push" against to keep f r o m producing produces current (to start an engine, for instance), it converts
excessive voltage. As a result, a battery should never be its chemical energy into electricity by a simple change in the
disconnected on a vehicle e q u i p p e d with an alternator form of energy stored. While the process may seem myste-
since the charging o u t p u t voltage can increase t o over 2 0 rious (since it occurs inside a battery), the following expla-
v o l t s — e n o u g h electrical pressure t o take o u t m a n y (if n o t nation should help take the mystery o u t of it.
all) solid state components like ignition modules, Batteries are m a d e u p of a scries of separate c o m p a r t -
c o m p u t e r s , a n d stereos. m e n t s consisting of pairs of negative a n d positive lead plates
In addition to acting as a voltage stabilizer, a battery called cells. Each cell has two sets o f lead p l a t e s — o n e m a d e
provides various electrical system protections. H i g h voltage f r o m lead dioxide with a positive chargc a n d the other f r o m
spikes may be produced when t u r n i n g o n or off certain metallic sponge lead with a negative charge. T h e plates are
electrical circuits; these fluctuations in voltage are partially stacked alternately (negative, positive) and immersed in an
absorbed bv t h e battery, t h u s protecting solid state c o m p o - electrolytic solution of sulfuric acid a n d distilled water. T h e
nents f r o m damage. active material (lead dioxide in the positive plate and

59
 SIX CELL
a VOLT BATTERY

NEGATIVE
GRID

E POSITIVE
5 GRID

EACH CELL HAS 2.1 VOLTS

fig 4-2. Six ads. prvducing Z l votts each, are connected in seriestocreate a 12-votttottery.Six-volt batteries have only three cets

metallic sponge lead in the negative plate) produces discharging. T h e electrolyte solution contains charged
electricity when immersed in electrolytic solution. a t o m i c particles called ions, w h i c h arc m a d e u p of sulfate
Each cell in a battery produces 2.1 volts D C . a n d a 6 - a n d hydrogen. T h e sulfate ions arc negatively charged,
volt battery has three cells. T h e os-erall surface area of the while t h e hydrogen ions have a positive charge. W h e n you
lead plates in the cells is supported by a cast lead framework place a load across a battery (starter motor, headlight, or
called a grid, w h i c h not only holds the plates together, b u t h o r n ) the sulfate ions travel to the negative platc-i a n d give
also facilitates the flosv of electrons between negative and u p their negative charge, causing the battery to discharge.
positive plates d u r i n g charging a n d discharging. The T h i s excess electron flow o u t of the negative side of the
amount o f elcctrical energy a battery is capable of battery, t h r o u g h the electrical device, and back t o t h e
p r o d u c i n g is d e p e n d e n t u p o n the surfacc area of the plates positive side of t h e battery is what creates D C cut rent.
in the cells. However, while size does matter to some extent, O n c c the electrons arrive back at the positive batters-
plate design a n d specific chemistry arc more determinative terminal, they travel back i n t o the .ells and reattach to the
of the a m o u n t of dcctrical energy a battery can produce. positive plates. T h i s process of c o n t i n u o u s discharge
T h i s is why a physically small battery can have an amperage c o n t i n u e s until the battery is dead a n d there is n o chcmicai
rating higher than that of a battery of larger dimensions. energy left. T h i s flow o f d c c t r o n s f r o m negative to positive
battery posts contradicts p o p u l a r n o t i o n s a b o u t electricity
m o v i n g f r o m the positive post of a battery d i r o u g h an
DISCHARGING
clcctrical device and back t o the negative post (conven-
O n e of t w o chcmicai processes is always o c c u r r i n g inside
tional electron t h e o r y — s e e C h a p t e r 1).
a battery at any given time—either charging or

60
 I
\
+

»
w *I

•
I

•
\

5 • m m

++ - • a
I+ + < • a

++ • a
+ +< a a

++ > • • ++ < • a 5
o
g
++ • > ++ <4 • a
J
0
m

DISCHARGING CHARGING 1
Fig 4-3. Thetotteryon We left is dtxharpng as rts postrte ions travelfromthe pos&ve piite to the negative ptote The pnxess Is reversed (on the right) when the
tottery is being charged.

W h e n a battery discharges, the ratio of sulfuric acid to ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION

water in the electrolytic solution changes to mostly water.
At the same time, batter)' acid produces a chemical
byproduct called lead sulfate that coats the plates, thereby
reducing t h e surface area over which chemical reactions can
occur. As the surface area o f the battery plate shrinks,
c u r r e n t - p r o d u c i n g capacity lessens as well. T h i s is why a
battery goes dead after a load devicc is left o n for prolonged
periods of time.
Speaking of discharging, a c o m m o n misconception
a b o u t battery storage is that if it is left o n a concrete floor,
it will eventually discharge. 'I"his was true when battery
cases were m a d e o f hard r u b b e r (about 35 years ago); the
moisture f r o m concrete caused the battery to discharge
t h r o u g h the case. However, m o d e r n batter)' cases are m a d e
o f acryloniirilc-butadicnc-styrcnc (ABS) plastic, which can
b e stored on concrete indefinitely w i t h o u t any concern for
discharge potential.
As previously m e n t i o n e d , a battery's negative a n d positive
plates swim in an electrolytic solution of sulfuric acid and
water, an ingredient necessary for electrochemical processes
to occur inside a batter)'. W h e n e v e r the ratio of sulfuric acid
t o water is measured, the resulting value is expressed as
specific gravity (SG). T h e specific gravity for pure svatcr is
1.000, svhile sulfuric acid has a specific gravity o f 1.835.
C o m b i n e d , their specific gravity is 1.265 (indicating a fully
charged batter)' at 8 0 degrees Fahrenheit). Hosvever, as a
battery discharges, the ratio of acid to water changes; there
is less sulfuric acid and m o r e svatcr, so the specific gravity
of the electrolyte solution lowers. T h e process is reversed
when t h e batter)' is charged. T h e specific gravity gets higher
as the ratio of acid to water changes back to mostly acid.
Temperature also has an effect on a battery's ability t o
produce c u r r e n t — t h e lower the temperature, t h e lower the
specific gravity, a n d the lower the currcnt-producing

61
 Ths battery charging gutie uses
a batterys reserve capacity U> Battery Charging Guide
dctccnwe how long a My Charge rates a n d times are for fully discharged conditions
discharged battery should be
charged. Both high and tow Rated Battery Reserve Stow Charge Fast Charge
charge rates arefistedCourtesy (In minutes)
of Battery Council International 15 hours (? 3 a m p s 2.5 Iwuirs @> 20 a m p s
8 0 m i n u t e s or less 1.5 hours & 3 0 a m p s
21 hours 4 amps 3 . 7 5 hours Of 2 0 a m p s
8 0 t o 125 minutes 1.5 h o u r s & 5 0 a m p s
2 2 h o u r s <£> 5 a m p s 5 h o u r s (& 2 0 a m p s
125 to 170 m i n u t e s 2 hours @ 50 a m p s
2 3 hours 6 amps 7.5 h o u r s 20 amps
170 t o 2 5 0 minutes
3 h o u r s 9 50 a m p s
24 h o u r s 6*1 10 a m p s 6 hours ^ AO a m p s
Greater t h a n 2 5 0 m i n u t e s
4 hours @ 6 0 a m p s

B potential. T h e r e are specialty batteries that use dilTerent
P specific gravity specifications based u p o n the range of
temperatures in which the battery is designed t o operate.
^ Batteries used in tropical climates (svhere a m b i e n t tcmpcr-
O atures never freeze water) have lower specific gravity values.
B usually of 1.210. Batteries used in extremely cold climates
® use higher specific gravity values of u p t o 1.300. Higher
o p e n circuit voltage) in order to charge it. T h e charging
device (alternator, generator, o r battery charger) produces
excess electrons at t h e negative battery plates, svhere positise
hydrogen ions arc then attracted to t h e m . T h e hydrogen
ions c o m b i n e to f o r m sulfuric acid and lead, which
ultimately reduces the a m o u n t of water in the electrolytic
solution and increases the battery's specific graviry.

I
^ specific gravity values arc typically not f o u n d in batteries Applying a charging current to a battery without
intended for use in N o r t h America or most of Europe overheating it is called the natural absorption rate. W h e n
because battery life is significantly decreased by a higher charging amperage exceeds the level of the natural
specific gravity rating. A battery with a specific gravity of absorption rate, the battery may overheat, causing the
1.265 typically will not freeze within the continental electrolyte solution to bubble and create flammable
United States because the electrolyte solution can be hydrogen gas. W h e n c o m b i n e d with oxygen from the air.
subjected to - 7 5 degrees Fahrenheit before it will solidify. hydrogen gas is extremely explosive and can easily be
However, batteries should always be kept charged in cold ignited by a spark. Therefore, you must always remember
climates to prevent damage. As a battery becomes to t u r n the power oft"before connecting or disconnecting a
discharged, its specific gravity is lowered, and so is the battery charger in order t o prevent .. spark at the battery
freezing point of its electrolytic solution is raised. A dead terminals! S o m e nesver battery c h a r g c n have a no-spark
battery with an specific gravity of 1.155 has a freezing p o i n t feature, even when disconnected under power. A battery
of a b o u t 5 degrees Fahrenheit, at which point it could freeze that has been rapidly discharging (due t o cranking an
solid and damage the batters*. engine over until rhc battery died) may also p r o d u c e
excessive hydrogen gas.

CHARGING A spark can also result svhen connecting jumper cablcs to a

C h a r g i n g a battery reverses the chemical reactions that
occurred during discharge. Basically, the sulfate
hydrogen ions switch places. T h e electrical energy used t o
charge a battery is converted back into chcmicai energy and
stored inside the battery. Battery chargers, including alter-
nators and generators, p r o d u c e a higher voltage (higher
electrical pressure) than the o p e n circuit voltage of the
battery they are charging. T h i s electrical pressure is required
t o push the current back into the battery (overcoming its
dead batter)', which can also cause an explosion. F i g u r c l - 4 illus-
and trates the correct mcdiod for connecting jumper cablcs to a dead
battery ss-hen attempting to jump-start your vehicle with
another sehidc. Always follow these four steps when jump-
starting a s r h i d c : (I) conncct the red |umpcr cabtc to the dead
battery's positise terminal. (2) attach tl»c other end of this same
cable to the chargcd battery's positise terminal. (3) conncct die
black cable to the good battery's negative terminal, and 4)
conncct die other end of die negative Mack jumper cable to the

62
expert22 .q/ifl http://rutracker.orq
dead vehide's engine block or frame. T h e last c o n n c a i o n is die
o n e that sparks. This method will keep all potential sparks away
from both batteries.
A u t o m o t i v e batteries can be charged at a high rate (over
6 0 amps) as long as the batten- case t e m p e r a t u r e docs not
cxcccd 125 degrees Fahrenheit. T o d e t e r m i n e if this temper-
ature is being exceeded, place y o u r h a n d against t h e battery
case; if you c a n t leave it there for m o r e t h a n a few seconds,
the t e m p e r a t u r e is too high a n d the charging rate should be
lowered. Also, if the battery's cells are p r o d u d n g excessive
gas (evidenced by vigorous b u b b l i n g of the electrolyte
solution), the charging r u e should be reduced. For these
reasons, high-rate or boost-fast battery diargcrs should not
be left u n a t t e n d e d for long periods of time. A u t o m a t i c ,
smart battery chargers are able to sense battery voltage and
s h u t themselves oft" w h e n the battery reaches full d i a r g c .
M a n y of these smart chargers also change to trickle charge
m o d e in order to maintain a battery's statc-of-chargc over
long periods of time. A dedicated trickle charger will n o t
charge a dead a u t o m o t i v e battery since most of these
chargers only have a charging rate of 1 a m p ; however, they
are ideal for use o n batteries stored d u r i n g winter or used
in boats, lawn e q u i p m e n t , and m o t o r c y d c s .
BATTERY RATINGS
Since a battery's basic job is to power the starter m o t o r while
m a i n t a i n i n g sufficient voltage to also r u n the ignition a n d
TO STARTER
GOOD
BATTERY
TO GROUND
Fij4-4. fa wfm tamtpbng to itr-p sm j t w renae slvtrfi connect the fjif /unpir crM <sxi> 4t» pie crqm bbcK or hare of the wtidt witti ttK
tlead batten ms trtJ preset a spart trim ocasrmg at the negatw terttmat of the oeao battery
fuel systems, it is rated in cold c r a n k i n g a m p s ( C C A ) . C C A
represents the discharge load in a m p s that a new. fully
charged batter)' at 0 degrees Fahrenheit can c o n t i n u o u s l y
deliver for 3 0 seconds while m a i n t a i n i n g 7 . 2 volts. C C A
batter)' ratings for cars a n d light trucks are generally in the
range of 3 0 0 to 8 0 0 . M o r e expensive batteries have greater
C C A capacity; s o m e are as high as 1,000.
A n o t h e r type of batter)' rating measures reserve capacity
( R C ) — a battery's ability* to power a m i n i m u m electrical
load if the vehicle's charging systems q u i t working.
Generally, this load is defined as e n o u g h current to o p e r a t e
the vehicle with the headlights o n low beam a n d the
windshield wipers functioning. R C is rated in the n u m b e r s
of m i n u t e s a fully charged battery can discharge 2 5 a m p s
and maintain 10.5 or greater voltage at 80 degrees
Fahrenheit. Battery RCs range f r o m 4 5 to over 2 5 0 minutes
and correspond with C C A ratings. T h e old adage, "you get
what you pay for," applies to the purchase o f a u t o m o t i v e
batteries, as higher C C A - r a t c d batteries arc warranted for
m o r e years than those with less C C A and have greater R C
as well. R C may also h e used as a guide for charging rates
(see page 6 2 ) .
TYPES OF BATTERIES
There are three types of batteries available for cars and light
trucks—conventional, absorbent glass mat ( A G M ) , a n d
gel. Because a battery can potentially leave you s t r a n d e d .
TO STARTER
DEAD
BATTERY
TOGROUND
FRAME O R ENGINE
63
 \ X X . I

JTra Moroso power ctorgcr win charge 12- and 16-voit batterers at upto30 The CCA rating on this To/cta battery is listed as 5S2. Rescrw capacity is I2S
amps. It can be set (or ACM. conventional, and deep-cycle types of batteries. minutes The battery e adequate for a smal, tour-cytmder engine
The charger mtf automatically shut down if connected to a battery backward. Courtesy cfttungcrToyota
. Courtesy otMoroso and Suramin Racing
tt
J|j you should always buy only high-quality brands. Rebuilt or be physically smaller, yet provide the same or more
bargain Isasemcnt batteries may start y o u r vehicle for a c r a n k i n g power than conventional designs.
^ while, b u t they arc sure t o leave you stranded sooner rather
O than later. Gel Batteries
K G d batteries contain clcctrolytc solution in gel f o r m b u t
2 Conventional Batteries have conventional construction, with paper or polyethylene
s Sometimes referred to as flooded batteries, these arc the insulators separating the plates. T h e electrolytic solution is
most basic design. Batteries m a d e in earlier times used lead- a mixture of sulfuric acid, water, and silica and the result
a n t i m o n y as a material for the plates. Today, conventional is a toothpaste-like consistency. Until recently, gcl-
batteries are m a d e with lead calcium, a d d i n g much elcctrolytc construction was limited t o what was k n o w n as
improved self-discharge properties. W h e n the battery deep-cycle batteries. Deep-cycle batteries can be used until
discharges a n d charges, s o m e of the water in the electrolyte dead and rcchargcd with little loss in overall capacity.
solution evaporates, causing the level of cells t o become low. C o n v e n t i o n a l and A G M batteries have shorter life spans if
T h e s e batteries have filler caps o n top, allowing you to allowed to completely disdiargc. Gel batteries arc primarily
check each cell's clcctrolytc level. T h e individual cells uscd in mobility e q u i p m e n t (wheelchairs), golf cans, recre-
periodically need to IK t o p p e d o f f with distilled water d u e ational vehicles (RVs), m a r i n e applications, and a u t o m o t i v e
t o inevitable water loss d u r i n g the charging/discharging racing. T h e b o t t o m line o n g d batteries is that they have
process. W h e n charging a conventional battery, always higher internal electrical resistance t l u n A G M batteries a n d
remove the caps t o let the hydrogen gas escape. don't offer as high a rate o f p e r f o r m a n c e . In o t h e r words,
what works well on your golf cart < «r race car won't necrs-
sarily start a m e d i u m - to large-displacement engine in y o u r
A b s o r b e n t Glass M a t (AGM) Batteries
v c h i d c over the long haul, especially in cold weather.
Unlike conventional batteries, A G M batteries arc designed
so there is n o free, unabsorbed electrolyte solution to spill
or evaporate, n o r d o they need to have water a d d e d . BATTERY TESTING—STATE OF CHARGE
Hence, these batteries arc c o m m o n l y described as T h e r e are several m e t h o d s available lor testing a battery,
maintcnancc-frcc. T h e electrolytic s o u p is fully absorbed ranging f r o m expensive, professional-grade test e q u i p m e n t
and p e r m a n e n t l y held in capillary attraction by either to a m u l t i m e t e r and t h e engine's starter motor. All of the
glass-fiber o r wool-mat separators between the lead plates tests, with o n e exception, require the battery t o b e fully
or grids. 1'his design gives antivibrational s u p p o r t t o the charged. If the battery is a conventional type, the filler caps
battery plates, keeping t h e m from short circuiting between can be removed and a h y d r o m e t e r test can b e used t o
negative a n d positive grids. In addition, A G M batteries can d e t e r m i n e state-of-chargc by measuring specific gravity.

64
S o m e a u t o parts stores still cart) 1 hydrometers, b u t since
they arc gradually being phased n u t , they can be hard t o
find. Most batteries used today arc maintcnancc-frcc types,
which have n o filler caps for hydrometer testing. However,
instead of measuring specific gravity, an o p e n circuit voltage
test can d e t e r m i n e statc-of-chargc on b o t h convcnrional
a n d maintenance-free batteries.
A battery has to "rest" for at least 10 minutes with n o
load before p e r f o r m i n g an open circuit voltage test. M a k e
sure all clcctrical loads arc t u r n e d o f f before testing.
C o n n c c t a digital m u l t i m e t e r directly to the battery and
measure voltage. (See the chart on page 6 6 to d e t e r m i n e
state of charge.) If the state of charge is less than 7 5 pcrccnt.
the battery must be charged before further testing. After
charging, if voltage docs not increase t o 12.6 or higher, you
need t o rcplacc t h e battery. If the state of charge is m o r e
t h a n 7 5 percent, the surface charge must l>e removed before
After cranking 0le engine tor to seconds and wtff) the starter stilt cranking, this battery s showing 10.46 Mts. wftirt locates mat it is « good condition
further testing. (All of the stated battery-testing voltage
values are for 12-volt batteries; when resting 6-volt
batteries, divide s-oltagc specifications in half.)
DYNAMIC BATTERY TESTING
If the state of charge is m o r e t h a n 7 5 pcrccnt. operating the
starter m o t o r will remove the surface charge. Disable the
ignition and fuel injection systems (if equipped); this can
be d o n e o n late model vehicles by f i n d i n g the ignition o r
EFI fuses and removing t h e m . O n carbureted vehicles,
disconnect the coil wire at the distributor cap, a n d g r o u n d
the coil wire by using a j u m p e r wire. Don't just u n p l u g the
coil wire a n d let it dangle o n an electronic ignition system;
the ignition m o d u l e can get fried if t h e spark has n o g r o u n d
return. C r a n k the engine for 15 seconds, and then let the
battery rest for 15 seconds. T h i s will remove the surface
charge. W i t h a voltmeter connected to the battery, crank
65
 IX, XI
Measuring open droit wttage is
an accirate method tor deter- Open Circuit Voltage and State ol Charge
mining a battery's stale of
charge Make sure alt efectncal State ol Charge Voltage (12v) Voltage (6v)
toads are on when performing
100% 12.65 • fi.32
me test Courtesy of Battery
Counol Irtefnatnnarf 75% 12.45 6.21
50% 12.24 6.12
25% 12.06 6.02
Diulurgcd 11.89 5.93

Hand held battery testers ate easy toots to use to perfcrm a battery load On the left is OTC* Singer battery tester (part number 3 1301, capable ol creating a
tOO amp load The heaver-duty tester <part cumber 3181) on the nght mil load test at 130 amps with diTjps 7a? work on both top- and Side post battery types.
Courtesy of SWOTC Service Solutions

66
 I Tr Xi
the engine for an additional 15
seconds. Watch the voltmeter
reading just bclore you stop
cranking the starter: a good
battery should base a m i n i m u m
loaded s-oltagc of 9 . 6 volts at 7 0
degrees Fahrenheit. If the testing is
d o n e in a cold climate (an ambient
temperature of about 4 0 degrees
Fahrenheit), the minimum
voltage should read 9 . 3 volts. If
the loaded voltage is less than
m i n i m u m , the battery is weak or
tired and on its way to becoming
a starting problem. If the battery is
bad. loaded voltage will d r o p way
off (less than 7 volts) in the first
few seconds of engine cranking.

HAND-HELD BATTERY
TESTERS
Hand-held battery testers arc
b e c o m i n g m o r e widely available
a n d can nosv be f o u n d in most
auto parts stores. An OTC
Stinger battery tester (pan
n u m b e r 3 1 8 0 ) is an example of a
quality hand-held tester. Instead
of using the starter motor, a
hand-held tester is used t o load Depentng on CCA leaded wtfaje r ttv range of 9.4 *> 102 Mcates a good 12-volt battery The OTC Stinger
the battery. After c o n n e c t i n g the battery tester can also test&voH batteries usng a different scale on the meter s face.
tester to t h e battery terminals, a Courtesy o) SPX/0TC Serrtce Sdutms
spring-loaded switch o n the tester
triggers an internal relay. 'Fhe

relay connects the heavy tester cables to the battery a n d
places a 1 0 0 - a m p load across the terminals. T h e tester
meter gives a reading of the battery condition.
W h e n using a Stinger batters- tester, conncct the red a n d
black cable clamps to the positive and negative batter)'
terminals. T h e tester's meter will indicate state of chargc
(see page 66). 'Fhe battery's C C A can usually be d e t e r m i n e d
by reading the information label o n the batter)'. If the rating
is not printed on the batter)-, use the following as a guide
to estimate C C A : small four-cylinder e n g i n e — 3 0 0 C C A ;
m e d i u m V - 6 — 4 0 0 C C A ; a n d large V - 8 — 6 0 0 C C A . W h i l e
watching the meter, depress the load switch o n t h e tester
for 10 scconds. At the e n d of 10 seconds, read the meter
with the switch still depressed. Use the scale corresponding
with the C C A of the batter)' being tested. If the needle is
in the green area, the battery is good. A steady needle
reading in the yellow area means the battery may need to
be charged or it could cause starting problems in the future,
especially in cold weather. If the needle moves noticeably
d o w n the scale, the battery is bad and needs t o b e replaced.
T o compensate for testing in cold a m b i e n t temperatures,
the C C A scale consulted should be losver. For example, at
5 0 degrees Fahrenheit, the C C A scale used should be 100
C C A less than the battery's rating.
The previous battery testing m e t h o d s required a fully
charged battery before testing. Hossevcr. a professional-
grade battery tester is capable of testing a batter)- even if it's
dead. These digital testers measure a battery's internal
resistance regardless of statc-of-chargc. Internal resistance is
an indication of a batterv's ability to deliver current. T h e

67
 more capacity a battery has to produce amperage, the lower
its internal resistance. A digital capacitance battery tester
uses single-load dynamic resistance technology to calculate
battery performance. 'I"hcsc testers use a modified D C load
test to apply a small, momentary load to the battery while
measuring instantaneous voltage drop across all cells. T h e
load is then removed and voltage across the celLs is measured
again after a recovery period. These analog measurements
are converted into digital information; the tester calculates
68
the dynamic internal resistance in order to evaluate overall
condition. T h e entire process takes about two seconds and
current drain on the battery Ls minimized. These testers
provide information on open circuit voltage, state ol
charge, and battery health and condition. They can also test
a partially charged or fully discharged batten- whether on
or off the vehicle. T h e only drawback is the price—these
testers arc not cheap! Thus, the cost is usually only justi-
fiable for professional techniciaas.
 u - 4 a t
CHAPTER 5
CHARGING AND
STARTING SYSTEMS
CHARGING SYSTEMS
Tlic previous chapter focused on automotive storage
batteries and battery chargers in general. In this chapter, the
focus shifts to an onboard lattery charger, commonly known
as an alternator (or a D C generator in older cars). T h e charging
system is the heart and soul of the automotive electrical system.
Without a reliable diarging system, anything in a vehidc
requiring dcctricirv will not work for long.
In the early part of the 1900s, before batteries svere
installed in cars or motorcycles, only ignition systems
required electricity t o operate. T h e y used a m a g n i t o — a
small generator capable o f p r o d u c i n g just e n o u g h energy t o
operate only an ignition coil. O n c e electric lights and
starters were introduced, so were storage batteries; however,
there had to be s o m e way t o keep t h e m charged. D C gener-
ators svere used to charge batteries until the early 1960s
w h e n Chrysler produced an A C generator (better knosvn as
an alternator). By the m i d - 1 9 6 0 s , most generators had been Ths po&dercoated Magnum alternator is rvabbto to an 80-amp. sftgte-wve
phased o u t of p r o d u c t i o n . T h e last a u t o m o b i l e m a n u f a c - \rrsion specifically assigned for 1972-1979 GM wttides. there Is a similar
turer to use a generator was Volkswagen in 1973. 65-amp version for 1961-1966 Ford vehicles. This alternator exceeds original
Alternators represented new technology in the 1 9 6 0 s — equipment manufacturer (OEM) specifications and comes n various colors.
only possible because of developing solid state electronics Courtesy 0< Magnum an<3 Summit Racng Equipment
such as transistors and diodes. Since an alternator must
convert A C voltage o u t p u t i n t o D C volts, the d i o d e proved
to iK an economical means of executing this process. Early must produce at least that m u c h current t o keep t h e
alternators used mechanical voltage regulators to control battery from going dead. M a n u f a c t u r e r s don't want
o u t p u t s , b u t these were soon replaced with solid-state charging systems operating at m a x i m u m posver o u t p u t for
devices. In the early 1980s. Chrysler incorporated a voltage long periods of time, so they install larger capacity alter-
regulator for the charging system into its onboard nators o r generators. For a v c h i d c with total clcctrical
computer. Charging system malfunctions were then posver requirement of 5 5 amps, an alternator capable of
identified via o n b o a r d c o m p u t e r self-diagnostics, which set p r o d u c i n g 6 0 a m p s svould be used. If a vehicles clcctrical
trouble codes to assist technicians. Today, most automobile system requires more current than the charging system is
manufacturers use an engine m a n a g e m e n t c o m p u t e r t o capable of p r o d u c i n g , the storage battery will m a k e u p the
control, monitor, a n d diagnose the charging system. difference until it goes dead. Naturally, this process is accel-
T h e c h a r g i n g system has only two purposes: to charge erated if the charging system has a p r o b l e m . N o t only will
the vehicle's battery a n d t o p o w e r all the clcctrical c o m p o - clcctrical c o m p o n e n t s steal power f r o m the battery to keep
nents in the vehicle once t h e e n g i n e starts. T h e charging operating, but a m a l f u n c t i o n i n g charging system won't
system must have e n o u g h capacity t o meet all the elcctrical rcchargc the battery cither.
d e m a n d s of t h e vehicle. Both D C generators and alter-
nators arc rated for t h e a m o u n t of current they can DC GENERATORS
produce. If a car's total electrical posver requirement is 55 Generators produce elcctridty by means of a magnet a n d
a m p s (including charging the battery), rhc charging system coil of wire. All magnets have north a n d south poles, which

69
 DC generates? aw tented r current-producing capacity' because an amperage must pass through the generator brushes. Most generators are cny capable of
producing about 25 to 40 amps—not enough for mcctem vehicles Ccurtesy of Auto Electric, he.
create a n invisible field a r o u n d the magnet. W h e n a coil of
wire is rotated between t w o magnets, voltage is induced
i n t o the wire; similarly, the magnets can be moved a n d the
coil of wire kept stationary with the same results. "litis
process of rotating cither wire coils or magnets is called
magnetic i n d u c t i o n . In a simple generator, the magnets are
inverted a n d separated by an air gap. so the north pole of
o n e faces the south pole of the other. "I*hc magnetic forces
f r o m o n e magnet bridge the air gap and extend t o the o t h e r
m a g n e t . W h e n a coil of wire is placed between the t w o
stationary magnets and rotated, the magnetic lines of forcc
arc intermittently cut. Each time the magnetic lines of
forcc arc interrupted, voltage and current are induced into
the coil of wire. W h e n t h e coil of wire is rotated 180
degrees, the lines of force arc cut in the opposite direction,
causing induced voltage a n d current to reverse direction.
1'his back a n d forth reversal of current and voltage is k n o w n
as alternating current (AC). Both D C generators and A C
generators (alternators) produce A C voltage a n d c u r r e n t .
Ilosvevcr. a u t o m o t i v e clcctrical systems only use DC
o u t p u t a n d voltage. A C o u t p u t f r o m either a generator o r
70
an alternator must be converted into D C . b u t alternators
and generators accomplish the conversion of A C t o D C in
different ways.
A D C generator produces electrical current when coils
of wire rotate past dcctromagnctic stationary field
coils. Multiple coils of wire arc wrapped a r o u n d a laminated
iron core called an armature, svhich rotates via a belt
powered by the e n g i n e s crankshaft. T h e circular ends, o r
loops, o f each coil of wire are isolated and conncctcd t o
copper c o m m u t a t o r b a n located at the end of the a r m a t u r e
and positioned in a circle a r o u n d ilic armature shaft. T h e
stationary field coils, which act like magnets inside a
generator, are actually clcctromagncts in the f o r m of coils
of wire wrapped a r o u n d iron-pole shoes attached t o t h e
inside of the generator's case. T h e field coils are energized
by the battery w h e n the ignition key i. t u r n e d o n ; o n c e t h e
engine is r u n n i n g , the generator self-powers the field coils.
As the a r m a t u r e turns. A C voltage is p r o d u c e d a n d t h e n
converted i n t o D C voltage via two carbon-based generator
brushes that act like mechanical switches as they c o n n c c t
with the rotating c o m m u t a t o r bars. T h e generator brushes
arc m o u n t e d 180 degrees apart, allowing contact with only
o n e a r m a t u r e wire loop at a time. As each wire loop rotates
past the brushes, a small s-oltage passes i n t o the brush a n d
then into the car's clcctrical system. Because the c o m m u -
tator bars rotate rapidly across the brushes, voltage o u t p u t
is c o n s t a n t . Since the c o m m u t a t o r bars have t o carry the
generator's o u t p u t , t h e a m o u n t of current that b o t h 12- a n d
6-volt D C generators can produce is limited. Heavy-duty
generators can only produce a b o u t 5 0 amps, while a typical
D C generator p r o d u c t s between 2 5 t o 4 5 a m p s .
DC GENERATOR VOLTAGE REGULATORS
As a D C generator r o u t e s , voltage o u t p u t and current
increase. If left unchecked, it w o u l d d o so until the
generator self-destructs. Consequently. D C generators arc
e q u i p p e d with an external mechanical voltage regulator that
controls b o t h current a n d voltage. W h e n o u t p u t voltage
becomes too high, the voltage regulator switches off the
field coils in the generator. Inside the voltage regulator is a
calibrated electromagnet that moves a set o f contact points
(similar to those used in older ignition systems) o p e n and
closed; these turn the field coils o n and o f f at a rate of about
2 0 0 times per second. W i t h no current going to the field
coils, n o magnetic lines of force are cut inside the generator,
a n d it stops p r o d u c i n g c u r r e n t . As voltage in the clcctrical
system drops, the regulator switches the field coils back on.
By t u r n i n g the field coils inside the generator o n and off, a
AC c u r r e n t
generator
rotating
wire coil
voltage regulator can set voltage at a constant rate, even
t h o u g h the vehicles elcctrical loads m a y vary.
If the battery is discharged or there are excessive
clcctrical loads placcd o n the charging system, the voltage
regulator ssill keep the generator's field coils energized all
the time in an effort to keep u p with the loads. In a d d i t i o n
to controlling voltage, the voltage regulator limits the
a m o u n t of current the generator produces. T h e current
regulator circuit inside the voltage regulator works in a
m a n n e r similar t o the voltage regulator—as amperage flow
increases f r o m the generator, an electromagnetic coil pulls
o p e n a second set of contact points and turns off the field
coils, limiting t h e generator current o u t p u t .
A voltage regulator has an additional c o m p o n e n t k n o w n
as a cut-out relay, which presents the batter)- from
discharging back i n t o t h e generator's field coils when the
key is t u r n e d to O F F or the engine is idling. W i t h o u t
the cut-out relay, the generator w o u l d always be o n a n d the
batter)- would go dead, even with the engine not r u n n i n g .
Older voltage regulators could b e adjusted by b e n d i n g the
metal tabs that held the springs for the contact points.
T h e tabs svere eliminated a n d later replaced with n o n a d -
justablc regulators, m e a n i n g that w h e n the voltage was t o o
high o r low. the o n l y o p t i o n was replacement. While
m o d e r n solid state electronic voltage regulators use diodes
a n d transistors instead of springs, coils, and contact points,
they arc still also nonadjustable.
Fig 5-1. Both generators and
alternators work in a smutar
manner. A simple co* ol wire is
routed between fwo magnets As
the invsble toes of magnetic
force are cut. vo/nge and current
are induced Into the co» of wire.
71
r ^ l ^ — « ^
Ths Ocde tno is used m an
an&natortorectify AC Into DC.
Because the denies get tict
dumg operator, an external fan
a usedtocreate airflow inside
the alternator Courtesy of Auto
Electnc. he.

ALTERNATORS
'Hie d e v e l o p m e n t of a solid state dcvicc called a d i o d e led
to the wide use of alternators in t h e early 1960s. A d i o d e is
an electrical one-way valve that allows current to pass in o n e
direction, b u t n o t the other. T h e diodes inside an alternator
convert A C and voltage into D C by means of a process
called rectification.
A n alternator produces A C in the same m a n n e r as a D C
generator by the use of electromagnets and coils of wire.
However, a m a j o r difference between D C gcncrarors and
alternators is the relative positions of the magnets and coils TTxs Summit alternator produces 140 amps A rteavy-duty, internal vo/tige
of wire. A n alternator has a rotating m a g n e t a n d stationary regulator and ovetsned, American madeto.."trigs are uUhed to xemmotia*
coils, while a D C generator uses rotating coils with trie tiigh current output Courtesy of Summi Racnj Equipment
stationary magnets or field coils. Also, the rotor inside an
alternator takes the place of an armature. T h e rotor consists
of an iron core m o u n t e d o n t o a shaft svith a coil o f wire an alternator arc continuous. T h e a m o u n t of current passing
svrapped a r o u n d it, with the coil enclosed between t w o pole through the slip rings is far lower than that which passes
pieces that are also m a d e of iron. T h e t w o e n d s of the coil through the brushes in a D C generator. Unlike generator
connect to copper slip rings at o n e e n d of die rotor shaft. brushes, alternator brushes usually last die life of the alternator;
These slip rings are in contact with two carbon brushes, o n e in fact, other internal components—like bearings and
of which is grounded while the other Is connected dirough die diodes—typically fail before the brushes or slip rings.
alternator's field terminal to the voltage regulator. Unlike the
An alternator uses three coils of svirc that are incorpo-
segmented c o m m u t a t o r bars in a D C generator, slip rings on
rated into the windings o n a stator. T h e stator coils arc fitted

72
73
 rectified
e voltace
voltace

© diodes c u t o u t
negative v o l t a c e

Rg 5-2. The graph at the top represents the voltage output from the three stator cois. Voltage tor each tat (a phase) alternates between posntfvr and negative The
lower d&yari shows the effect d the presence of negatk* voltage Mockny dtxfes m the stator circui. Onty the negative part c/ the stater coil's voXaqe output is
blocked and the resulting rottage is changed into DC voltage

I
fig 5 - 1 This schematic drawng
itustrates how each stator coJS 6 diode
output voltage connects between
rectifier
a parol diodes Onfy posts ve
voltage is a/lowed to reach the

positive
battery as it passes through the
three poatve (red) diodes.

stator diodes
coils

negative
diodes

74
 M -
v o l ta c e
regulator
Fig 5-4. This early alternator uses a mechanical tvtagc regulator to control the rotor coil. By tuning the cod on and otf. the atematcr's votege and current output
ate regulated at a pte-set level
inside die alternator a n d s u r r o u n d the rotor. As the rotor
turns, its magnetic field induces voltage i n t o the stator coils.
T h r e e coils m a k e u p the stator. each p r o d u c i n g its own
voltage. T h e stator o u t p u t is A C voltage that swings u p and
d o w n between negative a n d positive in repeating cycles.
D i o d e s arc solid state devices c o n t a i n i n g n o m o v i n g
p a n s . T h e y arc used to block negative voltage p r o d u c e d in
the stator coils. O n e e n d of each stator coil is c o n n e c t e d to
b o t h a positive a n d a negative d i o d e a n d the opposite ends
of the coils are conncctcd together to form a Y
a r r a n g e m e n t . N o t all alternators arc designed this way, b u t
most are. N o matter the design, t h o u g h , they all f u n c t i o n
in the s a m e m a n n e r by using a d i o d e s one-way current-
flow a t t r i b u t e s t o block the negative voltage o u t p u t f r o m
each coil so only positive voltage reaches the vehicles
electrical system.
Alternators have a three-phase o u t p u t because three coils
arc used in the stator. These three phases overlap each other,
producing (more or less) even D C current and voltage o u t p u t .
This proccss is also known as A C voltage rectification.
U * • i
BATT
Six diodes arc used in an a l t e r n a t o r — t w o for each
o u t p u t phase, o r stator coil. Each d i o d e is m o u n t e d at the
slip ring end o f the alternator housing. T h e three negative
diodes arc attached to the alternator's f r a m e while the
positive diodes are m o u n t e d in a heat sink a n d insulated
from g r o u n d . Bccausc diodes get h o t , an external fan is used
t o cool things off by creating airflow inside the alternator.
(Some alternators use internal fans as svell.)
M E C H A N I C A L VOLTAGE REGULATORS
FOR ALTERNATORS
Just like D C generators, alternators need voltage regulators
t o c o n t r o l voltage a n d current o u t p u t . Early alternators
used external, mechanical voltage regulators to accomplish
this. In order for a voltage regulator to control an alter-
nator's o u t p u t , it must add resistance between the battery
and rotor circuit. As the regulator increases resistance t o
the rotor's circuit, its m a g n e t i c field is reduced. As a result,
less voltage is i n d u c e d i n t o the stator coils, a n d by limiting
the voltage reaching the stator windings, c u r r e n t is
75
Urheberrechllich geschutztes Malei
 Because it Ms no nwrrg parts, tho soM-state rott3ge regulator is capable of
switching on and ott about:.000 tunes per second. Od nectttnc* voltage
regulators were only able to do this for about 200 times per second and
required periodic adiustments and eventually wore cut. Courtesy of CAROUEST serviced separately
Auto Parts
c o n t r o l l e d . Figure 5-4 displays h o w a vibrating contact-
p o i n t regulator controls an alternator's field coil strength.
A voltage regulator controls the a m o u n t of time an alter-
nator's rotor winding is powered by full batter)' voltage.
W h e n the ignition switch is O N . the rotor is dirccdy
connected to the vehicle's battery through a stationary upper
contact point (see Figure 5-4. page 75). As alternator voltage
o u t p u t increases, the windings inside the voltage regulator
produce a magnetic field. At a pte-set voltage level, the
regulator pulls a moveable contact down until it touches a
lossrr stationary point. T h i s grounds the rotor coil through
the field wire and shuts off possrr to the rotor. W i t h n o
power, the rotors magnetic field also shuts off and alternator
o u t p u t is interrupted or reduced until system voltage drops
a n d the regulator winding releases the moveable contact.
T h e n , the moveable contact point Ls s p r u n g toward the upper
contact, where it receives battery voltage to posver the alter-
nator's rotor coil. T h e contact points inside the regulator
vibrate or float between o p e n and d o s e d at a rate of approx-
imately 2 0 0 times per second, resulting in steady s-oltagc and
current regulation. Figure 5-4 shows a simple regulator
through which field current comes directly from the ignition
76
switch. O t h e r regulator designs use a field relay to connect
the rotor to the battery. W h e n this type ot alternator starts to
turn, a small voltage is induced into the stator windings,
which then d o s e the fidd relay contact points. T h e field relay
provides posver to the rotor circuit until the engine is shut off
and the alternator stops turning. W i t h n o current c o m i n g
from the alternator, the field relay opens, thereby breaking
contact between the battery a n d rotor windings.
Voltage regulators used in alternators d o not require cut-
o u t relays like those f o u n d o n D C generators bccau.se- the
diodes inside the alternators serve this function by only
allowing current to flosv in o n e d i r e c t i o n — f r o m alternator
to battery. S o m e alternators c o m e e q u i p p e d with a d i o d e
trio instead, which serves the same f u n c t i o n .
TRANSISTORIZED ELECTRONIC
VOLTAGE REGULATORS
A transistorized electronic voltage- regulator basically
p e r f o r m s all the same functions as a mechanical regulator
except that a transistor takes the place of coils of wire and
moveable contact points. Nearly all external dcctronic
regulators control an alternator's field current bv switching
 ALTERNATOR

© ©
battery

An internal voltage regulator (upper nghtj s on thsGN animator, bodes are Ffg 5-5. Chrysler s earty. computer-corXroM charging systems used ftw
located on Pie left, sHp ring trusties are at trie bottom computers—iogc and pcwer moddes The logc module sensed battery mOage
and cootroted the power maMe. The pcwcr module served as a ivitage
regulate* These systems were able to ccmpensato tor ambient temperatures by
hcreasmg charging votogericotf weather and reducing it uider hot condtons

Fig 5-6. The digital signal from

c h a r g i n g d u t y cycle Chryslerstogcmodule « a
series of on and off pulses. This

high rate continuous senes cf signals

controls a transistor insrte the
of charge power module, which in turn
controls the alternators output

mnnjLo_.orF.
low rate
of charge

t h e circuit o n and off. Bccausc solid-state electronics
(transistors) arc used, the switching rate is a r o u n d 7 , 0 0 0
times per second, compared to a mechanical voltage
regulator's contact-points switch-rate of 2 0 0 times per
second. Obviously, an electronic regulator provides m u c h
better control, and all svithout any moving parts. (Although
this is not entirely true, as some early clccuonic regulators
use field relays m o u n t e d next to circuit boards. Also s o m e
Chrysler voltage regulators sense a m b i e n t temperature a n d
adjust the charging system voltage accordingly—higher
voltage for cold weather, lower for hot.)
INTERNAL AND COMPUTER-CONTROLLED
VOLTAGE REGULATORS
S o m e charging systems arc designed to allow the incorpo-
ration of alternators fitted with internal voltage regulators.
T h e s e systems are o f t e n t i m e s referred t o as integral charging
systems. A u t o m o t i v e manufacturers started using these
designs as early as 1973 in order to cut costs a n d save space.
Internal voltage regulators work in basically the same
Chrysler's power module a
desgnedtohave a» ol Pie art
gang into the engure pass
ffirougn us piasoc housing
Outside an cools lite computer's
electronics, nctu&ng me field
col transota that controls the
alternator from inside the power
modWe Courtesy CAflOUEST
Auto Parts
m a n n e r as transistorized electronic regulators.
M a n y late model C M alternators equipped with internal
regulators hase only a single wire leading from the battery to
die alternator, making them ideal for use in project srhides.
Chrysler has always been an innovator in charging system
design and technology, and it ss-as the first manufacturer to use
a vchidc onboard computer to control a charging system. By
the mid-1980s. Chryslers computer-controlled charging
system used a logic module and a power module to regulate an
alternator field circuit. T h e logic module senses battery voltage,
engine speed, and battery temperature, and then sends a digital
signal to the power module, which controls the alternator's field
circuit via a large transistor. H i e posver module's transistor
sends a digital signal in a continuous series of o n and off ground
pulses to one side of the alternator's fidd coil, while the other
side recdves battery voltage when the key is turned to O N .
W h e n engine speed is high, and the elcctrical load on the
charging system is low. the off pulses arc longer. 1 losvcvcr, when
clcctrical accessories arc in use (heater blower, svindshidd
wipers), the o n pulses arc longer, providing more of a ground
for the alternator's field coil and increasing charging output.
T h e longer the on cycle, the higher the alternator's output.
CHARQE INDICATORS
Ammeters, voltmeters, a n d chargc indicator lights (idiot
lights) are all different instruments that can alert an o w n e r
if there is a problem with the charging system. A m m e t e r s .
f o u n d in older vehicles, use internal shunts t h r o u g h which
all charging system current passes. Since the s h u n t inside
the a m m e t e r has low resistance, it allows most o f the
current t o pass. Hosvcvcr, a small a m o u n t also passes
t h r o u g h the ammeter's windings, p r o d u c i n g a magnetic
field. T h e strength of this field moves or dcllccts a pointer
that reads in amps; the greater the a m o u n t of current
passing t h r o u g h tltc shunt a n d a m m e t e r windings, the
f u r t h e r the needle o r pointer d d l c c t s .
Some voltage regulators and alternators arc specifically
designed for use with an ammeter, hossrs-cr, the}- arc generally
not interchangeable with other components in the charging
d r c u i t that are not compatible with an ammeter. O n some
vehicles, the ammeter and alternator are connected in series—
if the ammeter stops working, the battery doesn't get charged.
Vehicle ammeters usually hase a j^mtise and negative vale.
W h e n an ammeter's pointer indicates a positive i Surge, s urrent
is flossing from the alternator (or generator) to the battery: but
when the needle points toward the ncgatise scale, the charging
system isn't producing enough current to chargc the battery.
Newer cars are almost never equipped with ammeters, since
they've typically been replaced by voltmeters or idiot lights.
Unlike ammeters, voltmeters in vehicles have very high
resistance, consequently, almost n o t o r r e n t passes through
t h e m . Voltmeters arc conncctcd in parallel t o the charging
system and measure charging system voltage. A voltmeter
uses a small a m o u n t of current, which passes t h r o u g h .1 coil
 u -

ammeter

coil

alternator

shunt^c!

Fig 5-7. Sbrrjf older vehicles use ammeters to monrSor charing systems The meter 's irtemsf short passes charging current from trie aftematx/generaix to the
tottery An ammeter uses a pointer to nflcate if the system « charging and everything S wotting, or discharging because thetotteryis gong dead

o f wire located between two p e r m a n e n t magnets. As the voltmeter

current increases, the coil of wire moves, causing a pointer
to move across a scale indicating voltage.
Unfortunately, b o t h in-vehide voltmeters a n d a m m e t e r s

coil
are notoriously inaccurate. Inconsistencies in readings have
caused many a headache at a u t o m o b i l e dealerships, since
customers t o o often get overly concerned about charging
systems not charging at specific levels. Original e q u i p m e n t
m a n u f a c t u r e r s ( O H M ) solved this problem by switching to
idiot lights (charge light indicators) and voltmeters without
numerical display's (only H I / L O W instead).
C h a r g e light indicators are usually connected between
the ignition switch a n d voltage regulator (or alternator).
O f t e n t i m e s , a 5 0 0 - o h m resistor is connected in parallel with
the light as p a n of the circuit. W h e n an ignition key is first
t u r n e d to O N , battery voltage is supplied to o n e side of the
charge indicator light, while the o t h e r side is connected t o
the voltage regulator to provide a g r o u n d for die chargc
light w h e n the engine is not r u n n i n g . As soon as the engine
starts a n d the alternator turns, voltage increases on the
g r o u n d side of the charge light. As voltage builds, the chargc
light has less a n d less o f a g r o u n d , eventually goes d i m . a n d
finally t u r n s off. If a n y t h i n g goes w r o n g in the charging
system that causes system voltage to d r o p , the charge
indicator light receives a g r o u n d f r o m the voltage regulator
Fig 5-8. Mac/ modem cars use rofbnetors on instrument panels to indicate rf
a n d turns o n . Unfortunately, in s o m e cars i t s c o m m o n for
charging systems are wotting. Urtkke insavment panel ammeters, a voxmeter
the d i a r g c light to be d i m at idle a n d then shut off when
is rwt connected i) series, and almost no current passes through it

79
 — • •—•••
© ©
BATTERY BATT

DIODES

STATOR
"I" "A*" "S" T
COILS

v o l t a c e FIELD
r e g u l a t o r I RROT<
OTO OR
T ? ^ .
\ C O
COIL
I +

a l t e r n a t o r

Fig 5-9. A charge hgbt tndascr recetres power from ttie ignitxn switch and ground trcm 3k voltige regulator When the alternator start turning, the grand tor the
voltage regulator* tight builds voltage untN trie indicator light eventually has no ground and goes out.

Vbelts need to be a lot tighter than most people thnk If the belt moves easily Serpentne belts have replaced old V t)pe belts. Serpentnr bets are more
wnen pushed by band, then it's too loose As a restft. the alternator may not reliable and can transfer more torque between • i ewnes crankshaft and
charge to M capxily. powerrtnen accessories like an alternator or air conditioning compressor

80
 9 • M l \ I C l >

M - U -

from the batten- a n d the F wire is the field wire f r o m the

voltage regulator. 'Fhe regulator has three wires, labeled F,
2. and 3. 'Fhe F terminal is the field control wire for the
alternator: the 2 wire is key's on power; and the 3 wire goes
t o the battery (see Figure 5-11 o n page 85).
If this charging system isn't charging, the first step in
testing is to check the wires at the voltage regulator. To d o
this, remove the regulator connector and turn the ignition
key t o O N . Terminals 2 and 3 (in Figure 5-11) should light
u p a g r o u n d e d test light. Using an o h m m e t e r . test the F
terminal for continuity to g r o u n d . If this wire is o p e n , a
wire o n the field coil inside the alternator is o p e n . If all
wires at the voltage regulator connector don't have proper
electrical values, the charging system won't work. C o n s u l t
a wiring diagram to d e t e r m i n e the originating posver source
for each wire. If all the regulator wires are okay, a full field
test of the alternator is next.
To full field test this alternator, run the engine at 2 , 0 0 0
r p m and connect o n e e n d of a j u m p e r wire t o the big wire This Deko Remy alternator features a test hole .it the back of the alternator
at the back o l the alternator. Touch the other end to the Just stick a pocket screwdriver or Aten wrench nto this Me ami the alternator
field terminal o n the back of the alternator. T h e alternator wHtuBMd Coulesy ot CAROUEST Auto Parts

Hfl 5-12. The BATT and F2 wires

depicted here should haw
lattery voltage Ft comes from
the charge indicator Fight AHot
these wres must have correct
electrical values before an
attenator wif won The back ot
the alternators case has a smai
hole labeled *test hole.'A smalt
screwdriver inserted into this
hole w/r MBdd the alternator.

86
 uu-
GM produces two CS alternators that can be identified by the tetters on the
piastc ptys at the backs of the cases Each plug KYJ read either PUS or fUS d i c c k i n g the letters on the plug, m a k e sure you have the
These alternators are not interchangeable, so make sore the correct one for corrcct
vehxSe a nstated. Courtesy CAROUEST Auto Parts
should lull field and p r o d u c c m a x i m u m current. If alter-
nator o u t p u t is less than expected, get a new alternator.
G M DELCOTRON ALTERNATOR WITH
INTERNAL REGULATOR
G M v e h i d e s arc also c o m m o n l y equipped svith a Dclcotron
alternator (also k n o w n as a Delco-Remy I0-S1). T h i s
charging system uses an internal voltage regulator a n d is
easily identified by the presence of three wires connected to
the back of its case. T h e t w o smaller wires. B A T T and F2,
g o dirccdy t o the battery. T h e F l wire goes to the chargc
indicator light o n the dash (Sec Figure 5-12).
T h e first step in testing this charging system is to verify that
the charge indicator dash light works. If the indicator light
doesn't come o n when the ignition key is in the O N position,
the alternator won't chargc. If this is the case, the charging
light d r c u i t needs t o be repaired before further testing.
To test terminals F1 a n d F2. u n p l u g die connector f r o m
the back of the alternator. Using a g r o u n d e d test light,
touch each of the three wires, o n e at a time. T h e big svire
should light u p the test light brightly. O n e of t h e smaller
wires (labeled F2 o n the diagram depicted in Figure 5-12)
should also brightly light die test light. F l should light die
test light, too. b u t only dimly. If any of t h e wires don't light
the test light as described, the alternator won't chargc a n d
the d r c u i t must be repaired before proceeding further.
expert22 p,r\9\
u -
* • n n
n a w
• > • >
If all the wires of the alternator hase corrcct clcctrical values,
a full field test is the next step. Plug the connector back into
the alternator and start u p the engine. Hold the engine at
2.000 rpm and insert a small scrcssdrivcr or Allen wrench into
the regulator grounding hole (test hole), located at the back of
the alternator. Doing this will full field the alternator, causing
it (hopefully!) to produce full amperage (within 10 amps of its
rated output capacity); if alternator output turns o u t less than
expected, then it's time to shop for a new alternator.
DELCO-REMY CS ALTERNATOR
Delco-Remy C S alternators c o m e in t w o flavors—PLIS and
PLFS. T h e y can be identified by reading the letters o n the
plastic plug o n the back o f the alternator. PLIS alternators
arc usually (but not always) f o u n d o n vehicles w i t h o u t a
body control m o d u l e ( B C M ) , while vehicles svith PLFS
alternators usually have a B C M . These two types of alter-
nators arc not interchangeable, which can b e a p r o b l e m
when purchasing a rebuilt alternator. In addition to
the part n u m b e r t o m a t c h y o u r car or truck. Delco-
Remy C S alternators use a chargc indicator l a m p that must
be operational in order tor the charging system to f u n c t i o n .
If the l a m p does n o t light u p w h e n the ignition key is
turned to O N . disconnect the plug f r o m the back of the
alternator and ground the 1. terminal; the l a m p should n o w
shine. If it doesn't, check for an o p e n i n g in the l a m p circuit
or a b u r n e d o u t indicator bulb.
T h e normal system s-oltagc produced by C S alternators is
sonicsviiat losvcr than on other charging systems. A typical
range of readings, taken at the battery's positive terminal with
the key turned to O N and engine off is 12.3 to 12.5 volts.
W i t h the engine r u n n i n g at idle, the range should be between
12.8 and 13.1 volts. W i t h all accessories turned on. the range
is between 12.8 and 13.3 volts. T h e internal voltage regulator
is designed to change the charging voltage slowly, so as to
help the E C M keep engine-idling speed stable.
A Delco-Remy C S alternator c a n n o t be full fielded;
instead, use the generic alternator test previously
m e n t i o n c d to check its current a n d voltage o u t p u t s . If the
alternator cannot producc close t o rated amperage, the
wires at the alternator plug need to be checked for corrcct
clcctrical values. T h e follosving are the electrical values for
each of the wires for each type of C S alternator plug:
• T h e P wire is an A C voltage signal used for tachometer
input (it is not needed for charging).
• T h e L wire sends a signal to die B C M if die regulator is
working. Obviously this only occurs o n a B C M - c q u i p p c d
87
http://rutracker.orq
 vehicle; o n n o n - B C M - c q u i p p e d vehicles, the L wire lights
the charge indicator l a m p and powers the regulator.

• "I"hc P wire (again, only on a non-BCM-cquipped vehicle)

carries tl»c power (with the key turned to O N ) used to turn
on the voltage regulator. If the v e h i d e has a B C M , the F wire
informs the B C M h o w hard the alternator is w o r k i n g T h e
internal regulator switches die alternator's field coil o n and off
at about 4 0 0 cycles per second—the a m o u n t of o n time deter-
mines charging o u t p u t . At high engine speeds and with loss-
current requirements, the on time may only be 10 pcrccnr.
However, at idle or at low engine speeds with high loads, the
on time can be as high as 90 percent. T h e signal can be read
using a D V O M capable of measuring frequency.

• I"he I wire is used only on n o n - B C M - c q u i p p e d v e h i d e s

and receives 12 volts from the ignition switch (or
sometimes t h r o u g h a resistor). Shown is the ptast/c plug on a Delco-Remy at&mitjr This plug wS be marked
PtfS ot PUS These alternators are not trttrchangeaste, so make sire you
• Last b u t not least, the S wire senses battery voltage for have the nght one tor your ratacte before installing.
b o t h types o f alternators.

dash ammeter
A
TO ALT. 1 F FIELD COIL a C O N T I N U I T Y T O G R O U N D
(CHECK USINC O H M M E T E R )
£
> BATTERY VOLTAGE W / I G N I T I O N KEY O N

1
A* BATTERY VOLTAGE ALL THE TIME

1 N O T USED W I T H D A S H A M M E T E R
w

idiot light
FIELD C O I L - C O N T I N U I T Y T O G R O U N D
TO ALT.
(CHECK U S I N G O H M M E T E R )
S T A T O R • 6 / 7 VOLTS - - F ' A N D "A** J U M P E D .
ENGINE R U N N I N G

BATTERY VOLTAGE ALL THE T I M E

CHARGE INDICATOR L A M P • BATTERY VOLTAGE

W / I G N I T I O N KEY O N

Ftg Full tMog is accooipttsried in the san* nwmr & oolfi types ot Forcrs ctutgng systems to full tie*), jump termnM f trm^nA*. Theantmalor
shard poaxe amperage ntmtn to percent ot Its rated output capaotr-

88
 -l-jafe^" u -

This Ford M/f alternator has two

ptues The plug on the backed
the alternator ittock colored,
upper left) is tne rottage
regulator. The brown p\jg on the
side ct the afternator is tor high-
amperage output wires going
emery to the battery Courtesy
ol CAflOJCST Auto Parts

i
o
to

z
0

1
If all the wires at the plastic plug have correct voltage
readings a n d the C S alternator fails the generic alternator
die regulator conncctor must be repaired. (See Figure 5-13 to
identify terminals on cither regulator.) If the wires to the
i
test, the answer t o y o u r charging problem is a new alternator. rcgularor hasr corrcct elcctrical salues, but the alternator docs
not producc amperage within 10 percent of its rated output
FORD ALTERNATOR WITH during a full fidd test, it's time for a new alternator
EXTERNAL REGULATOR
Ford vehicles equipped with alternators controlled by FORD-MOTORCRAFT IAR ALTERNATORS
external voltage regulators use different pairs of alternators Ford-Motorcraft IAR alternators use internal voltage
and regulators that arc not interchangeable. One regulators. T h e s e alternators can be full fielded by
regulator/alternator pair is in vehicles with an a m m e t e r o n g r o u n d i n g the F terminal located o n the regulator at the
the dash: the other is in vehicles with a charger indicator back of the alternator. If t h e alternator doesn't p r o d u c c full
light. Both regulators have four terminals, labeled F, S, A*, current o u t p u t , check the conncctor(s) plugged i n t o the
and 1. and both alternators hase four wire connectors that alternator. Ford alternators with o u t p u t s of 6 0 a m p s usually
plug into the regulators (see Figure 5-13). have o n e three-wire conncctor: higher o u t p u t units may
To hill field either alternator, unplug the four-wire conncctor have t w o three-wire connectors.
from the regulator, start die engine, and maintain rpm at 2,000. To test an alternator e q u i p p e d with only o n e three-wire
Using a jumper ssire, conncct the regulator harness of terminals connectcr, u n p l u g the c o n n c c t o r a n d t u r n the ignition key
F and A+ together. T h e alternator should full field and produce t o O N . Using a voltmeter, check the terminals at the
maximum ourpur. If it doesn't, there may be a problem with the conncctor as follows: terminal I (connected to the chargc
wires between the alternator and regulator connector, so the light indicator), terminal S (connected directly to the
same test should be performed again, but this time try battery), a n d terminal A (connected to the ignition
connecting the battery and F terminal together at the back of switch—it receives key o n power, svhich it sends t o the
die alternator. If the alternator full fields now, the wires going to regulator). All of these should read 12 volts.

89

Thra Ford tAft a/iernator uses an ntemal voltage regulator. -Ground here to of these wires comes from the ignition sw itch and should have
test'is marked on the regulator To M Md the axemator the F terminal on the 12 volts when the key is turned t o O N . T h e odier comes from
regdotor <s gmnded
To icst an alternator svith t w o three-wire conncctons. use
the following procedure. Test the first connector (plugged
into the voltage regulator) in the same m a n n e r as above.
T h e second three-wire connector (plugged into the side of
the alternator) has t w o big wires leading directly to the
battery, a n d a smaller o n e that loops back i n t o the first
conncctor's S terminal (also conncctcd to the battery)- All
three wires at this connector should have battery voltage all
the time. If the conncctor(s) have correct clcctrical values
and the alternator doesn't p r o d u c e m a x i m u m amperage
when the full field test is p e r f o r m e d , cither the alternator
o r regulator is bad. In such a case, b o t h the alternator and
regulator should be rcplaccd together, because if o n e of
these c o m p o n e n t s has g o n e bad d u e to old age, vibration,
or heat, the other w o n t b e far b e h i n d .
CHRYSLER ALTERNATOR WITH
EXTERNAL VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Chrysler also manufactured vehicles e q u i p p e d with alter-
nators fitted with external voltage regulators. This
alternator is readily identified by its three-wire connector.
The biggest wire connects to the positive battery
terminal, while the t w o smaller wires arc for die a l t e r n a t o r s
field coil. ( S o m e of these alternators may have a batten*
g r o u n d wire.) T o full field this type of alternator, you m u s t
first identify the field terminal at the regulator. U n p l u g the
voltage regulator and t u r n the key t o O N . Using a
g r o u n d e d test light, probe both wires going to the alter-
nator. O n e wire should light the test light u p brightly. T h e
other should cither m a k e the test light dimly light up, or
n o t at all; this wire (usually green) is ordinarily the g r o u n d
used to full field the alternator. Start the engine a n d hold
r p m at 2 , 0 0 0 . Using a j u m p e r wire, momentarily connect
the field wire to g r o u n d t o full field the alternator. If the
alternator o u t p u t has correct amperage, it's time for a new
voltage regulator. If the o u t p u t isn't .it m a x i m u m , try a full
field test again, b u t diis time p e r f o r m die test at t h e back
of the alternator. If it full fields now. simply repair the
broken field wire. If it still svon't full fidd, there's n o other
o p t i o n — i t ' s definitely time for a new alternator.
CHRYSLER'S COMPUTER-CONTROLLED
ALTERNATOR
Chrysler's computer-controlled alternators arc similar to those
alternators using external volrage regulators Look for t w o
small svires (usually green) at the iuck of the alternator. O n e
the power module and controls die ground of the alternator's
field coil and. thus, alternator output. To test this type of alter-
nator. first turn the ignition key t o O N . Using a grounded
test light, touch each fidd terminal .it the back of the alter-
nator. O n e terminal will make the ti m light shine brightly,
while die other will make it light dimly or not at all. T h e latter
field wire is the o n e that will need t o be grounded to full field
the alternator. Start the engine and hold rpm at 2,000. Using
a grounded jumper wire, momentarily touch the field svirc t o
ground. T h e alternator should full field and produce
m a x i m u m current. If it docs, but the charging system still isn't
charging the battery, the problem is most likely at tin- power
module. Because Chrysler power modules arc expensive,
always consult a wiring diagram before replacing this part in
order to ensure all power and ground svires into the power
module arc good. In addition, refer to the s e m c e manual, as
it tells you Itow t o read charging system fault codes. These
should also be checked before rcpLadng the power module.
Chrysler's late m o d d vehicles now use an integrated single
computer (instead of dual computers) for controlling
charging system functions. Fortunately, this alternator
operates in a manner similar to earlier dual-computer
charging systems and, thus, can be tested in the same m a n n e r
with the same cxpcctcd results.
DC GENERATOR AND REGULATOR
TESTING
Even t h o u g h D C generators are old school, there are
n u m e r o u s collectors and vintage a u t o m o b i l e enthusiasts
w h o will, sooner or later, have to test these systems. Just like
m o d e r n charging systems, old D C generators with voltage

regulators a m be lull Held tested by following the same
general procedures. Voltage regulators used in conjunction
with D C generators have only three svircs. T h e terminals arc
typically labeled F (svhich goes to generators fidd svire),
B A T T (svhich goes t o the battery's positive terminal), and A
(svhich goes to the armature in the generator). Just like an
alternator, a D C generator can be fxdl fielded to test its
m a x i m u m o u t p u t . T o full field a generator, start the engine
and hold it at 1,500 r p m . Disconnect the F terminal at the
voltage regulator and touch the svire to the positive battery
terminal. T h e generator should full field. ( O n some Chrysler
models, touching the F svire to ground will full field the
generator instead.) If it still won't full field, try doing the same
test directly at the generator. If it full fields now. repair the
field wire going to the regulator; if it doesn't, try polarizing
the generator (discussed in next scction) before getting a new-
one. Be sure to check the three wires at the regulator and
generator to be certain they're connected properly. Consult a
wiring diagram to identify' all wires.
If the voltage regulator's svircs arc okay and the generator
full fields, then the voltage regulator is probably bad. Before
purchasing a new regulator, make sure it's the right o n e for
the v c h i d c . M a n y older v e h i d e s have positive g r o u n d
systems. Also, pay attention to the regulator's svorking
voltage—6 or 12 volts, d e p e n d i n g u p o n application. In
s o m e instances, you may be able t o use an electronic
* w • m a
regulator as a better replacement for a mechanical o n e . A n d
don't forger, s o m e vehicles use an in-dash series ammeter,
and if that is not working, the battery won't d i a r g c . even if
the generator and regulator arc good.
GENERATOR POLARIZING
If a new or rebuilt generator is installed i n t o a vehicle, it must
be polarized before it can produce current. Polarising estab-
lishes correct polarity for the magnets inside the generator.
Here is a general procedure for D C generator polarizing.
Disconncct die field wire at the voltage regulator. C o n n c c t a
test light to the field wire and touch the end to battery
positive. If the test light shines, remove it and momentarily
touch the field svire directly to the battery terminal on the
regulator to polarize tltc generator. W h e n the field wire is
touched t o the B A T T terminal, a good-sized spark should be
produced; this is normal. However, if the test light does not
light u p when touching battery positive, touch it to the
negative battery terminal instead. If it n o w lights up.
reconnect the field svire t o the regulator and remove the
armature (A) wire from the regulator. Momentarily touch the
armature wire to the battery terminal o n the regulator to
polarize the generator. W h e n you touch the armature svire to
the B A I T terminal, a good-sized spark should IK- produced.
Again, this is normal. However, if the test light fails to light
after touching cither the positis-c or negative terminal of the
This Toycta Starter motor uses a
gear-reduction set to mease
sortertorque.71 us design allows
tor a smaller overaX starter sue
to be used to produce the same
or greatertorguethan that found
n larger units Courtesy ot
Itwnger Toyota
91
 : - V

A sttr& soteno*} has two >c£>s

cottnxl the tattery Onctt/to
the starter 3nd engage the
starter pawn gear with tt\e
engine flywheel. Courtesy of
ttunQW Toyota

generator, a starter m o t o r uses field soils to create a magnetic

Ths aftermarket starter prwdes 25 percent mere torque than the onprol starter
it replaced The starter shaft is heat-treated art rotated n Bend* bearings tfofso docs the starters torque. Under a n o load condition, such .LS
prevde reliability and long Irfe. Courtesy of SommrtfacingEquipment
battery, die field circuit inside die generator is open and
needs to be repaired. This may involve finding a break in the
wire and replacing it with a new section of wire.
STARTER MOTORS
A D C starter m o t o r operates m u c h like a D C generator—
only in reverse. It uses current t o operate, instead of
p r o d u c i n g current w h e n it spins. However, just like a
field around an armature, which in this case is a series of wire
loops connected at a c o m m u t a t o r . W h e n die starter m o t o r is
operating, current from the battery energizes the field coils,
causing them t o have a strong magnetic field. At the same
time, batter)- current is applied to tlie c o m m u t a t o r brushes
(that carry current from the battery t o the armature). The
armature rotates because the opposing magnetic lines of forcc
between the field coils and armanire repel each other, a n d
since the armature lias multiple wire loops, it r o u t e s contin-
uously. Starter motors may use as m a n y as four c o m m u t a t o r
brushes and f r o m two to four field soils.
T h e armature and fidd coils arc in series, a design which causes
a very high torque output from the starter. With the fidd
windings and annaturc in series, any iiu.rea.se in current produces
an increase in field strength. As the load on the staner increases,
during staner bcnch testing or when a starters pinion gear doesn't
engage the flywheel* the staner speed will continue to increase
until centrifugal force destroys the staner. It then nukes a b u d
"bang," followed by a shower of sparks.
Certain s t a n e r m o t o r s use gear sets t o increase c r a n k i n g
speed a n d torque. A planetary gear set (similar to those used
in a u t o m a t i c transmissions) sends power between the starter
m o t o r and o u t p u t shaft connected to the engine flywheel.
Ncsvcr s t a n e r m o t o r s use p e r m a n e n t magnets instead of
field coils which increases c u n c n t going t o the a r m a t u r e .

92
 Using an inductive amp probe.
kk» Wis fhikeHJO. wit confirm
wMher a starter's current draw
e too Itgh or too low This test is
taster and easier Um replacing a
starter—otff to find out later
that some other component was
the real aJtpni Courtesy of Fluke
Corporation

STARTER SOLENOIDS in trying t o figure o u t w h i c h part of a starter circuit is bad

Starter solenoids perform one. and sometimes two, if t h e battery doesn't have e n o u g h energy t o c r a n k it. even
f u n c t i o n s ; they c o n n e c t the battery directly t o t h e starter, w h e n nothing's w r o n g . (See C h a p t e r 4 , Storage Battery,
and on s o m e starters, also engage the p i n i o n gear svith the for testing a n d / o r c h a r g i n g procedures.) T h e only real
engine flysvhccl. Solenoids can be m o u n t e d directly o n t o reason t o test a starter is w h e n it's c r a n k i n g an e n g i n e t o o
the starter ease o r used remotely. T h e y are really just slowly t o start it or n o t c r a n k i n g at all. In certain f r o n t -
overgrown relays that use a small a m o u n t of current t o svhccl-drivc cars, the starter m o t o r is difficult t o remove
energize a coil of wire t o p r o d u c c a magnetic field. T h e (to say the least!). By contrast, p e r f o r m i n g basic starter
strength of the m a g n e t i c field pulls t h e s o l e n o i d s plunger testing takes only a few m i n u t e s and is a m u c h m o r e
into contact svith two terminals—one from battery productive use of t i m e t h a n s p e n d i n g six h o u r s c h a n g i n g
positive and t h e o t h e r to the starter. Positisx engagement o u t a starter, o n l y t o find t h e p r o b l e m is really a bad
starters use a shift fork, o r a lever, that is c o n n c c t c d t o the battery cable. In fact, rather t h a n testing a starter, it's
solenoid m o u n t e d directly o n t o the starter. W h e n the easier t o test everything else first. If the wires, cables,
starter receives battery voltage, the solenoid moves the c o n n e c t i o n s . 3 n d solenoid arc g o o d , the starter is the only
lever, causing the starter to engage the engine's flywheel. t h i n g left t o rcplacc.
Starters using r e m o t e solenoids have moveable pole shoes
T h e test that provides the most information with the least
that move a yoke w h e n the starter is energized. T h e yoke
a m o u n t of work is a starter current-draw test. To perform this
pushes the drive gear i n t o t h e flywheel in order t o crank
test, conncct an inductive a m m e t e r to the positive battery
t h e engine.
cable, turn the headlights on. a n d read the ammeter. If it reads
negative, the probe is conncctcd correal)-; if it reads positive,
STARTER TESTING turn the a m p probe 180 degrees and reconnect it. Don't
Before testing a starter m o t o r , t h e vehicle's battery m u s t forget to turn off the headlights. Then get ready for the next
b e fully charged and load tested. T h e r e ' s simply n o p o i n t step—disabling the ignition system.

93
 The t*gh mXage coil wre has
been grounded using a jumper
wire This prevents the engtne
trom starting up when testing a
starter motor.
Disabling the Ignition System
T h e next step is to prevent the ignition or fuel injection
system from starting the engine when the s t a n e r m o t o r is
crankcd. O n older cars with only o n e ignition coil, find the
wire going from the distributor cap to the coil, remove it
from die distributor cap, a n d connect a jumper wire.
C o n n e c t the other end of the j u m p e r to g r o u n d ; this will
present the engine from staning because the spark from the
coil bypasses the spark plugs a n d goes dirccdy to ground. By
simply unplugging the ignition coil (without g r o u n d i n g it
first) and cranking the engine, the ignition module or other
p a n s can be wiped out. O n later model vehicles without
distributors, to disable the ignition system, simply u n p l u g the
connector going to the ignition module or locate and remove
any fuse(s) that power(s) the c o m p u t e r or ignition system.
Normal Starter Amperage Draw
Before a b n o r m a l starter a m p d r a w can be recognized, you
must first k n o w svhat normal looks like. All of the following
specifications for s t a n e r draw assume an a m b i e n t t e m p e r -
ature above 6 0 degrees Fahrenheit a n d a conventional
starter m o t o r c r a n k i n g an engine. A four-cylinder engine
should d r a w between 50 a n d 125 a m p s ; a six-cylinder and
a small V-8 require between 75 a n d 175 amps; and a large
V-8 engine draws in the range of 100 to 2 7 5 a m p s . S o m e
94
servicc manuals provide m o r e specitu n u m b e r s , b u t these
work most of the time for testing purposes. Gcar-rcduction
a n d p e r m a n e n t magnet type starters yield slightly different
results; be sure t o check their scrvicc manuals for starter
d r a w specifications.
Slow Turning Starter—High Amperage
Although a slow-turning staner with high amperage is not
c o m m o n l y encountered, it docs occur occasionally, so follow
the next procedure to diagnose this problem. Turn the
ignition key to S T A R T position, then crank the engine osxr
(do this even if the staner w o n t crank at all) and check the
ammeter reading. If the a m p reading is excessively high an
d
the engine is turning too slowly or not at all, there may be a
problem with the starter motor or engine. To eliminate the
engine as the cause of a slow-turning staner. turn the
crankshaft by hand using a breaker Kir and socket. O n a four-
cylinder engine, try grabbing the alternator/water pump
drive-belt as a means of nirning it. Even with spark plugs
installed, the engine should rotate with relatively little forcc.
If it takes both feet and arms to move the engine minimally,
a bad s t a n e r is the least of your problems. T h e engine could
have a mechanical problem like liigh-viscosiiv oil in sveather
colder than 2 0 degrees Fahrenheit or carbon build-up in the
cylinders. Another possibility is that there is n o oil a n d the

Fig 5-14. Ground side resistance n Otis starter cmxt Is okay because the voltage drop s omy 04 vo9. The po$>ttire side also has a voltage drop of 09 volt caused
byfi>ghresistance as wit By moving the black lead along the positve sde ol the circuit, the pom! ol Itgb resistance can be located
crankshaft has welded itself o n t o the connecting rods o r
overheated, causing other mechanical problems.
(Conversely, if the engine turns okay, get a new starter
because the flow of high amperage into the starter circuit
indicates a shorted starter armature or field coil—not an
engine problem.
Slow Turning Starter—Low Amperage
If. o n the o t h e r h a n d , the a m m e t e r reading is low a n d t h e
starter turns slowly or n o t at all. t h e starter circuit has high
resistance that is possibly caused by p o o r battery cablc
c o n n e c t i o n s or bad solenoid. H i g h resistance is, by far, t h e
most c o m m o n reason for losv starter circuit a m p e r a g e . It
can't possibly be a battery p r o b l e m since the battery's
already been tested a n d charged b e f o r e h a n d (right?).
T h e r e f o r e , a voltage d r o p test is n o w an ideal test t o use
to locate t h e source of unsvanted, high resistance in t h e
starter circuit.
T h e positive side of the starter circuit should be tested
total
voltace
drop
starter
0
1
a
o
first, as it is the most likely place for problems to occur.
C o n n c c t the red lead of a voltmeter to the positive battery
terminal (not the battery cable). C o n n e c t t h e black lead to
t h e starter terminal svhere t h e battery cablc attaches. C r a n k
the engine over while ss-atching the voltmeter. If the voltage
d r o p is less than 0.5 volt, the positive side of the starter
circuit doesn't have high resistance. D o the same test on the
g r o u n d side of the starter circuit. C o n n c c t the red lead to
the starter case and the black lead to the negative terminal
on the battery, and then crank the engine. T h e voltage d r o p
should not exceed 0.4 volt. If either the positive or negative
side of the starter circuit cxcccds m a x i m u m voltage d r o p
(see chart under section Hosv M u c h Is T o o Much? in
C h a p t e r 2), the point of high resistance can be located by
p e r f o r m i n g a voltage d r o p test across individual connec-
tions. T h i s can be accomplished by disconnecting the black
lead and moving it back along the circuit toward the red
lead. T h e r e should be n o m o r e than 0 . 2 volt lost across any
connection. C l e a n i n g a bad c o n n c c t i o n is fortunately all
that's required to get the starter to spin faster in most cases.
95
 CHAPTER 6
IGNITION SYSTEMS
I gnition-related problems, w h e t h e r real or perceived, are
t h e cause of m o r e needless replacement o f parts t h a n any
o t h e r a u t o m o t i v e electrical system. Before rhe advent of f u d
method of repair changcd svith the introduction
electronic ignition systems (EIS), since they sscre far more
costly to replace.
of

injection, m a n y people often t h o u g h t that most carburetor
problems could be fixed by looking inside the distributor.
Mechanics and owners alike most often blamed the carbu-
retor for engine stalling, missing, a n d n o starts, and since it
could be taken apart and visually inspected, they felt
c o m f o r t a b l e d o i n g this. T h e y often fixed ignition m a l f u n c -
tions ss-ith simple replacement of points, condenser,
ignition coils, wires, and spark plugs. In early 1970, this
Today, electronic engine m a n a g e m e n t systems control
ignition systems o n all vehicles. Consequently, it's m u c h
m o r e cost-effective ro test c o m p o n e n t s before simply
throwing t h e m asvav and replacing t h e m . M o d e r n ignition
systems are not as difficult to diagnose as you may think, as
there arc a great n u m b e r of similarities between conven-
tional points-type ignition systems and electronic ignition
systems. A basic u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how primary and

Both at these sets ot components

produce an arc across a spark
plug points, condenser, and
standard coil t&tx or an
electron* ignition moduie and
high-energy coil (nght) Figuring
out what's good or bad with
each ot them s not as hard as
(/) you may think

i
g

z
o
e
z
o

96
 Fig 6-3. An ohmmeter »HI only
let you H the windings are open
or shorted. The coit may check
out okay, but sta may not
produce a spark Sometimes
hitbng a col with a scrmvdnver
or heating it with a hair dryer wit
bmg out the tod section of win.

SECONDARY
WINDING

CONVENTIONAL
COIL

collapses. voltage is induced into the secondary windings.

Electrons flosv f r o m the positive end of the secondary
w i n d i n g s t o the first spark plug a n d across the air gap
p r o d u c i n g a spark. After reaching the first spark plug,
current passes t h r o u g h the cylinder h e a d — t h e equivalent
o f a really big w i r e — t o the second spark plug's g r o u n d
elcctrodc. where it j u m p s the air gap and produces a spark.
Fach coil pair fires o n e spark plug in the n o r m a l direction
and the other plug in reverse. After j u m p i n g the air gap of
the second plug, t h e current rcrurns to the other side of the
secondary w i n d i n g s — t h e g r o u n d side of that coil (see
Figure 6-2).
T o make sense of this type of circuir, think of the
secondary windings on a D I S coil as having n o t h i n g to d o
with the vehicle's battery ground. Each coil pair fires the spark
plugs in two cylinders simultaneously. Both cylinders arc at
"top dead center" in the crankshaft's rotation. O n e cylinder
is on its compression stroke and the spark ignites the air/fuel
mixture. T h e other companion cylinder is at the end of its
exhaust stroke, so the second spark has n o effect because there
is n o t h i n g to burn inside the combustion chamber.
The difference between the IXScoi ftett) and a camenticnal coi s that the OS
GENERIC COIL TESTING coi s secondaryrnndmjsare not connected to the primary ctrcuit Thisdesgn
Both types of coils can b e chcckcd for o p e n s or shorts using causes the spark produced by a DS cot to go to the other sde of the
an o h m m e t e r . To check resistance on a conventional coil. secondary wvxfngs and not the battery ground.

99
 Tins ignton con is being bench-tested The yellow wire is 12 volts and the nve coming out of the coJ tester goes to ground,rt'teirthe peaty end ot the cot tester is
tipped on the negative coi terminal, a spark is produced
conncct o n e o h m m c t c r lead t o the negative side o f the coil
and the other to positive. Primary circuit resistance should
read between 1.5 a n d 3 . 5 o h m s . Resistance in the secondary
circuit can be measured by c o n n e c t i n g o n e o h m m c t c r lead
t o the negative coil terminal a n d t h e other to the high-
voltage tower; it should be between 7 . 0 0 0 and 15.000
o h m s . R e m e m b e r , the primary a n d secondary windings are
not connected in a D I S coil. Consequently. D I S p r i m a r y
circuit resistance should measure between 0.5 and 2.0
o h m s , while secondary circuit resistance should be f r o m
5 . 0 0 0 to 7 . 0 0 0 o h m s . A service manual will provide specific
resistance values, b u t the n u m b e r s gis-cn here arc close
e n o u g h to d e t e r m i n e if there is a problem with the coils
windings. However, measuring ignition coil resistance
cannot conclusively d e t e r m i n e whether a coil is bad, since
a coil can check o u t okay with a n o h m m c t c r b u t still n o t
p r o d u c c a spark w h e n electrically loaded (sec Figure 6 - 3 ) .
T h e r e arc a coupic of additional things you can d o when
a t t e m p t i n g to discover if you're dealing with a bad coil.
W i t h the o h m m c t c r conncctcd to the coil's primary or
100
secondary windings, try t a p p i n g on the coil with a screw-
driver handle or heating it with a hair dryer. If the
o h m m e t e r s readings change, the toil svindings are b r o k e n .
You can also m a k e an inexpensive uniscrsal ignition coil
tester o u t of an old condenser and some j u m p e r wires.
M a k e sure the condcnscr is good b y testing it o n a knosvn
good coil. To use the tester, disconnect the negative side of
the coil a n d conncct the condenser wire to the negative coil
terminal. T h e n g r o u n d the condcnscr's m o u n t tab using a
j u m p e r wire. C o n n e c t a second j u m p e r wire to g r o u n d a n d
t u r n the ignition key t o O N . N o w tap the g r o u n d e d j u m p e r
wire to the negative side of the coil; it should produce a
spark between the high-voltage terminal a n d g r o u n d o n
a conventional coil, or between high-voltage terminals o n a
D I S coil (see Figure 6 - 4 ) . If you don't get a spark, chcck for
battery voltage at the coil a n d good connections o n all
j u m p e r svircs. Be particularly careful when d o i n g this o n a
D I S coil; the spark p r o d u c e d can really zap you if you get
in the way. M o r e i n f o r m a t i o n regarding coil testers can b e
f o u n d in C h a p t e r 3 o n electronic testing tools.
 This luK-etfectsnitch (left) is fera Fortvetxte. The wtiitoplastic conmctor
(new cermets the switch to the Ignition module Coulesy ct CAROUEST
Auto Parts
blade, and three-wire connector (the latter distinguishes it
f r o m an A C p i c k u p coil or other speed sensor o n a wiring
diagram). T h e three-wire connector has power, g r o u n d , and
signal wires going to the c o m p u t e r or ignition module.
A hall-clfcct switch is powered by a reference voltage sent
by the computer. It is always equipped with a magnet
situated opposite the switch; between t h e m is a series of
rotating shutters (or blades)—one for each cylinder. As the
blades rotate between the sensor and magnet, the magnet's
magnetic field is interrupted and voltage d r o p s at the
sensor. T h e o u t p u t signal from the hall-effect switch is a
square wave, or scries of o n - a n d - o f f pulses. T h e s e pulses arc
sent to t h e vehicle's c o m p u t e r or ignition m o d u l e , which
use t h e m to calculate engine r p m a n d crankshaft position.
To test a hall-effect switch, t u r n the ignition on a n d back
p r o b e each of its three wires with a voltmeter. A process of
elimination will help identity what each wire is used for.
T h e voltmeter display should indicate that o n e wire is
reference voltage, which should have between 2.5 and 12
volts d e p e n d i n g o n year, make, and model of the vehicle
being tested. A n o t h e r wire is the g r o u n d wire and has n o
voltage; the third wire is a signal o u t p u t wire from the hall-
effect switch. T h e voltmeter will show cither reference
voltage or a value less than reference voltage, d e p e n d i n g
u p o n w h e t h e r or not a shutter blade has stopped rotating
between the hall-effect switch and the m a g n e t . T u r n the
engine over by hand a n d watch the signal wire. If the hall
switch is working, voltage will switch f r o m reference voltage
106
)nsxSe this optcal dsirtxito/ rrere arB 360 rrtes on the outer nng of meat
disk—one tor each crarMun degree The mnerrnjhas tour holes, one tor each
CfMor. The larye tide a for cytiodor ntrrtxr c/f n fir cmne's fcrrn order
to a lower voltage (sometimes 0 volts) and back. If a signal
is not present, try the other wire that had voltage o n it, since
you may have read the reference svire b\ mistake.
In addition t o testing a hall-cffcct switch with a
voltmeter, a logic probe can also be used. C o n n e c t the logic
p r o b e to the vehicle's battery. l e a v e the hall-cffcct switch
connected and back probe the signal wire. C r a n k the engine
using the starter a n d watch the L E D o n the logic probe; it
should indicate a pulse. If it doesn't, check t o make sure
there is b o t h power ("reference voltage" and a g r o u n d
source t o the hall-cffcct switch, as well as for broken wires
or loose connections.
Optical Sensors
An optical sensor is a n o t h e r f o r m of trigger for an ignition
module. It typically consists of an L E D , a phototransistor.
a n d a rotating metal disk with holes in it. (Some optical
conversion kits that arc used t o rcplacc a set of points have a
plastic shutter instead o f a metal disk. > These sensors provide
trigger signals for ignition switching and generally can be
distinguished from other speed sensors on a w iring d i a g r a m
by the presence of four wires. 1'he signal o u t p u t from an
optical sensor's c o m p u t e r takes the f o r m o f a square wave
m a d e u p o f o n - a n d - o f f p u l s c s (similar t o a hall-effect switch).
W h e n in use. a beam of light from the L E D is projected
through the holes in the disk o n t o the phototransistor. As the
disk rotates, the spaces between t h e holes interrupt the light
beam. Each time the light beam is interrupted, a pulse is
 WAVE FORMS

A YA A A YJ ac

Y Y Y
O VOLTS pick-up
coil

hall
O VOLTS • effect
switch

O VOLTS - I] EL
nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn
optical
O VOLTS - distributor

-time-

Fig &-7. An AC pctujp col's wave form shows AC vOtagefransrtxwiogbetween negatrre and positive as the sensor is rotated Beth the haB-etfect switch and opbeat
sensor produce a square ware The opocv sensor has two signals—cyMder xtentfication and engine rpm (tower wws form)

generated by the sensor's processor. S o m e optical sensors arc
really two sensors in one: o n e measures crankshaft angle, the
other measures camshaft position and identifies which
cylinder is the n u m b e r o n e cylinder in die engine's firing order.
T o test an optical sensor, use a voltmeter to measure
voltage on all the svircs going to the sensor. W i t h the
ignition key t u r n e d to O N . o n e ss'ire should read 12 volts
and the g r o u n d wire should read 0 volts. However, it's
difficult to d e t e r m i n e if b o t h signal wires arc w o r k i n g using
only a voltmeter. A logic p r o b e is the better tool for
detecting the presence of pulses o n each signal svire. W i t h
the logic probe connected to the battery, back p r o b e each
signal wire a n d crank the engine. T h e r e should be a pulse
on each wire: if there is n o pulse, check for oil or dirt
blocking the holes on the metal plate. Also, m a k e sure the
sensor has b o t h posver a n d g r o u n d .
IGNITION MODULES
In its most simplistic f o r m , an electronic ignition m o d u l e
is n o t h i n g m o r e than a m o d e r n replacement for a set o f
points. Points reccivc engine rotational speed i n f o r m a t i o n
by direct mcclianical m e a n s — t h e y o p e n a n d close, t u r n i n g
the ignition coil o n and off. An ignition m o d u l e p e r f o r m s
the exact same f u n c t i o n , only it uses a trigger signal. O n c e
a trigger signal (or wave f o r m ) is produced by t h e engine's
speed sensor, the ignition m o d u l e processes it and then fires
the coil. Later model vehicles use o n b o a r d c o m p u t e r s in
conjunction with ignition modules to control coil
switching. Either way, the basic operation of an ignition
module is equis-alcnt to a set of points.
GENERIC IGNITION MODULE TESTING
W h e n electronic ignitions svere first introduced, many techni-
cians had trouble diagnosing no-spark problems. Without any
moving pans to check, it was visually impossible to determine
if primary coil switching was occurring, l-ortunatcly. today,
even though you can't see a transistor operating, you can see
the results of primary switching—just like on a set of points.
"I"hc first step in the proccss of determining if an ignition
module is operational is a testing procedure originally used on

107

, to/from
ecm
from crank
sensor
Fig 6-10. This module and coris are used on 28- art 3 G M cars With ewry-Mig plugged W. tapping on terrmna/s A and C at toe thrre-wve ccmector should
produce a spark trom one oftoecois it toe module is good
the m o d u l e and the coil pack has correct resistance, the
m o d u l e is most likely bad. T h i s test can also be performed
with the module/coil pack o u t of the vehicle. Just b e sure
to supply power and g r o u n d t o the two-wire connector at
the m o d u l e , a n d t h e n perform the tap test as described, as
in Figure 6 - 1 0 .
Ford M o t o r Company
T h e r e is a different tap test for 1975 to 1990 Ford Dura Spark
ignition systems. T h e Dura Spark system is best identified by
wliat's insklc the distributor. I-ook for an A C pickup coil,
mechanical advance (weights and springs), and a vacuum-
advance. Dura Spark modules are typically m o u n t e d inside
the engine compartment, usually o n the fender ssell.
T o test the module, disconnect the ignition coils high-
voltage lead to the distributor and install a spark tester in its
place. W i t h all wires connected to the module, back p r o b e
the orange wire (module side of the wiring harness) with a
test light. C r a n k the engine over and leave the ignition key
in the R U N position—this initializes the module. (Don't
use a remote starter to crank the engine or this tap test won't
work.) Next, tap the test light t o the positive or negative
battery terminals. If the m o d u l e is good, the ignition coil
should produce a spark. If you get a spark, there arc three
possibilities: (1) the A C pickup coil is shorted or o p e n . (2)
w
BIG S P A R K
powerand
ground
tl»c wires from the distributor t o the m o d u l e are not
connected, or (3) the distributor is n o t turning.
If you don't get a spark, all the wires going t o the
m o d u l e must be checked with the engine cranking. W i t h
b o t h the two-wire a n d four-wire c o n n e c t o r s plugged i n t o
the m o d u l e , back p r o b e each wire. T h e black wire should
read 0 volts, the purple a n d orange wires should have about
0 . 5 volt AC, a n d the green wire should p r o d u c e a pulsing
signal that can be checked with cither a logic p r o b e or h o t
test light. 'I'he two-wire c o n n e c t o r should have battery
voltage in b o t h the R U N a n d S T A R T ignition positions.
If t h e purple a n d orange wires don't have 0.5 volt A C w i t h
the e n g i n e cranking, the A C p i c k u p coil may be bad. T h e
p i c k u p coils resistance should read between 4 0 0 a n d 1.300
o h m s . T h e ignition coil's resistance should also b e checked;
primary resistance should be 0 . 8 t o 1.6 o h m s , while
secondary resistance should read between 7 , 7 0 0 and
10.500 o h m s .
Ford used a thick film ignition ( T F I ) from 1982 t o
1 9 9 3 . T F I systems use a spark o u t p u t ( S P O U T ) connector.
T h i s is a removable connector that disconnects the ignition
module from the vehicle's computer. T h e first step in
diagnosing a T F I no-spark p r o b l e m is to u n p l u g the
S P O U T conncctor. T h e n crank the engine a n d check for a
spark. If you get a spark, check for a b u i n e d fusible link, a
111
 GROUND -BLK-H
PICK-UP COIL — PPL
PICK-UP COIL ORN

<
COIL SWITCH INC -6RNH
coil
dura-spark
CONNECTORS
module
KEY O N POWER h RED-01- EZH3 RUN
CRANK POWER m m - ] I-REP- START

icn switch

Fig 6-11. If ttvs Dura-spa* model is good, tapping on the orange wre wti produce a spark at the ignition cod. Howerer. before tspp.ng be sure to ntfato* the
module by cranking the engmg over using the Qwbon key. otherwise the tap test wonl work.

bad g r o u n d to the E C M . or a bad E C M . If there is n o spark,

leave the S P O U T disconnected a n d then crank the engine.
(Don't use a remote starter or the test w o n t work.)
0) C r a n k i n g the engine with the key will initialize the m o d u l e .
H Using a test light, back probe the wire labeled I (closest t o
P the distributor cap) at the m o d u l e as in Figure 6 - 1 2 . T a p
>• the p o i n t v end o f the test light t o the battery's negative or
z positive t e r m i n a l — a spark f r o m the ignition coil should
O occur a n d the fuel p u m p should r u n .
— If there is a spark a n d the distributor turns, t h e ignition
0 m o d u l e is good b u t the hall-effect switch is n o t . If there is

I
n o spark and the ignition coil tests okay (see the section on

generic coil testing discussed earlier in this chapter), the

wires at the m o d u l e need t o b e checked for corrcct s r alucs
(sec Figure 6 - 1 2 ) . M o d u l e terminals I and 2 should each
have about 5 or 6 volts with the engine cranking. Terminal
3 should read a b o u t 11 volts svith the engine cranking, and
terminal 4 should read a b o u t the same with the key in the
R U N position. Terminal 5 should hase a pulsing signal that
can b e checked with a logic p r o b e . T h e last terminal,
labeled 6 . should read 0 volts, as it is the g r o u n d . If all the
wires conncctcd to t h e m o d u l e have the right readings, it's
time to get a new module.
Chrysler
T h e next tap test is for Chrysler vehicles e q u i p p e d svith
carburetors and distributors that were manufactured
between 1972 and 1989. T h e distributors o n these vehicles
Shutter blades (top right) inside the distributor :\~ss between the ha/I effect
switch (on the left) and a magnet. The tun-effect switch s connected (with a
brown connector) to the Thick rtm Igntlon TT7) module that U mounted on the
side ol the distributor
used either a single or dual A C pickup coil; there arc tap
tests for b o t h types. In general, vehicles with two-barrel
carburetors usually have a single AC p i c k u p coil, while
those with four barrels have dual p i c k u p coils. If dual
pickup coils arc in used, o n e is the R U N p i c k u p a n d the
o t h e r is the S T A R T pickup. Either an ignition module o r a
spark c o m p u t e r may be used to fire the coil. A single or dual

112
Fig 6-12. Tapping onterminalI of TTT ingniton module (the vrirc ViaI goes to the ECU) at the module win produce a spark at the ignition cod il the modtfe 0 good
Don't torgtt to unplug We spar* output (SPOUT) connxtor before dctng trus tap test

distributor. T o check a S T A R T p i c k u p coil o n a dual coil

This Chrysler igntion module uses a large transistor mounted m a gold-colored
akmnum heat snk (upper left of module) Courtesy ot CAROUEST Auto Parts
ballast resistor (like tbosc used in points-type ignitions) may
b e used in series with the ignition coil. T o p e r f o r m a tap
test o n a single A C p i c k u p coil distributor, turn the ignition
key t o the R U N position. Using a hot test light, tap back
a n d forth between the pickup coil wires at the distributor
connector. Watch for a spark f r o m the coil.
You can check the R U N p i c k u p coil o n a dual p i c k u p
coil d i s t r i b u t o r in the s a m e m a n n e r as a single p i c k u p coil
system, the engine m u s t be c r a n k i n g w h e n t h e t a p test is
performed. The large connector at the distributor
c o n n e c t s t o t h e S T A R T p i c k u p coil; the smaller o n e g
c o n n e c t s t o t h e R U N coil. O n l y o n e p i c k u p coil is used x
at a t i m e — e i t h e r the R U N coil (engine t u n n i n g ) o r the 5
S T A R T coil (engine cranking). ^
T h e r e is an air gap a d j u s t m e n t that must be m a d e o n
both single and dual pickup coils. T h e single pickup coil air 9M
gap should measure 0 . 0 0 8 inch for 1972 to 1976 vehicles Jq
and 0 . 0 0 6 inch for 1977 to 1986 vehicles; the dual p i c k u p j
coil air gap should be 0 . 0 0 8 inch for all years. Pickup coil
resistance should be between 5 0 and 9 0 0 o h m s . T h e single
ballast ignition resistor's resistance should measure 1.25
o h m s , while the dual ballast resistors resistance should be
5 o h m s (run side) or 0 . 5 o h m on resistors with exposed
windings, and 1.25 o h m s for resistors with sealed windings.
If after performing the tap test there is n o spark, check the
wires at the m o d u l e or c o m p u t e r for power and grounds.
Chrysler vehicles equipped with fuel injection systems
manufactured between 1984 a n d 1995 use a hall-cffcct
switch inside the distributor. In addition t o the hall-
cffcct switch. 1984 to 1987 m o d e l s have t w o o n b o a r d
c o m p u t e r s — a logic m o d u l e (located in the passenger-side
kick panel inside the car) and a power m o d u l e (located next
t o the battery). Later model vehicles p r o d u c e d f r o m 1995
t o 1998 use a single c o m p u t e r called a single board engine
controller (SBEC). All of these vehicles use an a u t o shut

113
 An auto shut town (ASD) relay is
hidden msde the power nxxMe
(top). In addition to controting the
fuel in/ectors and cnargmg
system, this power module
sanes as the Ignition nodule tor
early fuel-in/ected Chryslers The
trains ol the engine
management system is the fcge
module (bottom) Coirtesy cf
CARQUEST Auto Parts

S d o w n (ASD) relay to power the fuel injectors, fuel p u m p , In a d d i t i o n , t w o c o m p u t e r s are u s e d — a logic m o d u l e

P a n d ignition coil. The A S D relay is controlled by the
> onboard c o m p u t e r and is t u r n e d o n for only two scconds
x when the key is in the R U N position. If the key is cycled
O between R U N and S T A R T positions three or more times
E (usually because the car won't start), die c o m p u t e r won't
§ turn on t h e A S D relay until it receives a crank signal f r o m
and a posver m o d u l e . T h e A S D relay is inside the posver
module; the relay's trigger wire is blue with .i \ d ! o w stripe.
T o p e r f o r m a tap test, u n p l u g the three-wire c o n n c c t o r at
the distributor and turn the ignition key to O N . Using .i
g r o u n d e d test light, tap on the gray wire going to the logic
m o d u l e . T h i s should p r o d u c c a spark at the coil. II you get

I
the distributor. Because of this potential problem, you need
to bypass the computer's control of the A S D relay before
p e r f o r m i n g a tap test o n these vehicles.
T o d o this, the relay's c o n t r o l svire needs to b e
g r o u n d e d . T h e A S D relay can b e either internal or external
t o the c o m p u t e r , b u t you must consult a wiring d i a g r a m
to locate t h e wire that triggers the relay. T h e relay control
wire to t h e c o m p u t e r will be labeled "ASD control" or
"ASD relay." O n c e you locate the control svire, use a
g r o u n d e d test light t o trigger the A S D relay. W i t h the A S D
relay energized, check lor 12 volts at the coil a n d listen for
t h e fuel p u m p t o r u n . W i t h t h e A S D relay o n . the t a p test
can n o w IK p e r f o r m e d .
I here is a separate ignition tap test for Chrysler vehides
produced between 1984 and 1987 svith 2.2- and 2.5-litcr
engines. 'Ihese vehides use a lull-effect switch inside the
114 distributor and a three-wire conncctor to the onboard computer.
a spark, plug the distributor back in. W i t h the engine
cranking, use a logic probe t o check for a signal f r o m the
hall-effcct s w i t d i (gray wire). If n o switching signal is
present, check each of t h e three wires going to the
distributor with the connector unplugged. The orange svire
should have 8 volts, the gray wire 5 volts, a n d 0 volts o n
the black wire (ground). If t h e wires all check o u t okay, it's
t i m e t o buy a new hall switch. If there is n o spark, the power
and g r o u n d svircs at the power module all need to be
checked for correct values. Use a wiring diagram specific to
the vchicle being w o r k e d o n in order to identify* wire colors
and corresponding clcctrical values. If the wires arc O K . the
power m o d u l e m a y b e b a d .
T h e tap test for Chrysler vehicles m a d e f r o m 1988 to
1995 is basically the same as the previous test. T h e s e
vehicles use a single c o m p u t e r Chrysler called a single board
engine controller (SBF.C). Before p e r f o r m i n g this tap test.
in 1983 Chrysler combined the power and tope nodules mo a single board engine controller (SBCO. To cool down the etectroncs. ad the air entering Pie engne
must pass through eu ducts at each end of the S8EC Courtesy ol CAfl(X€ST Auto Parts

8vref -orn—>
CROUND —blk o r blk/blu s
5v SIGNAL —c r y o r gry/blk— B

coil
switching blr/cry o r blk/

i—crn/blk
SBEC

asd power in

Ftg 6-13. Ater grounding the ASO retry on this Chrysler igntton system, efwe* tor power at the cot! before a>ng ths tap test K the relay Is not workng, the tap test
wont produce a spark

115
 These replacement ignition wrts are constructed usmg high-grade sdicone
that can withstand 500 degrees Fahrenheit, or under-hood temperatures They
are avUaNe in either a carton impregnated fiberglass core for raito frequency
interference (RR) sipprossion or a ptatod copper core tor racing Courtesy ot
Mattery ignition and Summit Raclrsg Equtxnent
The hgh energy igntson (HE!) upgradetottorGM rehxics uses an aicyd
dstnbutor cap mffi brass terminals These replacement parts exceed OEM
speofKaDons Courtesy ot SummlfacingEqu<xnem
t h e A S D relay must b e triggered by g r o u n d i n g the control
wire with a g r o u n d e d test light; the A S D relay is always
external to the c o m p u t e r in these model years. To perform
a tap test o n these vehicles, u n p l u g the three-wire conncctor
at the distributor. W i t h the ignition key in t h e R U N
position, use a g r o u n d e d test light to tap on cither the gray
or gray/black wire (at the hall-cffcct switch) o n the harness
side o f t h e connector. T h e coil should p r o d u c e a spark. If
you get a spark, plug the distributor back in a n d use a logic
p r o b e to check for a signal f r o m the hall-cffcct switch while
the engine is cranking. If n o switching signal is present,
check cach of the three wires going to the distributor with
the c o n n c c t o r unplugged. T h e orange wire should have 8
volts, the gray or gray/black wire should have 5 volts, a n d
there should be 0 volts on the b b e k o r black/blue wire. If
all the wires check o u t okay, you need to buy a new hall-
116
This Snap-On MT2S00 kV span* lestef can oe used on both convmoonal and
OS igrntcn systems Flashing tIDs and a rotary uu indicate spark
voiage tends
effect switch. If you didn'i get a spark, t h e power a n d
g r o u n d wires at the power m o d u l e JII need to b e checked
f o r correct values. Use a wiring diagram specific to the
vehicle you arc w o r k i n g o n t o identify win-colons a n d corre-
s p o n d i n g clcctrical values. If the wires arc O K , power
m o d u l e may be h a d .
SECONDARY IGNITION CIRCUIT
S o far we've dealt only with primary ignition switching: n o w
the focus shifts to the secondary ignition circuit. W h e n a
spark Is produced at the ignition coil, it must g o from there
t o the proper spark plug in the engine's tiring otdcr. O n
vehicles e q u i p p e d with distributors, the spark travels
t h r o u g h the coil's high-voltage svire to the distributor cap
a n d then to the rotor. T h e rotor directs the spark t o the
terminal inside the distributor cap that corresponds with
the cylinder requiring a spatk, based o n the engine's tiring
order. T h e configuration of crankshaft and camshaft deter-
mines the ignition firing order o f the engine's cylinders. As
cach cylinder reaches the t o p of its compression stroke, its
air/fuel mixture is ready to b e ignited by the ignition system.
T h e spark f r o m the ignition coil necessary for c o m b u s t i o n
j u m p s t h e air gap between the rotor t i p a n d cap terminal,
and then travels along the spark plug wire to the spark plug
 k l

CHAPTER 7
FUEL INJECTION
SYSTEMS
W ith a final gasp of breath, the use of carburetors in
U.S. production vehicles d i e d in
widespread use of electronic ignitions beginning in 1975
1994. The
w o r k i n g on t h e m . Fortunately, these early production
a t t e m p t s to control fuel delivery arc a t h i n g of the past.
Nowadays, all vehicles m a d e in o r for the United States
and EFI systems in 1984 was driven by ever-tightening have EFI systems.
emissions standards. Although there ss-as a brief period in In addition t o cars and light trucks, m a n y n o n a u t o -
the early to mid-1980s when manufacturers used motive applications arc currently experiencing a transition
electronically controlled carburetors to meet emissions phase from carburction to EFI, including motorcycles,
requirements, these systems were fraught with problems, scooters, and lawn tractors. Today, a technician or h o m e
b o t h f r o m p o o r design a n d lack of training for technicians mechanic w h o is without an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how EFI

This ECM rs out ol in tat/ 1980s GM ivfiide. The contmason ol gwemment-marrtatec emissions control and the araiOMty o 1 cheap computers afaved auto
manufactLrcrs to switch from carburetors to electronic fuel injection systems

119
expert22 f\nn http://rutracker.org
The computer-conirotied carbu-
retor was an metmediate step
between the M carbureted and
the new electron* M i&ctcn
technology.
works has severely limited ability ro perform even hasic
clcctrical a n d clcctronics diagnostics.
However, w o r k i n g on an EFI system doesn't have to be
as complex as m a n y people believe it is. Just like electronic
ignition systems, different EFI designs share m a n y similar-
ities. so once a technician u n d e r s t a n d s the basics of EFI
operation, most types should be relatively easy to diagnose.
CARBURETORS
All gasoline-posvcred engines need only two basic ingre-
dients t o r u n — t h e corrcct a m o u n t of fuel for any given r p m
a n d throttle o p e n i n g , and a spark from the ignition coil at
the right time. A carburetor's fuel-delivery system is m a d e
u p of separate fuel circuits, each with a specific job to
perform. D u r i n g startup of a cold engine, the choke circuit
adds extra fuel and air t o keep the engine from stalling.
O n c e the engine reaches operating temperature, the choke
circuit shuts d o w n . At idle (as the throttle is opened), the
idle mixture f r o m the screw and transfer port circuits
provides additional fuel as required by the engine. As
airflosv into the engine increases, the main fuel circuit
regulates fuel flow in relation t o the a m o u n t of throttle
o p e n i n g . If the throttle is o p e n e d suddenly, an accelerator
p u m p circuit squirts fuel directly into the intake m a n i f o l d .
W i t h o u t an accelerator p u m p , the faster moving air would
get to the intake valve a n d cylinder before the fuel, causing
a flat spot and backfire d u r i n g acceleration (air is about 4 0 0
times lighter than gasoline).
Although c a r b u r e t o r s have provided fuel delivery
services for well over 100 years a n d have always basically
f u n c t i o n e d pretty well, there arc s o m e things they simply
can't handle. A carburetor is basically a h u n k of a l u m i n u m
with a b u n c h of holes drilled into it. As air pressure within
the carburetor changes, fuel and air flosv t h r o u g h the
various holes a n d i n t o the engine. I losvcvcr, a carburetor's
ability to deal with constantly changing operating
e n v i r o n m e n t s is limited svith regard to reactions to changes
in altitude a n d compensation for engine temperature. T h e y
also lack precise fuel control for emissions purposes and
create oserall excessive fuel c o n s u m p t i o n d u r i n g steady-
state e n g i n e o p e r a t i o n and acceleration. In a w o r d ,
carburetors arc just t o o d u m b to c o n t i n u e being useful for
p r e s i d i n g accurate air/fuel mixtures in m o d e r n vehicles.
W h a t is needed is a fuel delivery system w ith s o m e brains.
ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION
In addition to p e r f o r m i n g all the functions of a carburetor,
the EFI system also controls engine idle speed and various
ignition system t i m i n g functions. It regulates fuel delivery-
using electromagnetic s-alvcs (fuel injcctors) thar o p e n
electronically for varying lengths of time. W h e n the fuel
injcctors arc turned o n , they spray tucl into the engine. T h e
a m o u n t of o n time is called injcctor pulse w i d t h , and
the longer this is, the greater the a m o u n t ol fuel injected
into the engine. W h i l e all EFI systems use fuel injectors that
operate in the same manner, there arc different EFI designs
and c o m p u t e r strategies in use today.
T h r o t t l e b o d y injcctcd ( T B I ) engines u.sc only o n e or
two injectors located where dtc carburctot used t o be. After
fuel is injcctcd i n t o the throttle body, it travels t h r o u g h an
intake manifold before reaching each cylinder. Because the
air/fuel mixture has t o travel varying distances to reach
the engine's individual cylinders, iliis system has inherent
fuel distribution problems.
By contrast, a port fuel injection tl'FI) engine uses an
individual injcctor for cach cylinder, making it more efficient

car will illustrate h o w an EFI system operates.
This Feed throtOe body and injectors make up a modem EFT system, providing
better performance and fuel mileage than the carburetors cf the past
than a T B I system. T h e PFI system sprays fuel directly at the
back of the engines intake valves; consequently, fuel delivery
is more precise because it has less distance to travel before
reaching the combustion chambcr. Eventually, PFI systems
were replaced svith sequential port fuel injection (SPFI)
systems. Each cylinder still has an individual injector,
however, the injectors on these systems are pulsed in accor-
dance with the engine's sequential firing order. These systems
provide more accurate fuel delivery, which in turn helps
reduce exhaust emissions and increase h i d mileage.
Finally, o n e other fiavor of fuel injection systems exists—
a Bosch KE Jetronic. T h i s system uses an airflow sensor
with a metal plate that moves in relation t o engine airflow.
As the throttle is o p e n e d , the sensor measures the increased
air entering the engine. A mechanical fuel distributor then
delivers fuel to cach injector. 'Fhe injectors arc simple
pressure relief valves and use n o dcctronics. T h e s e systems
arc f o u n d only in European cars.
Seme Boschtodejection systems use a combination ot mechanical and
electronic components m thee systems Pictured is a mass airflow (MAF)
sensor and fuel distributortora K Jetronic system
T A K I N G EFI FOR A T E S T DRIVE
For an electronic control module (ECM) to control
injectors a n d ignition timing, it must rcccive i n f o r m a t i o n
about engine r p m . engine temperature, altitude, air t e m p e r -
ature, driver d e m a n d , and other inputs. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n
is passed along to the E C M via its sensors, the E C M uses
this information for overall engine m a n a g e m e n t .
H o w a fuel injection system operates is w o r t h a closer
look. Taking a quick virtual drive in a m o d e r n fuel-injected
Starting
Imagine yourself on a nice fall day sitting in y o u r new car.
which, naturally, is e q u i p p e d with a m o d e r n EFI system.
W h e n the ignition is first t u r n e d o n but before the engine
is started, the E C M checks in with various sensors t o
d e t e r m i n e engine coolant a n d air temperature, as well as
barometric pressure. T h e sensors report a cool 5 0 degrees
Fahrenheit outside a m b i e n t temperature. Bccausc the car
has been sitting overnight, engine coolant t e m p e r a t u r e is
the same as the air temperature. Since your imaginary car
was parked near the beach, the barometric pressure ( B A R O )
sensor indicates to the E C M that barometric pressure is at
sea level. T h e E C M turns on w h e n the key is t u r n e d to the
R U N position. Because engine temperature is cold and air
pressure is at sea level, the E C M adjusts the injector's initial
pulse width in accordance with internal p r o g r a m m i n g to
ensure a rich fuel mixture for cold starting. T h e E C M also
o p e n s an idle air controller (1AC) valve to allow extra air to
enter the engine, causing a fast idle. T h i s keeps the engine
f r o m stalling until it warms u p . W h e n the ignition key is

CTS
ACT
Rg 7-1. Just Ucea testate cam and choke circuit on a carburetor, a cocJant sensor, at temp sensor. BARD sendor. ECU. and u^ectors Kfie to provide a nch fuel
nurture for cold starting. The rfear contwSer (IAC) Increases enginetitespeed during cold startup so the engr\e won't staP
t u r n e d to (he S T A R T position, the E C M gets a signal from
t h e crankshaft and camshaft position sensors as soon as the
engine begins rotating. T h e crankshaft sensor sends an
engine r p m signal and the camshaft sensor identifies which
cylinder is next in the firing order. D u r i n g cold startup, the
E C M pulses (turns on) all of the injcctors d u r i n g every
other crankshaft revolution. Hosvever, once the engine
warms up, the injcctors arc pulsed in the same sequence as
cylinder firing o r d e r — j u s t like the spark plugs. Each
injector is pulsed just before the intake valve o p e n s for that
cylinder. T h i s fuel deliver)- strategy, called SPFI, decreases
exhaust emissions while increasing horsepower, thereby
helping o u t in the fuel e c o n o m y d e p a r t m e n t .
Warming Up and Driving
O n c e the engine ssarms u p . the fuel mixture must be leaned
o u t so there is less fuel a n d m o r e air. T h e E C M docs this
by t u r n i n g t h e injectors o n (reducing injector pulse width)
for a shorter a m o u n t of time. T h e E C M also lowers engine
idle speed by closing the IAC valve. However, o n c e the
automatic transmission is p u t into D R I V E , the ECM
immediately changes ignition timing and slightly opens the
122
INJECTORS
I A C to maintain engine idle speed. T h i s action provides a
seamless idle speed t o the driver w h e n shifting from PARK
to D R I V E . W h e n the accelerator i* pressed, the E C M
checks several inputs to d e t e r m i n e injector pulse width and
ignition timing.
T h e T P S senses h o w far and h o w last the t h r o t t l e
opens. T h e MAF sensor calculates engine load by
measuring t h e a m o u n t of air e n t e r i n g the engine. M A P
sensors measure e n g i n e v a c u u m , a n o t h e r indication of
engine load. T h e E C M uses T P S . MAF. a n d M A P sensor
inputs, as well as e n g i n e r p m , t o d e t e r m i n e injcctor pulse
w i d t h a n d ignition t i m i n g . T h e E C M calculates all i n p u t s
by c o n s u l t i n g its c o m p u t e r i z e d internal dictionary, or
" l o o k - u p tables," w h i c h c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n about h o w
l o n g t o keep the injcctors o n for specific driving c o n d i -
tions. For example, if the T P S o p e n s at a m o d e r a t e rate,
a n d e n g i n e r p m arc c o m i n g u p slowly, the E C M increases
t h e injcctor o n t i m e gradually. Hosvescr. if the t h r o t t l e is
o p e n e d suddenly, the T P S signal voltage g«n-s u p instantly
a n d the injectors arc given a l o n g o n - t i m e (but only
briefly!), thereby providing the same shot of extt.i fuel as
a carburetor's accelerator p u m p .
 These tensors are typical tor EFI
systems. FromtopUtt.
clockwise marutokt absolute
pressure < W ) sensor. GM: MAP
sensor. Ford, throttle position
sensor (TPSI Ford: air temper-
ature sensor, engine cedent
(ECT) sensor 0} sensor. Toyota;
and eituust valve position (EVP)
sensor. Ford.
( h r o n l c is used in c o n j u n c t i o n with m o d e r a t e r p m , ignition
t i m i n g is advanced t o p r o m o t e fiicl economy. However, if
the throttle is wide o p e n b u t engine r p m is low. t i m i n g is
retarded to prevent engine ping or k n o c k . 'I"hc E C M system
also uses a knock sensor that "listens" electronically to the
engine to d e t e r m i n e if the fuel mixture in any of t h e engine
cylinders is detonating, pinging, or knocking. T h e E C M is
able to d e t e r m i n e which cylinder is knocking, and then
W retard ignition t i m i n g for only that cylinder, thereby
ill preventing d a m a g e to pistons d u r i n g heavy engine loads.
5) As you c o n t i n u e y o u r drive, now h e a d i n g toward the
0) countryside, t h e vehicle speed sensor (VSS) in t h e car
Z indicates a steady road speed of 6 5 miles per hour. T h e
2 E C M n o w electronically locks u p the a u t o m a t i c trans-
O missions torque converter, creating a solid mechanical
c o n n e c t i o n between engine a n d transmission. T h i s is why
— m o d e r n vehicles with a u t o m a t i c transmissions get virtually
Cl the same gas mileage as standard t r a n s m i s s i o n - e q u i p p e d
2 vehicles; there is simply n o slippage between the engine and
I
transmission, as was the case in n o n c o m p u t c r - c o n t r o l l c d
vehicles e q u i p p e d w i t h automatic transmissions.
As you pass t h r o u g h a quaint little t o w n , a g r o u p of kids
crosscs the street. W h e n you c o m e to a stop, the E C M
recognizes the throttle has closed based u p o n inputs f r o m
the T P S sensor. T h e E C M also senses decreasing engine
r p m . All of these operating c o n d i t i o n s cause the E C M to
shut off the fuel injectors, causing a fuel c u t (as it is
sometimes called), 'l"hcsc p r e p r o g r a m m e d processes reduce
exhaust emissions d u r i n g deceleration.
While you wait at the crosswalk, you realize how hot it has
124 goncn. so you Hip o n the air conditioning (A/C). T h e E C M
automatically increases die idle air controllers opening so you
don't notice a change in idle speed as the jir conditioning
compressor turns on. 'ITic radiator cooling fim is also controlled
by the E C M and is switched on any time the air conditioning
is operating With increased clcctrical load on the alternator, the
E C M increases the IAC signal, which in turn increases engine
speed, helping the alternator to keep u p with the increased
clcctrical demand from the air conditioning and cooling fan.
O n c e you reach y o u r destination a n d shut off your car.
the c o m p u t e r goes to sleep a n d remains this way until you
s t a n the process all over again. The operation of the E( ."M
a n d its various sensors depicted d u r i n g our hypothetical
drive has been explained in slow m o t i o n : in reality, all the
electronic signaling and decision-making happens at
lightning speed!)
Sensor inputs t o the E C M are processed at an a m a / i n g rate
of over o n e million times per second. However, the rate at
which E C M o u t p u t s change is m u c h slower, only about 8 0
times per second. Bccause a driver can't o p e n the throttle, turn
o n the A / C , change gears, or operate any controls faster than
an EFI system can, the operation of the engine management
system is seamless and undctcctcd bv the driver. T h e end
o u t c o m e of modern engine management is that it produces
vehicles that: I) start and r u n well, whcdict cold ot hot; 2)
accelerate smoothly, 3) get good hicl mileage; and 41 don't
pollute as m u c h as before. As a result, it's not u n c o m m o n lor
some V-8 engines to get over 2 5 miles per gallon.
SENSOR TESTING
T h r o t t l e P o s i t i o n S e n s o r (TPS)
M o s t T P S have three wires; power (usually 5 volts),
g r o u n d , a n d signal. A T P S can b e tested in t w o ways: by

svref —
tps _
signal
ground
ECM
measuring either varying voltage or varying resistance.
M e a s u r i n g ' I T S voltage is t h e m o r e accurate m e t h o d for
testing this sensor because the E C M reads its voltage
instead of its variable resistance.
To check for the presence of a T P S signal, turn rhc
ignition key t o the O N position a n d leave the T P S plugged
in. Back probe each wire svith a digital voltmeter. T h e
following readings should be f o u n d on each of the three
T P S wires: (See figure 7-3)
• Five-volt r e f e r e n c e w i r e — T h e E C M sends 5 volts to the
T P S as a reference s-oltage. If n o n e of the wires at the T P S
have 5 volts, check the fusc(s) that power the E C M . If the
fuses are good and the TPS wires to the E C M arc also okay,
there may be a bad posver supply within the E C M . If this
is the case, the E C M will have to be replaced.
• G r o u n d w i r e — T h e T P S g r o u n d comes directly from the
E C M . This svire should read close to 0 volts. If it's higher
t h a n 0 . 0 2 volt, the E C M may have a bad g r o u n d wire. If
this is the case, p e r f o r m a voltage d r o p test o n t h e E C M
g r o u n d wire(s) to be sure that is the problem.
• S i g n a l w i r e — I " h e T P S sends a varying voltage signal to
the E C M via the signal wire. W i t h the throttle closed,
s-oltagc should be a r o u n d 0.5 volt. As the throttle opens,
voltage should gradually increase until it reaches a r o u n d 4 . 5
volts at wide open throttle. Inside the T P S is a variable
resistor that changes resistance in relationship to throttle
angle (opening). T h i s resistor can eventually wear o u t over
m a n y miles of engine operation. O p e n the throttle slowly
while checking the voltmeter reading; a steady increase in
Fig 7-3. Tlut is a typM
TP&fCN circuit A TPS tssmply
a varotfb resistor. As the throttle
is opened, the TPS signal voltage
gets closer to the reference
voltage ol 5 volts This measeig
voltage indicates to the ECU that
it should add fuel accordingly as
the vehicle accelerates.
voltage w i t h o u t any skipping or j u m p i n g a r o u n d indicates
a good T P S . A D V O M svith a bar graph makes it m u c h
easier to recognize a bad T P S since a bar graph has a faster
display rate than a digital n u m e r i c display.
Temperature Sensors
I depending on manufacturer, engine temperature sensors are also
referred to as engine coolant (ECT) sensors, coolant temperature
sensors ( C I S ) , or odicr similar acronyms. Intake manifold
temperature sensors operate in a similar manner and arc often
callcd air duugc temperature (ACT), intake air temperature
(IAT), or manifold air temperature (MAT) sensors. Both coolant
and intake manifold temperature sensors can be tested in the
same manner. 'l"hc majority of temperature sensors arc negative
rem pcrarure coefficient ( N T Q thermistors. An N T C thermistor
clungcs its resistance as temperature changcs—resistance
decreases as temperature increases. There are also a few positise
temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors Inn they are rare.
These ssork in a different manner than NCI* thermistors—as
temperature increases, resistance increases as well.
Temperature sensors are typically equipped svith either
t w o or three wires. To check a two-wire coolant or air t e m p
sensor, t u r n the ignition key to O N a n d use a D V O M to
back probe b o t h ss-ircs. O n e wire should read close to 0 s-olts
since it is the t e m p sensor g r o u n d : the other should have
between 0.1 a n d 4.5 volts d e p e n d i n g o n its m a n u f a c t u r e r
and sensor temperature. A cold engine should have approx-
imately 3 volts or higher. Start the engine a n d watch the
voltmeter reading as the engine w a r m s u p . Voltage should
gradually start d r o p p i n g to a r o u n d 1 or 2 volts d e p e n d i n g
on its manufacturer. If signal voltage d r o p s faster o r skips
a r o u n d , the coolant/air t e m p sensor is probably bad.
125
Maleri
 TPS sensors cotne in d/ferenf
stapes cwffpuratons Whte
ffwsf arprariaWffresistonIn
attWioo to f/wraffafleflwfcfor
some. Japanese manufacturers
use contacts mstCe We TPS to
signal throttle postton.
C o o l a n t temperature sensors ( C T S ) containing three
wires are typically f o u n d o n G M vehicles f r o m 1993 or
later. T h e third wire is for the temperature gauge o n the
W i n s t r u m e n t panel; the other t w o wires arc the same as
Q dcscribcd for temperature sensors—ground and signal wires
t o the E C M . Chrysler vehicles in p r o d u c t i o n f r o m 1985 to
1995 used a dual t e m p e r a t u r e curve p r o g r a m m e d into the
E C M . O n these vehicles, the E C M uses a set of voltage
readings f r o m - 2 0 to 8 0 degrees Fahrenheit; then it switches
O internally t o a different set of values between 130 and 2 3 0
degrees Fahrenheit. If the voltmeter readings j u m p when
the e n g i n e s t e m p e r a t u r e rises t o just above 8 0 degrees
Fahrenheit, then the E C M has switched to the " h o t "
c u r v e — n o r m a l for these vehicles. 'Fhe chart o n page 128
lists temperatures, voltages, and resistance values for
temperature sensors o f domestic manufacturers.
Both types of sensors can also be tested for internal
resistance widi an o h m m c t c r after simply u n p l u g g i n g the
coolant/air t e m p sensor. Measuring internal resistance is a
good indication of proper f u n c t i o n . In general, resistance
should be high (thousands of ohms) when cold and low-
when hot (below 2 . 0 0 0 o h m s ) . See a service manual for
exact resistance values for specific vehicles.
Oxygen (O^ Sensors
T h e key to m a k i n g all d o s e d loop feedback systems work
is an 0 ; sensor, which measures oxygen c o n t e n t in exhaust
126
gas. T h e r e are t w o types of O , sensors c o m m o n l y u s e d —
zirconia a n d titania.
A zirconia dioxide sensor acts as a galvanic battery,
generating a small D C voltage based o n the comparison
between the oxygen content inside the exhaust and
s u r r o u n d i n g atmosphere. W h e n t h e oxygen c o n t e n t is low
(rich mixture), the difference between cxliaust gas oxygen
a n d atmospheric oxygen is high, causing the sensor to
produce a high voltage from 0 . 5 to <>.*> volt. Conversely,
when an O , sensor detects a lean mixture 'high exhaust
gas/oxygen content) and compares it to the outside air, the
difference is smaller and lower voltages are generates!
ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 volt.
A titania O , sensor operates somewhat differently from a
zirconia sensor, but the end result is the same. Instead of
producing voltage, a titania O , sensor uses a reference voltage
from the E C M to change its internal resistance based on
oxygen content f o u n d in exhaust gas. T h e resulting voltages
will be the same as those for a zirconia sensor. Both sensors
have to b e hot (600 degrees Fahrenheit) before they can
function. Some sensors use an clcctric heating d e m e n t to
keep them from cooling dosvn at idle (when engine exhaust
gas temperature is low). Electronic heating also facilitates
quickcr sensor w a r m - u p d u r i n g <. old starting
Unlike other sensors. O , sensors t a n liavc one. two. three,
or even four svires. To test most O , sensors, the engine should
be warmed to normal operating temperature. To d o diis, don't
 From left to nght are 0. sensors
withone. two. three, or tour
wves. 0. sensors with three or
tor mes also have internal
heatmg elements that keep the
sensors at operating temper-
ature. even if the exhaust pas
temperature slow due to
prolonged engine ding

A/F 02
Closed Loop
Ratio Volts
Wave Form
Rich

14.7:1

Lean

2 Seconds •

fig 7-5. Jhis wavetorm shows an 0, sensor swnctmg between nch and lean wtuel morares RKh rrumres are mated by sensor vottage readings AOOWJ 0 5 KXT.
while readngs bdow 05 wits are tor lean air/fuel ratios
 AM MAP sensors are basxatty
e/ectronc vacuum gauges TTxs
Ford MAP sensor ton the left)
sends a vanatue frequency la the
ECM Ovwr MAP sensors change
trie* voftage sjgnats to the
computer to hcate engne load.

has three wires. To test this sensor, use a D V O M to hack probe

TO ENC
cach of the three wires while the M A P sensor is plugged in.
W i t h the ignition key turned to O N . the power wire should
read 5 volts, the ground wire should be close to 0 s-olts. a n d 5V REF
the signal svire to the E C M should read 2.5 s-olts. (Only a
multimeter capable of reading frequency can be used to check MAP
the signal write.) Next, use a hand sacuum p u m p to change
vacuum levels at the M A P sensor. Voltage on the signal wire
SIGNAL
should always be 2.5 volts, regardless of the vacuum level at die
MAP. By contrast, frequency ( h e m ) levels should change as GROUND-
vacuum levels change at die sensor. However, just like on other
M A P sensors, when checking this sensor above sea level,
frequency readings will be slightly lower—about 3 hern, for ECM MAP
ever)- 1.000 feet above sea level. To find frequency values for
vacuum IcveLs. see the chart on page 132. Rj 7-6. MAP sensors have three wres power > von reference), crowd, and
If n o meter is available t o read frequency, another quick signal. Some MAP sensors have a nipple t ttng to accept a vacuum tose.
way to check if the M A P sensor is working requires use of which connects toe sensor to the ntake manifold
a j u m p e r wire. Attach the alligator clip o f a j u m p e r wire to
the signal wire (usually the m i d d l e svire) at the M A P sensor.
C o n n e c t the other end to the a n t e n n a of the vehicle being h a n d vacuum p u m p to change vacuum levels at the M A P
tested. If the a n t e n n a is e m b e d d e d in the windshield, try- sensor. T h e s o u n d of the pitch of the frequency should
holding the clip against it. T h e n turn the ignition to O N change, c o n f i r m i n g the M A P sensor is w o r k i n g (but u n f o r -
and t u n c the radio to an A M frequency below 6 0 0 . (Don't tunately, n o t giving e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n to measure its
expect good tunes here!) T h e m a p sensor's frequency o u t p u t accuracy). In the Ford M A P chart, H g represents inches of
will c o m e right t h r o u g h the radio speakers. Again, use a mercury and kPa represents kilopascal. a unit of pressure.

130
 GM MAP
Vacuum Voltage
0 4.86
5 3.96
10 3.06
15 2.10
20 1.10
21 0.82

GM BARO
3 . 0 0 IO 4 . 8 6 d e p e n d i n g on altitude

GM TURBO MAP
Vacuum Voltage
0 2.40
5 1.66
10 1.18
IS 41.70
20 0.26

GM VAC
Vacuum
This GM MAP sensor has a nipple connecting the sensor (via a vacuum host) to Voltage
the engm intake manMd These sensors produce a voltage signal to the ECM 0 0.54
Courtesy CAHQUEST Auto Parts 5 1.38
10 2.20
15 3.20
CHRYSLER 20 4.20
A Chrysler M A P sensor is similar to a G M sensor in that 21 4.40
both p r o d u c c a varying voltage that changes svith engine
s-acuum levels. Chrysler uses t w o types of M A P sensors—
t u r b o and n o n t u r b o . Both work the same, b u t voltage These are vacuum versus voSage values for GMi MAP. vacuum IWC). and
o u t p u t s are different. O n s o m e early p r e - 1 9 8 7 vehicles, the barometric pressure (BAROi sensors These numbers sene as a general guide
M A P sensors arc loeated inside the v e h i d e s logic m o d u l e when diagnosing MAP sensors: see a service manual lor specific
of the o n b o a r d c o m p u t e r and arc therefore not accessible voltager'racuum valves.
for testing. If the M A P sensor has to b e replaced, there is,
fortunately, a relocation kit available for this system.
To test a Chrysler M A P sensor, turn the ignition key to
O N . Using a D V O M , back p r o b e all dircc wires—one
should hase 5 volts (power), o n e should b e close to 0 volts or Ford car is often referred t o as a h o t wire M A F sensor
(ground), and the last should b e the signal wire. Use a hand because the temperature of its sensing dement is
v a c u u m p u m p to test the M A P sensor. W h e n testing above maintained to a p r o g r a m m e d level above that of i n c o m i n g
sea level, voltage readings r u n about 0.1 volt lower for every air. As air passes over the sensing d e m e n t , it cools d o w n ,
1,000 feet above sea level. To find voltage values for each requiring the M A F sensor t o produce m o r e current t o
type of Chrysler M A P sensor, sec the chart on page 132. maintain the p r o g r a m m e d temperature. By measuring the
internal current flow used to heat the sensing clement, the
M A S S AIRFLOW (MAF) SENSORS small c o m p u t e r inside the M A F can calculate mass airflow
A M A F sensor measures the volume of air entering an i n t o the engine. T h e digital signal o u t p u t p r o d u c e d is a
engine, calculates air density a n d temperature, and sends a varying frequency, which the ECM uses t o calculate
signal of the result to the E C M . A M A F sensor on a G M injector pulse width and ignition timing.

131
 GM MAF Sensors
G M uses three types of M A P sensors: A C Delco, Bosch, FORD MAP
a n d Hitachi. T h e A C Delco three-wire M A F sensor was VAC Hg kPa Hertz
installed in cars m a n u f a c t u r e d between 1985 and 1991. To 0 0 159
test this type of sensor, leave it plugged in with the ignition 3 10.2 150
key in the O N position, a n d then back probe each wire 6 20.3 141
using a D V O M . T h e posver wire should read 12 voks, the 9 30.5 133
g r o u n d svire should be d o s e to 0 volts, a n d the signal svire 12 40.6 125
should have 2.5 volts. (Remember, the multimeter must be 15 50.8 117
capable of reading frequency or hertz to measure this 18 61.0 109
sensor's o u t p u t . ) W i t h the key t u r n e d to on and the engine 21 71.1 102
off. the signal wire readings should IK a r o u n d 8 to 10 hertz, 24 81.3 95
svhile at warm idle they should be around 4 0 to 4 5 hertz,
and at svide-open throttle about 150 hertz. These n u m b e r s
arc approximations, b u t as long as the hertz readings Ford MAP sensors produce frequency Instead oI .r>tic? outputs A DVOM
increase when the throttle is opened, the M A F sensor is capaNe of reaang frequency. orherv. a necessary to test the type of sensor.
probably good. Also, since these sensors often have bad
ss-iring harness connectors, be sure to check the c o n n c c t o r
before c o n d e m n i n g the M A F as bad.

A C D d c o five-wire M A F sensors svere installed in cars CHRYSLER MAP

manufactured between 1985 and 1989. T h i s sensors
Vacuum Voltage
conncctor has letters identifying each terminal. Following
0 4.5
is a list of (unctions for each of the wires used on this sensor
5 3.7
• Terminals A and B hase a blackAvhitc svircs and arc ground.
10 2.9
• Terminal C has a dark green wire that is the signal wire
15 2.1
and should have 0.5 volt with the engine idling. T o
20 1.2
M d e t e r m i n e if the sensor is g o o d , change the f u n c t i o n o n a
25 0.4
III D V O M t o read frequency. T h i s wire should have 3 2 hertz
at idle and 150 hertz at wide-open throttle.
CHRYSLER TURBO MAP
• Tcminal D is a dark blue svire a n d reccis-es 12 volts d u r i n g
Vacuum Voltage
Z b u r n - o f f cycle. T h e b u r n - o f f cycle keeps the hot wire clean
0 2.25
2 by b u r n i n g off any dirt or contaminants; this occurs
5 1.85
O whenever the F.CM sends a signal t o the M A F to heat the
10 1.45
sensing wire to red-hot. (This occurs automatically a n d is
15 1.05
5 controlled by t h e F.CM.)
20 0.60
{y • Terminal l i is a red or purple wire a n d also receives 12
25 0.20
2 volts t o power the MAF. Hossevcr. be careful w h e n

I
checking this wire for voltage with the key t u r n e d to O N
and the engine n o t started, as there are 12 volts o n this wire
for only t w o seconds and it's easy to miss the meter reading.
These sensors arc also prone to dirty hot-svires, despite dtcir
b u r n - o f f cycle. T h e wire can b e eleaned using a Q - t i p and
r u b b i n g alcohol and dried by gently blowing across it with
y o u r m o u t h . Since the wire is very thin, it breaks easily, so
don't use an air nozzle to blow it off.
T h e Hitachi M A F sensor was used from 1988 t o 1993
on G M 33(H) and 3 8 0 0 engines. T h i s sensor also has three
wires, l o test this sensor. leave it plugged in. turn the
ignition key to O N and then back probe each wire using a
D V O M . T h e povser wire should have 12 volts, the g r o u n d
ChryslersftrtoMAP has Afferent rotopu ;.tbes from a nontirtn MAP. When
ordering a new sensor, do not get them mixed :. w vehcle wilt not run
wel. or at al. with the wrong sensor.
svire should be close to 0 volts, a n d the signal wire should
have 5 volts. Again, t h e m u l t i m e t e r must be able to read
frequency to measure this sensor's o u t p u t . W i t h the ignition
key O N , and the engine off, the reading should be bctsseen
0 and 3 5 hertz, and at idle it should U between 2 , 5 0 0 and
3 . 5 0 0 hertz. As long as the hertz rc.idings g o u p when the

132
 A MAf sensor's hot wire a very
thin, but it is protected by a
plasbc'metal housing and screen
on both ends ot the sensor When
incoming air cools the hot wire
the MAP computer increases
current to Keep it at a
programmed temperate

throttle is o p e n e d , the M A T sensor is most likely good. T h i s K n o c k S e n s o r (KS) g

sensors h o t svire can also be cleaned in the same m a n n e r as
a five-wire A C Dclco M A F sensor.
Ford MAF Sensors
Ford mass airflow sensors arc similar t o those used o n G M
vehicles, except these sensors p r o d u c e voltage instead of
frequency. T h e following test is provided for 1990 to 1995
Ford M A F sensors equipped with four wires.
T o test this sensor, leave it plugged in. t u r n the ignition
key O N , t h e n back p r o b e cach wire using a D V O M . T h e
power wire should have 12 volts. T h e r e are two g r o u n d
wires that should cach be close t o 0 volts. T h e signal wire
should also b e close t o 0 volts. At idle, t h e signal volragc
should be about 0 . 8 to 1.0 volt, b u t at 3 , 0 0 0 r p m the
reading s h o u l d increase t o a b o u t 2 volts, a n d w h e n the
t h r o t t l e is snapped wide o p e n , t h e reading should be
a b o u t 3 . 5 volts. As l o n g as t h e voltage increases w h e n the
t h r o t t l e is o p e n e d , t h e M A F sensor is probably g o o d . T h i s
sensor is also p r o n e t o h a v i n g a d i r t y sensing wire, b u t it
can also be d c a n c d with r u b b i n g alcohol a n d a Q - t i p . Be
sure t o d r y it very gently by b l o w i n g w i t h y o u r m o u t h ,
since this wire is also very thin and easily b r o k e n . (Don't
use an air nozzle!)
A knock sensor (KS). or d e t o n a t i o n sensor as it is in
sometimes called, has a piezoelectric crystal that generates _
voltage w h e n subjected to mechanical stress. T h i s crystal c.
produces an electrical signal with a u n i q u e signature based p
u p o n engine k n o c k or ping. T h e KS operates similarly t o ll
an electronic lighter for a gas refrigerator or barbecue, x
except it doesn't spark; rather, it o n l y produces voltage. (ft
W h e n e v e r an engine knocks o r pings u n d e r heavy acceler- M
a t i o n . the KS sends a signal to the vehicles E C M . T h e m
E C M then retards ignition t i m i n g in an effort t o stop t h e
k n o c k i n g — a safety feature that can prevent d a m a g e t o
pistons a n d rings. T h e use of a KS also allows for the use
of different grades of gasoline w i t h o u t e n g i n e d a m a g e o r
poor performance.
'I'he follosving are general diagnostic tests for KS, b u t
scrvicc manuals should be consulted for specific tests, i s
these sensors sometimes vary in their o u r p u t s .
To test this sensor, disconnect it and p r o b e the sensor
wire with a D V O M . Set die m u l t i m e t e r to read A C milli-
volts. 'lake a small h a m m e r and tap on the engine block
(near the sensor) while w a t c h i n g the voltmeter. 'I'he sensor
should p r o d u c c a small a m o u n t of A C voltage, usually less
than A volts.

133
 A n o t h e r m e t h o d f o r testing KS o p e r a t i o n involves
use of an ignition t i m i n g lighr. T h i s m e t h o d o n l y w o r k s
o n o l d e r c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d vehicles—usually those
with ignition distributors. W i t h the engine r u n n i n g and
t h e t i m i n g light c o n n e c t e d t o t h e n u m b e r o n e c y l i n d e r s
spark plug, i g n i t i o n t i m i n g can be c h e c k e d at t h e crank-
shaft pulley. Use a small h a m m e r t o t a p t h e e n g i n e block
near t h e KS. T h e i g n i t i o n t i m i n g s h o u l d retard a f e w
degrees, p r o v i n g t h e KS is s e n d i n g a signal t o t h e E C M ,
w h i c h is t h e n r e t a r d i n g t h e i g n i t i o n t i m i n g . T h i s test
won't w o r k o n all vehicles, so be sure t o c h e c k a service
m a n u a l f o r specific tests.

V e h i c l e S p e e d S e n s o r s (VSS)
T h e VSS provides a signal to the E C M t o indicate vehicle
speed. T h e E C M uses this i n f o r m a t i o n to control the
a u t o m a t i c transmission torque converter lock-up and to
d e t e r m i n e shift points. T h e r e arc three types of these
sensors: (1) an A C pickup coil, (2) a hall-cffcct switch, and
(3) an optical sensor. All three types of speed sensors operate
in a similar m a n n e r as their ignition counterparts d o in This AC Dtko MAf sensor has been a/t to naff so the computer s vstfe i'letti
ignition systems. (Sec C h a p t e r 6 for an overview of testing Thehot wte is kxated inside Pre round plastic r\ousr\g. Alotpwair entering
m e t h o d s used on speed sensors.) the engine mustfirstpass ttvough the sensor so it can be measured

I d l e A i r C o n t r o l (IAC)
I A C sensors are not really sensors at all—they arc, in fact,
jrt actuators. T h e E C M controls these devices in order t o
ty change engine idle speed. Idle speed is increased by t h e
E C M d u r i n g cold Stan conditions a n d air c o n d i t i o n i n g
operation, or whenever the a u t o m a t i c transmission
T shifted between PARK and D R I V E . Certain I A C systems
2 use a stepper m o t o r t o control the a m o u n t of air allowed
O into the engine, svhile others use a bypass valve. In general,
2 these actuators can be checked for proper resistance, b u t arc
— difficult to test for actual operation. Using a c o m p u t e r scan
yj tool (hand-held c o m p u t e r interface) is sometimes the only
2 way to verify if the E C M and I A C actuator are f u n c t i o n i n g
A fuel injector's resistance can IK: measured using an
ohmmctcr. Hosscvcr. resistance readings only confirm that an
injector's internal coil is not shorted, or open. Because resistance
values s-ary widely between injector manufacturers, consulting a
is service manual for specific s-alues f«ir the particular vchidc being
worked on Is always a good idea. I lie only way to tell if an
injcctor is actually working dectricdly is to use a lab scope to
monitor the injector's pulse from the E C M . Howes cr. a number
of simple tests will work most of the time to confirm indirectly
that an injector is operating. 'I'he following first four tests verify
die E C M is sending an injcctor pulse to the injector, while the
last test checks for mechanical operation.

I
together correctly. C o n s u l t a service manual for proper
testing procedures for the specific vehicle being worked o n .
FUEL INJECTORS AND INJECTOR PULSE
Hud injectors arc simply n o t h i n g m o r e than actuators
controlled by a vehicles c o m p u t e r . T h e E C M controls the
a m o u n t of fuel injcctcd i n t o the engine by varying the pulse
width of the injectors. H o w long the injectors are o p e n
(allowing fuel to be injected) is a f u n c t i o n of the corre-
s p o n d i n g length of time t h e injector pulse width lasts.
All fuel injectors arc solenoids consisting of a coil o f svire
and moveable electromagnetic valve. W h e n energized, the
coil of wire acts like a magnet, causing the valve to o p e n .
134
1. U n p l u g the injector and connect a test light between
the t w o wires at the injcctor harness conncctor. C r a n k or
start u p the engine while w a t c h i n g the test light. If the light
flashes, the E C M is sending an injector pulse to the injector.
(Although a test light works most of the time for this test, it's
i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w this test will not work o n vehicles that
use a d r o p p i n g resistor in the injector circuit, thus limiting
current going i n t o the injector to present overheating.)
2. Instead of using a test light, use a noid light specific
to the particular EFI system tested. A noid light has low
enough resistance t o flash d u r i n g a test, even svhen .i
d r o p p i n g resistor is used. (Sec C h a p t e r 3 to find infor-
mation about noid lights.)
Every IAC receives a s>gnn from the vehicle s ECU to aflusf engine Oe speed
Seme controllers are stepper motors. whte others are bypass raVw The
function ot an IAC a to bypass the av around the throttle plates m order to Tha VSS tells the ECM to lockup the torque converter ck/tch.
ncrease engine idle speed Courtesy CAftQUtST hito Parts Courtesy CAROU6ST Auto Parts

3. Use an inductivc ignition timing light to verify injcctor injcctor a n d stick the other end in your car (no kidding!).
pulse. C l a m p the timing lights probe around any wire going If the injector is working, you'll hear a steady clicking f r o m
to die injcctor. Stan or crank the engine and watch die timing the injcctor. A w o o d e n dowel or mechanic's stethoscope
light to see if it flashes. A flashing light provides confirmation works just as well for this test.
dial the E C M is sending an
injector pulse to the injector.
4. Use a logic probe to verify
die presence of an injcctor pulse
signal from the E C M . Connect a
logic probe or rcd-and-gteen test
light t o the vehicles bancry. (See
Chapter 3 for more information

I
about logic probes and test
lights.) Touch the probe to an
injcctor wire (the injcctor can be
left plugged into its connector).
C r a n k or start d»c engine and
watch the L E D o n the logic
probe. If it flashes or puLses. then
the E C M is sending an injcctor
pulse to that injector.

5. For a low-tech m e t h o d , HW<? they may look afferent. al ol these fuel injectors operate in the same manner Each uses a con ol wire that
simply take a long screwdriver actskkea magnet when the ECM sends out an f,vector pulse The lengtn ol the poise (pulse width) determines how
and touch either end t o the fuel long the injector remans open and. consequently, how much tud is infected mto the engine.

135
---•Illlllll1 H H m i l l i:lBIIUIIOT
SECTION IV
GENERAL ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS
I CHAPTER 8
WIRING DIAGRAMS
T aking a cross-country car trip when you were young
might have been your introduction to a road map. Maybe
your parents showed you a road atlas and said something like,
"We're here now. and after driving for four days well IK there."
Your first introduction to reading a wiring diagram ss-as
undoubtedly less memorable. However, reading a wiring
diagram is similar to reading a road map. Road maps illustrate
how to get from point A to point B. In a sense, so d o wiring
diagrams. Hosveser, instead of connecting interstate*,
highways, and roads, a wiring diagram shows interconnected
major clcctrical systems, subsystems, and individual circuits.
W h e n a technician looks at a wiring diagram, the goal is to
figure out why a circuit isn't operating Consequently, desti-
nation points arc replaced widi posver sources, controls, identi-
fication of and routes to load dcviccs, and pathways for ground War?/ automotive tectnoans wtf) years of eipsntnce peeler to use a tiook
returns back to die negative battery terminal. rcrson of wiring diagrams. However, today, most ivn-c diagrams intended for
W i r i n g diagrams and road maps also hase a n o t h e r professonal use can tie found on a CD or DVD. A tvctmco i en read them on
feature in c o m m o n — l a y e r s of detail. For example, if you a computer mentor and print out one page at a • • asneedtd. Courtesy
look at a road atlas of California, you svon't b e able t o loeate Scott's Spoed Shop and Mitchell 1.
a street address. You may locate a particular city o r t o w n ,
but you won't find a specific route t o an exact address. To receiving 12 volts w h e n a passenger d o o r o p e n s a n d you
find the exact location of a particular residence or desti- want t o find o u t why. it can take several pages of wiring
nation. you need a detailed street m a p . T h e same Is true diagrams to m a p o u t the cxact path ot power from the
( t h o u g h to a lesser extent) of sviring diagrams. battery t o the light. T h e diagram tor interior lighting will
Originally, wiring diagrams showed the clcctrical most likely show you how the interior wiring a n d fuses arc
systems for an entire vehicle. After t h e early 1990s, wiring c o n n c c t c d . but t h e possrr to the interior fuse panel may
diagrams were categorized a n d separated into the m a j o r originate with an u n d c r - h o o d relay or fuse box. C o n s e -
clcctrical systems and their subsystems (not the entire quendy, a different wiring diagram may b e needed t o
vehicle). T h i s occiirrcd, in part, d u e to the complexity of d e t e r m i n e where the relay receives power.
late model vehicles; with so many clcctrical c o m p o n e n t s , it T h e secret t o reading a w iring diagram will n o t be f o u n d
• was n o longer practical to put everything on o n e wiring on t h e page that identifies the electrical symbols used.
diagram. Today, there are n u m e r o u s wiring diagrams for W h i l e this i n f o r m a t i o n is certainly valuable, it won't really
each vehicle, each pertaining to specific clcctrical systems or tell you h o w t o read a wiring diagram. T h e sccrct to
subsystems in svhich particular elcctrical components deciphering a wiring diagram is, quite simply, under-
belong. For example, if a d o m e light inside a vehicle isn't s t a n d i n g hosv a circuit a n d / o r load device operates. If you

136

keep in m i n d the " T h r e e T h i n g s " (introduced in C h a p t e r
1) that all 12-volt D C circuits must have in order to operate
(power, g r o u n d , and a load device), cracking the mystery of
a complex wiring diagram will h e m u c h easier.
Every load device (motors, bulbs, relays, solenoids,
computers) requires b o t h a posver source and g r o u n d return
a n d must b e controlled. S o m e load devices arc switched o n
a n d off via a power source, while others are controlled by
switching g r o u n d returns o n o r off. Load devices arc
sometimes d e p e n d e n t on o t h e r load devices t o operate,
while s o m e p r o d u c e signals used by solid-state electronics
to tripper odier load devices as well. D e t e r m i n i n g h o w a
specific load dcvicc is controlled can usually best b e accom-
plished by consulting a wiring diagram.
T h i s can get complicated, so t o m a k e it easier, we'll start
with s o m e basic examples o f circuit wiring diagrams a n d
then add layers of complexity as we go. U n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w
these sample diagrams relate to the circuits the)' depict
should help with the task of reading m o r e complex vehicle
wiring diagrams later o n .
READING WIRING DIAGRAMS
Figure 8-1 is a simple diagram showing a driving light
circuit in b o t h on a n d off positions. Its circuit consists of a
2 5 - a m p fuse (used t o protcct the circuit), a switch (located
o n the dash of the vehicle), and t w o driving lights. T h e red-
colored wires have 12 volts, the black wires arc g r o u n d
returns (0 volts), the purple wires represent load devices,
and the yellow areas arc intended to show the lights
operating. W i t h the dash switch in the off position (upper
circuit), the power wire f r o m the battery to the switch has
12 volts. W h e n the dash switch is in the on position (lower
circuit), the wires to b o t h driving lights have power a n d the
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Fig 8-1. This muMcdcr irtnng
dugnn shows atiminglight
arcui « both on and ott condi-
tions Unfortunately, most
manufacturers don't provide
the luxury of color dograms;
they am typicaKy m black and
Hfutecrty
lights arc o n . T h e g r o u n d wires at cach light have 0 volts,
since all available voltage is used by the lights.
Reading the wiring diagram illustrated in Figure 8-1 is
easy for two reasons. T h e driving light circuit has been
isolated a n d isn't s h o w n as a subcircuir of t h e overall lighting
system; and the wires a n d load devices are difTcrent colors—
red for power, black for g r o u n d , and purple for load dcviccs
(bulb filaments). Unfortunately, most wiring diagrams d o
n o t provide any of these advantages. Even late model vehicle
diagrams m a y n o t isolate driving lights t o this e x t e n t — m o r e
likely they will be depicted as part of t h e overall lighting
system. Furthermore, color e n h a n c e m e n t , if used at all in a
wiring diagram, is solely for the purpose of identifying
individual wires, not for indicating power or g r o u n d sides
of a circuit. iMost importantly, wiring diagrams will n o t
show the differences between a circuit in its o n a n d o f f states.
Consequently, the circuit depicted in t h e sample wiring
diagram illustrated in Figure 8-1 docs not truly represent
a u t o m o t i v e reality. It is t o o simplistic. However, the basic
inherent problem with its design can be solved simply by
the addition of a single c o m p o n e n t — a relay. 1 lercs why: In
a real a u t o m o t i v e application, a relay would be used instead
of a heavy-duty switch and wires to provide the high-
ampcragc conncction needed between the driving lights
and battery. A dash switch w o u l d still be part of the overall
circuit, b u t n o w it only lias to switch the relay on (a m u c h
smaller amperage load), instead of the driving lights.
Consequently, the switch a n d the wires to a n d from it don't
have to be heasy-duty since the relay, instead of the switch,
is t u r n i n g t h e lights.
Figure 8 - 2 shosvs a relay a d d e d t o the driving light
circuit. T h e relay connects battery power directly to the
driving lights; it is switched o n a n d off via a dash switch.
137
 Rg a- 2. / rot?y has tew atW«JtoWie Oron^ craul r?Kf rrtJr now awfrote r * high amperage tort tot Pre driving ligtis rttd Jo qcwrjk instead of the switch
and mres deputed in figure 8-1) The addition of a rets/ aXows for the use of smaller-gauge wves on the dash sw&h snce it nav conras only the relay, instead of
Orectty controiiog the dnvtng lights. In (act. the switch itsedcanbe made smaller stiH.asilrw longer has k> contend with a high ^kxtneaf load with trus desqn

BCCJUSC the control coil inside the relay is low amperage

(about 1 a m p ) , the dash switch and its wires don't have to
be too heavy-duty. T h e relay contains two circuits: 1) a low
amperage circuit, consisting of a single control coil, that
causes the relay's contact switch to d o s e when energized:
a n d 2) a high amperage circuit that acts as a switch to
connect the driving lights directly to the battery's positive
terminal. The use of relays in late model vehicles is very
c o m m o n , so u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w to figure o u t if o n e is
w o r k i n g or not will help solve m a n y electrical problems.
To better u n d e r s t a n d the driving light circuit in the
wiring diagram o f Figure 8 - 2 . each subcircuit must first be
identified a n d then isolated from the larger driving lights
circuit. In this diagram there are two separate circuits and Automotive relays come m at shapes and sues, hut they an tetscafly yerate
control switches: 1) a driving lights circuit with high- the same. Some late model vehicles use as many as 30 relays or more.
amperage relay conracT switch; and 2) a relay control-coil
circuit a n d dash switch. Each circuit requires posver, load
device, a n d g r o u n d return. In addition to the essential the control switch for the driving lights can n o w be q u i t e
" T h r e e T h i n g s , " each circuit also has a switch controlling small since they will carry only the a m o u n t of energy
it. However, in this case, a dash switch n o w controls a relay required to power the relays control coil—less t h a n 1 a m p .
instead of controlling the driving lights, a m u c h smaller By contrast, the contact switch inside the relay now carries
dcctrical load. Consequently, the driving lights arc n o w the high amperage load needed t o power the driving lights.
connected t o the battery via contact points inside t h e relay- W h e n the dash w i t c h is t u r n e d t o the O N position, it
instead of directly t h r o u g h the dash switch. In a d d i t i o n , connects a g r o u n d to the relay's control coil (terminal A on
inside the relay is a control coil (used to close the relay- the relay in the diagram of Figure 8-2). T h e control coil
contacts), which is connected to g r o u n d via the dash switch receives posver directly from the batters. Since the control
inside the v c h i d c . Therefore, the wires going t o and f r o m coil is n o w o n (it has power a n d g r o u n d ) , it develops a

138

magnetic fidd. which in turn pulls the high-amperage relay
contact switch down, causing relay terminals 1 and 3 to connect
(sec Figure 8-2). W i t h terminals 1 and 3 c o n n c a c d . the driving
lights are able to receive batten' power and turn on.
To better understand h o w the relay operates, an exami-
nation of the voltage present o n the relay's terminals with
the driving lights' circuit in both an off and on state is
necessary. Unfortunately, the diagram in Figure 8 - 2 is
typical of teal wiring diagrams, in that the voltage value lor
each wire a n d relay terminal must be imagined in b o t h
circuit conditions since b o t h states arc n o t shosvn in the
diagram. T h e diagram will never show the circuit in its o n
state; this makes using this diagram a little
challenging than the diagram shown in Figure 8 - 1 . T h e
wiring diagram exhibited in Figure 8 - 2 is pretty typical of
those distributed by v c h i d c manufacturers (with
exception of the a d d e d feature of colored wires indicating
power a n d g r o u n d ) .
Figure 8 - 2 is a svorking example of a wiring diagram.
Measuring voltage levels at various points in the diagram
will illustrate how the circuit works. W i t h the dash switch
in the O F F (or o p e n ) position, voltage at the relay terminals
shosvn in Figure 8 - 2 will be as follows w h e n measured with
a voltmeter:
• Terminals 1, 2, a n d 4 will all have 12 volts. Terminal 4 has
12 volts because the dash switch is "open" (not connectcd).
• Terminal 3 has 0 volts (ground).
However, w h e n the dash switch for the driving lights is
in the O N or d o s e d position, the voltage readings at the
same relay terminals change as follows:
• Terminals 1 and 2 remain u n c h a n g e d at 12 volts.
• Terminal 3 now reads 12 volts (since the driving lights are on).
• Terminal 4 is now at 0 volts instead of 12, because it is now-
acting as a g r o u n d return lor the relay's control coil circuit.
C o n t i n u e t o reference Figure 8-2 as a hypothetical
wiring diagram, and use a voltmeter assuming the problem
is the driving lights don't work. Following arc a sequence of
steps that should be p e r f o r m e d in order t o discover the
cause o f diis problem.
1. W i t h the dash switch in the O F F position, relay
terminals 1 and 2 should cach have 12 volts when touched
by a voltmeter probe. 'I"hcsc readings confirm the 2 5 - a m p
fuse is good and so arc the associated wires going to the relay.
2. Voltage at relay terminal 3 should be 0 volts. ( N o
voltage is expected at terminal 3 because the dash switch is
in the O F F position.)
3. Relay terminal 4 is a different matter. T h i s terminal
should have a reading of 12 volts when the switch for the
i i i IIi r1:1
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more
the
Tjptcal automothe rtey$ hare two components the control cod crcut (low
amperage) and a set of high amperage contact points, which act IAe a switch
used tor connectingtoaddevices to a power some. The high amperage
contacts are kxated on thetowerleft The copper wees located on the relay
control coJ are waMo in the center of the relay.
driving lights is in the O F F position, as it connccts directly
to the battery through the relay control coil. Instead,
terminal 4 has a reading of 0 volts. T h i s indicates t h e relay
control coil is o p e n (has a broken wire) because there is
battery voltage at terminal 2.
4. Using a j u m p e r wire, you can connect relay terminals
I and 3 together. T h i s c o n n e c t i o n serves to bypass the relay
completely, t h u s rcmosing it from the circuit. As a result,
the driving lights should c o m e o n . T h i s c o n f i r m s that the £
power wire f r o m the relay t o t h e driving lights is okay, a n d JJ
the driving lights g r o u n d wire is good as well.
5. I'he last step is to verify whether the dash switch is g
connected and working. Connect the red (positive)
voltmeter lead t o relay terminal 2. T h e n c o n n e c t the 2
negative lead t o relay terminal 4. O n c e the switch is moved g
to the O N position, the meter should display a reading of Q
12 volts, indicating the switch is both good and c o n n c a c d
to g r o u n d .
As can be seen, a d d i n g c o m p o n e n t s to an imaginary
clcctrical system adds corresponding detail to the sample
wiring diagram; thus, the wiring diagram in Figure 8 - 3 is
actually starting t o look m o r e like a real-life wiring diagram
f o u n d in a vehicle service m a n u a l .
In Figure 8-2, the addition of a relay solved the design
problem of having to use large gauge wires and a heavy-duty
139

Rg 8-3. T m relays are used in
Otis dnvng light orcut. Relay I
prevents the dnvmp lights from
being left on it the igriton key Is
removed, even if the dash switch
isiefton
switch in the driving light circuit (see Figure 8-1). However,
the diagram in Figure 8-2, though doscr ro automotive reality,
still has a design Haw. There is n o protection against a driver
leasing the driving lights on without realizing it, a mistake that
will cause the hatter)- to go dead after only a few hours.
T h e wiring diagram depicted in Figure 8 - 3 shows h o w the
addition of another relay controlled by the vehicles ignition
switch prevents the drising lights from being left o n by
mistake. T h e purpose of relay I is t o conncct posver to
relay 2 (the original r d a y depicted in Figure 8-2). Relay 2 can
only receive 12 volts when the ignition key is in the A C C
(accessory) or R U N positions. If the key is in the S T A R T or
O F F position or removed f r o m the ignition completely, n o
posser is available at relay 2. presenting the driving lights
from b a n g left o n inadvertently, even if the d i s h switch is left
on. An additional benefit of this improved circuit design is
that the driving lights also can't operate d u r i n g engine startup,
a n d svith the drising lights off. more amperage is as-ailablc
from the battery to start the engine.
W i t h all of die newly added features to the basic sample
d r c u i t design, it n o w operates more like a typical automotive
clcctrical circuit. Driving light relay 2 operates in the same
m a n n e r as the original relay in the wiring diagram in Figure
8-3. As long as it l u s posser. the driving lights can be switched
o n or off via the dash switch. T h e ignition switch controls
relay 1. W i t h the ignition switch in the A C C or R U N
position, posser bccomcs available at terminal 2 of relay 1.
140
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However, terminal 4 is a constant ground, a n d with posser
at terminal 2, the relay's high amperage contact .switch closes.
This action c o n n c a s terminals 1 and 3. sending posver to
rday 2. As a result, terminal I o n relay 1 receives power
directly from the battery via a fusible link. Finally, terminal
3 of this same relay is conncctcd to terminals 1 and J on relay
2; as mentioned earlier, this relay operates in the same
m a n n e r as the original rday in f i g u r e 8-2.
T h e sample wiring diagram in Figure 8 - 3 is finally
starting to look more like a real wiring diagram f o u n d in a
s-chiclc service manual (with the exception, again, of the
coloring for wiring identification). To diagnose a problem
within the d r c u i t that may result in nonopcrational driving
lights, you need t o follosv the flosv of posver from the battery
t o the driving lights. To check this, the lollowing terminals
should be " h o t " with the ignition key in the R U N position
and the driving light dash switch in the o f f position:
• Terminals il and i2 (ignition switch)
• Terminals I, 2. and 3 of driving light relay 1
• Terminals 1, 2, and 4 of driving light relay 2 (All of dicsc
should p r o d u c e a voltmeter reading of 12 volts)
However, w h e n the dash switch •• t u r n e d to the on
position, the following readings should o c c u r
• Terminal 4 of relay 2 should read 0 volts
• Terminal 3 of relay 2 should be " h o t ' (or 12 volts)
If the lights still don't operate, there is a possibility of a
break in the wire leading f r o m terminal 4 of relay 2 to the

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driving lights. Otherwise, the bulbs may be b u r n e d out or
t h e g r o u n d wire for b o t h lights may b e broken.
Figure 8-4 is an actual a u t o m o t i v e wiring diagram for a
1993 B M W 525i h o r n circuit. T h i s is an example of a wiring
diagram that has been separated, or broken d o w n , i n t o
systems. In addition, all wires are identified by svire color.
It will take several steps ro read this wiring diagram a n d
analyze h o w this h o r n circuit works:
1. Starting at the t o p left p o r t i o n o f the d i a g r a m , fuse
F9 is a 1 5 - a m p fuse that powers one-half o f t h e h o r n relay
o n a red/black wire. T h e diagram provides additional
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t fuse F9, including its c o n d i t i o n (hot at
all times) and location ( f r o n t p o w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n box, left
rear side of e n g i n e c o m p a r t m e n t ) . If t h e h o r n s didn't work
a n d fuse F 9 wasn't receiving power, a n o t h e r diagram
w o u l d have t o b e consulted to d e t e r m i n e t h e p o w e r source
for t h e Front Power D i s t r i b u t i o n Box.
2. I'osscr for the h o r n relay control coil comcs from the
ignition switch via a violet wire. Again, a separate diagram
w o u l d have to be examined if n o power svas present on the
violet wire f r o m the ignition switch t o the relay. W i t h t h e
key in the START. R U N , or A C C positions, h o r n relay
terminals 6, 8, and 10 should all have 12 volts.
3. T h e h o r n switch acts as a g r o u n d for terminal 10 of
the h o r n relay via a b r o w n / r e d wire. W h e n this svire makes
contact with a g r o u n d , the relay's contacts d o s e , thereby
c o n n e c t i n g terminals 6 a n d 7 a n d c o m p l e t i n g the h o r n
Fig 8-4. Ths urn<j dagram
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circuit. T h e h o r n switch is loeated in the center of the
steering wheel a n d has four contacts c o n n c c t i n g the
brown/red wire to g r o u n d .
4 . If b o t h h o r n s in the diagram don't work and you want
to bypass the h o r n relay as a means of eliminating it as the
s o u r c c o f a n clcctrical problem, you should c o n n c c t a j u m p e r
wire between relay terminal 6 (red/black wire) and terminal
7 (violet/blue wire) to make t h e m operate. Just be sure t o
hold y o u r h a n d s over your cars t o prevent hearing loss!
WIRING DIAGRAM EXERCISES
T h e most effective way to learn how to read a n d use a
wiring diagram is by practicing. W i t h that in m i n d , the next
several wiring diagrams are followed by a series of questions
for you to answer. Write your answers d o w n on a piece of
paper as you look at each diagram. T h e correct answers to
the questions a n d their analysis can b e f o u n d at the end o f
this chaptcr. W h e n taking tests in school, s o m e of your
teachers probably told you "there are n o trick questions."
Such is not the case here, as there are a few trick questions
designed t o m a k e you think! G o o d luck!
Figures 8 - 5 and 8 - 6 show an actual wiring diagram for a
1975 Ford T h u n d c r b i r d . "I'he engine in this car is carbu-
r e t e d — n o EFI. b u t it does have an electronic ignition. T h e
entire wiring diagram for this v c h i d c is on only two pages.
Reading f r o m left t o right, the following circuits are f o u n d
on the first page: front lighting, ignition system, battery.

charging system. and fuse box. The second page includes
windshield wiper switch, turn signals, instrument lights,
ignition switch, light switch, door switches, and rear lighting.
In 1975. the Ford Motor Company (in its wisdom) decided
that wiring diagrams depicting the operation of switches
were beyond the grasp of automotive technicians. Asa result,
determining which wires connected to what required
deductive reasoning, svhich turned into a guessing game
more often than not.
When anssvering the following questions, consult Figures
8-5 and 8-6. By reviewing the analysis that follows, your
abilities to read and understand wiringdiagrams svill increase.
1. Suppose the headlights don't operate. What fuse and
what color wire posvers the headlight switch? What color
wire from the headlight switch is used to power the loss-
beam circuit for the headlight? What color wire powers the
high beam circuit?
2. If the fuse that powers the backup lights is burned out,
what other systcm(s) would have problems? Hosv does this
fuse get posser?
3. How docs the oil and temp indicator light work?
From svhere docs it receive power? If it's a fuse, where is the
power source for the fuse? Where is the ground return for
the indicator lighr?
4. Hosv docs the stoplight circuit work? What is its
power source? How arc the stoplights switched on?
Figure 8-7 shows a fuel-injected computerized engine
management system for a 1990 Ford E-250 Van. All of Ford's
electronic engine control (F.F.C) sensors and actuators arc
show-n in the diagram. Wiring diagrams for fucl-injcctcd
vehicles almost never show svhat occurs inside the computer
electronically, but many do label each svire at die computers
wiring harness. I~hc labels on these wires arc often referred
to as pin numbers, and each provides hints about what the
svircs arc supposed to do and their expected readings. Some
of the following questions assume a basic knowledge of how
EFI systems operate—(Chapter 7 on EFI may be used as a
rcfcrcncc, if needed.) Anssscring the following EFI-rclatcd
questions will help with the transfer of wiring diagram
reading skills to actual vehides. Again, good luck!
1. How do you test the gear sclcct switch for proper
operation? What pin numbers at the EEC (computer) do
you use for testing? (Hint—Ford sometimes refers to a
ground svire as SIC RET, or signal return. Another hint—
the squiggly lines inside the gear sclcct switdi arc resistors.)
2. "I"hc EEC power relay has posver all the time on the
bl.uk/orangc wire. List the function for each wire going to
142
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this relay. How is the relay controlled? What other compo-
nents docs the relay provide power to?
3. The TPS uses a variable resistor to signal throttle
position to the EEC computer. What function does each of
the three wires at the TPS perform? What other sensor
works the same as the TPS?
4. If the EEC computer cannot supply any of its sensors
with a 5-volt reference signal (Pin 26 VREF), then the
computer should be replaced. However, before replacing
this expensive component, all power inputs and grounds at
the EEC computer wiring harness need to be verified. What
EEC pin numbers would you have to check for posvcr(s)
and ground(s)?
ANSWERS TO WIRING DIAGRAM
QUESTIONS
A n s w e r s for 1 9 7 5 Ford T h u n d e r b i r d in
Figures 8 - 5 and 8-6
Question 1. Posver to the headlight switch comes directly
from the batter) - and not through a fuse. A black/orangc
wire at the starter relay connects a yellow svire that branches
out and goes to the fuse panel, ignition switdi, and
headlight switch. The wire from the headlight switch to
the headlights is red/yellow. This wire goes to the beam
select ssvitch before it goes to the headlights. The
beam select switch directs power to either the high or low
beam circuit at each headlight. Power goes to cither a
red/black wire for the low beams or a light green/black wire
for high beams.
Question 2. Finding the fuse that powers the backup lights
is the first step in ansssering this question. The fuses in this
diagram are not labeled, so you must start at the backup
lights and trace the posver wire to the fuse. The two
backup lights are on the far right side- of the diagram. Each
has two wires—one for posver. the other for ground. The
black wires at each of the backup lights are ground.
Notice that many other lights arc conncctcd to this wire—
thus, the black wire is a common ground. To confirm this,
the ground symbol is located on the black wire at the
bottom right of the diagram.
'Fhc pink/black wire is the posver wire for the backup
lights and goes to the backup light switch (bottom right in
diagram), ' f h c wire from the backup light switch to the fuse
box is pink/orange and it goes in two directions (indicated
by a dot located around the middle left of page two). The
left section of pink/orange wire connects to the fuse on the
right side (bottom of the box). Iliis fuse receives 12 volts
on a grav/ydlosv wire from the ignition switch. With the
key turned O N . the fuse powers up. This same fuse also
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were aMed. Courtesy ot Michel t

143
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Hg 8-6. This «the second page

of We wiring diagram for the
entire orcuitry of We 1975 Fort
ThtfdcrCurd The first page
depots We front half of the
venae including the headhgnts
and engine compartment. Page
two exhibits the ether hatfrtthe
vehde. Muang the instru-
ments, ignition switch,
wndsh&d wiper switch and rear
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provides 12 volts to the direct flasher turn signal. W i t h o u t
power, the turn signals will n o t operate.
Q u e s t i o n 3 . T h e oil a n d t e m p indicator light is located o n
page two of the diagram in the center (toward the left). T h i s
indicator light is powered by a fuse o n the left side of the
fuse box (fourth d o w n f r o m the top). T h e power wire
connecting t h e light to the fuse is red/yellow. This fuse
receives 12 volts f r o m the red/light green wire that comes
f r o m the ignition switch. T h e indicator light is controlled
by the oil pressure switch (on page One. b o t t o m center),
which g r o u n d s the white/red wire ( t u r n i n g o n the indicator
light) when the ignition is first t u r n e d o n . After die engine
starts, oil pressure opens the switch anil breaks the g r o u n d
c o n n c c t i o n , a n d the indicator light goes o u t .
Question 4 . T h i s question is more challenging than
previous ones bccausc the diagram doesn't show h o w the
direct switch (turn-signal switch) operates. If the brake
lights don't work, you'd need to figure o u t h o w the circuit

144
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diagram shows an mgxie management system Coortejy o( Wtdiel 1

145

operates in order to fix it. 'Hie fuse that powers the direct
switch is located in the fuse box, right side, second fuse
from the top. Its connected to the switch via a light
green/red wire. When activated, the stoplight switch sends
power to the direct switch on the light green wire. Because
the diagram doesn't show what happens inside the switch,
the assumption is diat all four taillights will operate as
stoplights when the stoplight switch is closed. Each taillight
has a dual-filament bulb (two separate circuits). The right
taillights stoplight wire is orange/light blue and the left is
light green/orange: both wires go back to the direct switch.
A black wire serves as common ground for all tail- and
stoplights. As long as die direct switch has power from the
stoplight switch and the svircs going from the taillights arc
connected to the direct switch, the stoplights should work.
Answers for
1 9 9 0 Ford E - 2 5 0 Van in Figure 8 - 7
Question 1. The gear sclcct switch is loeated at B-15-
(Diagram reference numbers run hori7ontallv and letters
run vertically.) The light blue/white wire from the gear
select switch goes to EEC Pin 30— NDS (ATT), the
neutral/ drive/safety input for vehicles vvich automatic
transmissions; it prevents engine starting if the transmission
is in gear. The other wire from the gear select switch is
black/svhitc and goes to several locations including: Pin 8
of the E 4 0 D transmission computer, TPS sensor, EGR
valve position sensor, heated oxygen sensor, and EEC Pin
49 (orange wire). Pin 49 is a ground for the heater inside
the O , sensor. Whenever a wire connects to more than one
place, it's probably a ground (though not always!).
To test the switch, conncct an ohmmctcr to Pins 30 and
49 at the EEC. While watching the ohmmctcr, move the
gear selector between all gears. Each time gear position is
changed, the resistance on the ohmmctcr should changc.
Position 1 should have the lowest resistance and PARK (P)
should have highest resistance.
Question 2. The EEC power relay is located at A-12 of the
sviring diagram and has a total of four wires. The wires
function as follows:
• Black/orange svire—Hot at all times from a fuse link
• Red/light green wire—controls or triggers the relay. It is
"hot" from ignition switch in START and RUN positions.
It also posvers the voltage regulator, ignition coil, and
ignition module
• Black/light green wire—provides a ground for the relay's
control coil
146
imr
'-">_' LIOMIb
*wrrr.c*n3 D
• Red wire—powers F.F.C Pins 37 and 67, (VPWR), fuel
injcctors, five solenoids, and E 4 0 D transmission computer
Question 3. The process of elimination is used to
determine the use of each of the three svircs at the TPS. The
three wires are:
• Orange/white—goes to EEC Pin 26 (VREF), 5 volts or
power for the TPS, EGR valve position sensor, and the
MAP manifold pressure sensor
• Dark green/light green—goes to TPS signal wire, EEC
Pin 47. and T P (the signal that indicates throttle position
to the EEC computer)
• Black/white—goes to TPS sensor ground. EEC Pin 48,
and SIG RET (signal return). Ford uses SIG RET to
represent a sensor ground (hint from question 1)
In this case, the orange/white wire is the posver source
for the TPS because the dark green/light green wire is the
signal wire. Another sensor that svorks die same as the TPS
is the exhaust s-ahr position (EVP).
Question 4. By tracing every ssirc to the EEC, you'll note
there are three power wires and four ground svircs. The
three power wires arc:
• Pin 1 (KAPWR—keep alive power—Hot at all times
from a fuse link)
• Pins 37 and 67
• VPWR from the EEC power relay—controlled by
ignition switch
The EEC computer also prosides grounds to some
sensors, but not from the negative battery terminal: they
arc internal grounds within the computer. These wires
don'r provide a ground for the EEC] computer. The svircs
that do provide a ground for the EEC arc as follows:
• Pin 6 (VSS DIF)
• Pin 20 (CASE G N D )
• Pin 40(PWR G N D )
• Pin 60 (PWR G N D )
All of these svircs go dirccdy to the battery's negative
terminal. If any of these power or ground ssircs are not present
at the EEC wiring harness, the EEC computer pnslubly svon't
operate as it should—a possible i.iusc of "no posver" on "Pin
26," the 5-volt reference for the computer sensors.
X I Q ffi 1 Fuse I in
CHAPTER 9
TROUBLESHOOTING
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
LOQIC? WHAT LOQIC?

£
••at
Troubleshooting any complex p r o b l e m requires a logical
approach. W h i l e this m a y seem self-evident, m a n y techni-
cians simply don't have a well-thought-out plan o f attack -p nVi -n • nSi AE--p- qSt
w h e n it comes t o clcctrical problems. O f t e n t i m e s , they start
by disassembling or replacing c o m p o n e n t s while keeping -L
their fingers crossed and h o p i n g for the best. However, if

R
they had only taken the time to carefully analyze a n
clcctrical problem and outline t h e steps required t o solve it,
they w o u l d have f o u n d (as you will find after reading this
book!) that most clcctrical problems arc really pretty basic.
Its helpful to have a routine procedure when
troubleshooting clcctrical problems. A good habit to
develop is to d o t h e easiest and fasresr electrical tests first.
In general, this should provide the most i n f o r m a t i o n with
the least a m o u n t of effort, a n d will either solve t h e p r o b l e m
or at least narrow d o w n its location. However, w i t h o u t a
plan, testing w r o n g circuits a n d n o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g m u l t i -
meter readings only leads t o frustration a n d time wasted.
A l t h o u g h you can't sec current flowing in a circuit, you
can use all y o u r senses to troubleshoor electrical problems,
a n d fortunately, you can also observe the effects of a
a s . u s
circuit. For example: lights illuminate, m o t o r s spin, relays
"click," wires get " h o t " w h e n amperage flows, and so
forth. T o u c h , s o u n d , and sight testing m e t h o d s s h o u l d all Msmfactircrs' wiring digram are some of fiV best electrical tools for under-
b e used simultaneously in c o n j u n c t i o n with the use of sQnt%ng trie nature of any efectncal problem Courtesy ot Mitchell 1
clcctrical test e q u i p m e n t .
In addition to using all your senses (and your wits, if you located o n the same problem circuit. However, the most
haven't lost them by now), other clues undoubtedly exist valuable information about electrical problems can be found
about die nature of a particular problem a n d should be on the vehicle's wiring diagram and clcctrical c o m p o n e n t
explored. First, determine the conditions under which the locator. These two tools will save you loads of time and
clcctrical problem occurs. Docs heat or cold affect die provide possible test points within the problem circuit.
problem? Is it intermittent or docs it only happen under
specific operating conditions? Did it occur right after an after- "THE STARTER THAT DOESN'T":
market accessory was installed or after someone worked o n A CASE STUDY
the vehicle? Evaluate the problem(s) to see if any other circuits C o n s i d e r the following hypothetical scenario: A longtime
or c o m p o n e n t s arc, or may be, affcctcd. Test other related friend calls t o tell you his car won't start. For the past m o n t h
circuits for proper operation since more than o n e thing may the s t a n e r has cranked slowly, and n o w it won't t u r n the
be wrong. Use die owner's manual and service manual as engine over at all. Your friend wants to buy a new battery,
essential rcfcrcncc materials; these can be invaluable for
b u t you tell h i m to wait until you can check it o u t . N o w is
locating fuses and identifying wiring harnesses, connectors,
as good a time as any t o p u t y o u r diagnostic skills to the
junction blocks, fusible links, and other clcctrical components
test, so you head over to inspect his car.

147
 1985 FORD MUSTANG

Component Component Location

Air c o n d i t i o n i n g c o d i n g fan control u n i t O n shake brace, below steering c o l u m n
Electronic control assembly (ECA) U n d e r dtc dashboard
Four-cylinder O n right cowl
V-6 and V-8 U n d e r right front scat
Graphic warning module At t o p center o f console
Low fuel warning m o d u l e Behind right side of dash, above glove box
Speed control amplifier O n left cowl area
Air c o n d i t i o n i n g blower m o t o r resistor U n d e r right side of dash, o n evaporator assembly
Convertible t o p circuit bleaker U n d e r instrument panel, to right of steering c o l u m n
Barometric pressure sensor O n righr front f e n d e r apron
Q t o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e sending u n i t . Four-Cylinder Cylinder head, front
2.3-litcr n o n t u r b o O n rear left side of engine
2.3-liter t u r b o O n rear left side of engine
V-6 O n left side o f cylinder head
V-8 Near left side of distributor
C o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e sensor O n t o p of engine, in front of carimrctor
E G R valve position sensor O n t o p right front of engine
Fuel gauge sending unit In fuel tank
Low oil level s e n d i n g unit O n engine oil pan
Air c o n d i t i o n i n g d u t c h cycling pressure sss-itch At t o p of A / C accumulator
Backup/neurral safety switch O n transmission
Barometric pressure switch O n left shock tower
C l u t c h safety switch Above d u t c h pedal
Dual brake w a r n i n g switch O n f r a m e rail, near left front shock tosver

Some manuals prowto etoctaal component locator charts. He the one shown here The information in ths chart an SJIT tuxrs ol se&cftng tv wrxxtf
etectncal parts

Fig 9-1. When you vwl

concerned Hrtft now much
voltage e present in a circuit, a
test bght is a qui* and cosy way
to verify that power exists at
various test points.

Starter

148

nothing else in the car is turned o n . the large spark has to
be caused by a direct short-circuit to ground, somewhere
on the circuit protected by the fuse link. This short is also
the reason why the original fuse link was blown—the cause
not being old age. Somewhere in the circuit, a power
wire—protected bv the fuse link—may have worn
insulation and its copper strands of wire may have come
into contact with ground.
T h e next step in the discovery process is to find out
exactly where the physical problem with the shorted wire
is located.
To find out svhich wire has shorted to ground, the open
circuit at the melted fuse link needs to be temporarily
reconnected. TTiis can be accomplished via a short finder,
as discussed in Chapter 3. A simple short finder can be
made with a rescttablc circuit breaker or turn-signal Hasher.
T h e short finder takes the place of the fusible link, cycling
on and off as it heats and cools. A turn-signal flasher is
actually easier to use for this purpose, since it clicks on and
off so you can hear it operate. To narrow the problem, each
conncctor that is p a n of the circuit powered by the fuse link
needs to be unplugged one at a time. If unplugging one
stops the short finder from cycling or clicking, then you
have found the section of wire that has shorted to ground.
As shown in the wiring diagram in Figure 9-2, the fuse link
supplies posver to the ignition switch and passenger
compartment fuse box. When each is unplugged (one at a
time!), the short finder keeps cycling or clicking on and off.
This means the short still exists. It also means the wires
going to the ignition switch or fuse box arc not causing the
short. This only leaves the wires going from the battery's
positive terminal to the fuse link as the location of the short.
After taking a closer look at the svires near the burnt fuse
link, some nonfactoiy svires hiding under the battery are
discovered. After asking your friend what they are for. he tells
you he had some aftcrmarkct driving lights installed a few
months ago. Wires not originally equipped svith a vehicle are
always suspect as the cause of electrical problems since one
can never know how much skill or care was taken during
their installation. After pulling the harness out from beneath
the battery, you find a red wire (a nonfactory wire); it has
been pushed up against the battery tray and there is a section
of bare wire where the insulation has worn off from rubbing
against the battery tray. After repairing the broken scction of
wire by replacing it with a new wire and replacing the fuse
link again, the ignition switch now turns the instrument
lights on and starts the engine. Problem solved? Well, almost.
Unfortunately, the engine still cranks too slowly. If you
recall, slow engine-cranking speed was one of the original
complaints your friend had all along. There are three
F i i s p I in
common malfunctions that typically can cause a slow-
turning staner. (1) excessive engine friction, (2) a physical
or electrical problem with the staner, or (3) high resistance
in the starter circuit. The f i n t one, excessive engine friction,
can be eliminated in this case because once the engine starts,
it actually runs smoothly and docs not overheat or have
smoke coming our the exhaust. (A good method for
verifying an absence of excessive friction in the engine is to
turn it over by hand using a socket and breaker bar.)
The second potential source of the problem is a little
trickier. To eliminate the starter as the problem, you need
to know if staner amperage is excessively high or low. If
starter amp draw is high, it's most likely caused by a shotted
staner field coil or armature; if amperage is low, it's
probably caused by unwanted, high resistance somewhere
in the starter circuit.
Hopefully by now. you have an inductive ammeter handy
to measure staner current draw. First, you disconncct die
ignition coil wire going to the distributor so the engine won't
start. T i m will allow enough time for the ammeter to read
starter amps when the engine is cranked over. After damping
the current probe around the batter)- cable at the starter
solenoid, the ammeter is ready to measure staner amperage-
After cranking the staner, the ammeter reads 82 amps; this
seems too low because the engine is a large four-cylindcr
model and normally requires around 125 amps to start.
Funhermore, loss- amperage in the starter circuit indicates the
prcscncc of high resistance. Now it's time to do a voltage drop
test with a voltmeter to isolate unwanted, high resistance. O
A voltage drop test will determine where the high o
resistance is located within the staner drcuit. "I'he positive
3
side of the circuit needs to be checked first; you connect
the red lead of the voltmeter to battery positive and the O
black lead to the battery cable located at the starter motor. -j
Oncc die engine is cranked, the resulting voltage drop is 1A g
volts—too high for this type of circuit. In any circuit, the _
most likely place for high resistance is at a switdt. JJJ
'I'he switch in this staner circuit is the starter solenoid, O
which acts like a relay. The ignition switch sends a 12-volt 9
start signal to the solenoid, which in turn connects the P
positive battery cable directly to the starter. If the contacts P
inside the solenoid are dirty, they could be the cause of the £9
high resistance, so you connect the voltmeter to both sides
of the starter solenoid to repeat the test. Sure enough, the
voltage drop is 0.8 volt, indicating high resistance inside the
starter solenoid. After replacing the solenoid, the starter
cranks at normal speed and the engine starts quickly.
Finally, all problems are solved. Case closed.
As can be seen from the foregoing hypothetical case
study, a logical approach toward diagnosing electrical
151
XTq ffTL M 1 1

" T h r e e T h i n g s " every circuit needs in order to f u n c t i o n —

posver, load device, and g r o u n d return. T h e previous case
study illustrates h o w to check for three c o m m o n problems:
o p e n circuits, shorts to g r o u n d , and unwanted high
resistance. In addition t o these electrical foul-ups. three
other c o m m o n clcctrical problems within circuits exist: 1>
bad grounds, (2) crossoser circuits, and (3) parasitic
amperage draw.

I
z
BAD GROUNDS
Bad g r o u n d connections causc a fair a m o u n t of electrical
> problems. M a n y technicians have trouble checking for bad
10 grounds because, quite frankly, they don't k n o w exactly
what they're looking for. By contrast, checking for poss-cr is
a
u
i0
simple a n d straightforward—either 12 volts arc present or
they are not.
u
3 T h e r e are several ways t o check lor bad g r o u n d s . By far
u t h e most accuratc m e t h o d is the use of a voltmeter to
g
p e r f o r m a voltage d r o p test as outlined in C h a p t e r 2.
p Figure 9 - 6 illustrates h o w to conncct a voltmeter to
g
Thts remote starter solenoid can easily tie checked for high resistance usng a measure voltage d r o p o n t h e g r o u n d side of a h o r n circuit.
voltage drop test The contacts Inside the solenoid should not exceed a drop olIt's i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r the horn must be operational
1
—i
02 volt dwrtg starter cracking for a voltage d r o p test to w o r k . A good g r o u n d return will
m have almost n o voltage present. If the h o r n (the load device
3
O in this circuit) hasn't used u p all as-ailablc voltage, the

(e

I
problems is always more productive than a haphazard
m e t h o d . In the sample no-start case, it t u r n e d o u t there
were several things w r o n g with the vehicle. Hosvever, the
step-by-stcp approach and methodical checks uncovered all
the problems and little time was wasted unnecessarily
replacing c o m p o n e n t s . Be sure t o always keep in m i n d the
g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n is b a d . a n d the bad g r o u n d is using
voltage i n t e n d e d for t h e h o r n . Consequently, the h o r n
s o u n d s sveak because it doesn't have e n o u g h voltage to
operate at its full potential.
A test light can be used in place of a voltmeter t o check
for a bad g r o u n d , b u t it has inherent limitations. W h e n

152

leads need to be moved to the other half of the conncctor.
I'he meter should now beep, confirming the green and
blue/yellow wires are touching each other somewhere
between the conncctor and trunk or backup lights. By
wiggling the wiring harness while listening to the meter, you
can determine exactly where the wires arc touching and
causing the crossover. The meter will beep intermittently
when the wires arc wiggled, indicating the location of the
bad section of wiring harness. By simply unraveling the
wiring harness, you can repair the broken wire insulation
with some clcctrical tape to fix the related clcctrical problem.
PARASITIC A M P DRAW
Parasitic amp draw occurs often enough that knowing how to
diagnose it svhen it occurs should prove helpful. For example,
a car or truck that hasn't been driven for a few days may not
stan up because of a dead battery. Something may base l>cen
left on, drawing posser front the batter)'. This condition is
known as a parasitic amperage draw. This problem is
commonly caused by trunk, dome, or glosc box lights that
don't switch off1when they should; unfortunately, it usually isn't
noticed until it's too late and the batter)' has beat completely
drained. Parasitic amp draw can also be causcd by a relay stuck
on "on." Relays are often used to control posser to lighting and
EFI computers. A relay that is stuck on "on" while the ignition
is in the OFF position will also drain the batter)-.
Similarly, onboard fuel injection computers, digital radio
jfl memory, and other computer-related memory components
IH all use posver from the battery to keep their electronic
to memories alive. Normally, this should not affea a battery's
ability to start an engine, even after several months. Standard
^ battery amperage draw should not exceed 75 milliamps
g (0.075 amps) and is usually less than 40 milliamps.
£ Amperage loads exceeding 75 milliamps will draw current
O from the battery, leaving it dead after only a few days.
Ui
To find a parasitic amp draw, a series ammeter, test light,
™ and jumper wire are needed. Also, some digital multimeters
X can read scries amperage up to 10 amps. These meters are
£ usually (but not always) protected by an internal fuse, so
0 that when connected to a circuit with more than 10 amps,
1
0) the fuse melts instead of the meter.
Ej How Much Amperage?
O Before finding the cause of an unwanted amp draw, you
h- first need to determine approximately how much amperage
I
is being sucked out of the battery. Knowing the amount of
amperage draw helps narrow dosvn the type of clcctrical
component that is most likely causing the draw and also
helps present a blown fuse in a scries ammeter.
156
Fiiqp I ir
To do this, first disconnect cither the negative or positive
batter)- cable. Connect one end of a test light to the bancry
terminal and the other to the battery cablc. If the amperage
draw is high enough (above 4 amps), the test light will light
up. O n some vehicles, a computer-controlled relay may
tum on. causing the test light to light up. To eliminate this
occurrence as a potential cause of an amperage draw,
temporarily connect a jumper svire between the battery
terminal and hattcry cablc while leaving the test light in
place (see Figure 9-13). After removing the jumper wire, the
test light may go out. If the test light stays on, die amperage
draw is above 4 amps. However, be warned! Since you don't
know how much in exccss of 4 amps arc present in the
circuit, don't connect a series ammeter to the system as it
could cause an internal fuse to blow!
If the test light goes out. the amp draw is less than 4
amps; unfortunately, it may still be high enough to cause a
dead battery. To find the parasitic draw, connect the leads
of a series ammeter to the battery terminal and battery cable
before removing the test light. This will keep the relay (if
one is used) from coming on. If the ammeter reads between
1.5 and 0.8 amps, a light of some type is probably stuck on,
causing the draw. If amperage is closer to 4 amps, suspect a
bad alternator diode as the cause of the draw.
Locating the Parasitic D r a w
With cither a test light connected in scries with the battery-
terminal and cable (svhen the draw is above 4 amps), or a
series ammeter connected in the same manner (when amp
draw is less than 4 amps), the process of locating the
source of the problem begins. While watching the test
light/ammeter, disconnect the wires going to the alter-
nator. If the light goes out or the meter reading changes,
then a leaky diode in the alternator is causing the
amperage draw. If disconnecting the alternator doesn't
change the test light or ammeter, start removing fuses
from the fuse box (undcr-hood fuse box first, then
passenger compartment fuses). If the test light or meter
changes when a specific fuse is removed, then the circuit
causing the problem has been isolated. Use a wiring
diagram to determine which electrical components are
posvered by the fuse and start unplugging them one at a
lime—note any changes in the state of the test light or
ammeter. If unplugging an ignition key chime or trunk
light makes the test light go out or changes the ammeter
readings, the parasitic amperage draw has been identified
and the problem can be fixed. Oftentimes a relay, switch,
or solid-state component needs to be replaced to eliminate
the parasitic amperage draw.
SOURCES
I would like to thank the following companies for help
with the images and information contained in this book.
Without their assistance, many of the images would have
been difficult to obtain. All of these companies offer great
products and services for both professional and do-it-your-
self technicians. Many offer free catalogs or other
information on the web; check it out.
FLUKE.
Fluke Corporation
Fluke Corporation is the world leader in the manufacture,
distribution and service of electronic test tools and software.
Since its founding in 1948, Fluke has helped define and
grow a unique technology market, providing testing
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critical status in manufacturing and service industries.
Every new manufacturing plant, office, hospital, or facility
built today represents another potential customer for
Fluke products.
From industrial electronic installation, maintenance,
and service to precision measurement and quality
control. Fluke tools help keep business and industry
around the globe up and running. Typical customers and
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reputation for portability, ruggedness. safety, ease of use
and rigid standards of quality.
Fluke Corporation
P.O. Box 9090
6920 Seaway Blvd.
Everett, WA, 98206-9090
800-44-Fluke
svww.fluke.com
[Mmm
The First Choice of Automotive Professionals
Mitchell 1
Mitchell I began in 1918 with the simple idea that people
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Mitchell 1 has provided information solutions to help make
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157
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800-230-3030
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CARQUEST Auto Parts
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supplies the professional • ^^^fflTlO'*^^ ~ purpose tools, pullers, heavy duty tools, shop equipment,
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W a l l e r . A Division of Cooper Hand Tools
Weller has come a long way from its humble beginning
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SPX
o v c
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www.nwreg.com
INDEX
12-volt [XI circuit!. 11-18 IX! generators. 69-71 Oxygen (O,) teiuor. 12£. 127. L22
AC circuits. IS Testing. 21 Temperature tentor. Lii. 126
Alternators. Z2_Zi Vokapc rcgulanKs. II Throttle position sensor (TPS). 124. 125
Chrysler. cofnputcr-control lod, 22 Deko-Remy. 87-89 Vehicle speed sensor (VSS). Ltf
Oir)ilfr. external regulator. 2Q Ford Motoe Company. L1L 11*. 82. SL 128. Starting (yiteim. ')J-95
Deko-Remy CIS. 8- 39 130. 133. 148 Motor. 22
Ford, external regulator. S2 Furl injection trwems. 11*>-1 SS Normal amperage draw, 24
Ford-Motorcraft, IAR. S2. UU Electronic (EM). 1211.1M Slow nirning-high amperage. 21.25
Full fvctding, 84,85 Normal operating temperature. L22 Slow turning-low amperage, 25
Gttictk. 85 Starting. 121. L22 Solenoid*. 23
GM. dekotron with internalregulator.HZ Warming up and dris-ing, L22 Testing. 21
CM, cjicrrul regulator. 85-87 Injcctor pulse, 134. l i i Storage battery, 58-68
Toting, 81-84 Getseral Motors (GM). 85-87. 110. LLL 128. Tools. 47-57
Battery condition, KT 82 Ammeter. 45. 46.78
Bcli tenaion. Generator, polariring, 21± 22 Auto-range. 4JL12
Genetic. &L 84 Ground return. LL Id Battety tester, i i S-J
Witts. fuses. connectors, and fusible Ignition system, ''fv-1 UJ Coil tester. 50. 51
link*. 82. 61 Chrysler. 112-116 DVOM, 4Q
Voltage regulators. Coils. 97-99 Fluke multimetei. 42—15
Computcr-cnntrollcd. ZL 78 Testing, generk. 1QI Rotary dial positions. 42-44
Electronic, 26. — Conderoer. 101. 102 Terminal Jacks. 44.15
Internal, 2Z. 78 Disabling. 24 Jumper wires and actoaotio. 42. 50
Mechanical. 75. 26 Electronic and computer controls. 102-104 lob scope (oscilloscope). 54. 55. 56
Amperage. 16 Fold. L1L. 112 Logk probe. 46
GM. 110. LU Multimeter. 421
Charging, <i-'-/i4 Modules. 1QZ Noid lights. 46.42
Chemical reactions, 60. 61 Testing. "Tap*. 108-110 Ohmmeter. 22. 28
Discharging, 61.62 Testing. Generic. lflZ. 108 Oscilloscope (lab scope). 54. 55. 56
Electrolyte solution, 62 rbinci. 101. 102 Short finder. 47-49
Rating*, 61 Secondary circuit, 1 lfi-1 IK Soldering, 55-57
Tearing Trigger. 104-106 Spark tester. 51. 52
Dynamic. 67 AC pickup cod. 105, 110 Tot lights, 4M-40. 51
Handheld tester* 67. 63 Hall-effect .witch, 105, U& Timing light. 52. 51
State of clurge. 65-6" Optical tensors. 126. 10" Voltmeter. 28, 29, 42. 78.12
Typea.6d.65 Iliad devke, 1J Troubleshooting. 147-156
Absorbent pi a" mac (AGM). 6±, 65 Ohms Law. I0-7S Bad grounds 153
Conventional. I W i source, 12. 11 Case study. 11L 149-152
Gd. 65 Regulator, toting. 22.2J Crossosvr circuits. 153-156
Carburetor. L2Q Resistance. 16 Logk. 112
Charge indicator*. 78-81 Parasitic amp draw.
Roistance/amps relationship, 16-18
Amount. Liii
Light. 78-81 Sensor toting. 124-144
locating. 156
Charging tjwim. 62=22 BARO tensor, 128
Voltage drop toting. 2(v- V<
Chrysler. 22, "2-1 Ml 128. 131. 132. 133 Idle air control (IAC), H i
Ground tide. 12.11
Circuits, 20-25 Knock tensor (KS). Hi. LM
CIOMOW. 153-156 MAP tcntor. 127. 128. LM) locating bad twitch. 55. iil
DC IS. 12 Chryslei, 128, Li] I\niti»e side, 12
Parallel. 21-24 Ford. 128. Lifi Voltage. LL 16
Series. 20.21 GM. 128. LIU Wiring diagrams. I Vv-UlS
Series/parallel. 2-4. 25 Mats airflow (MAF) tensor. LiL Lii Exerciso, 141. 142
Toting dinamically. W-42 Ford. L13 Am»«rv 142. 144.146
Componcnet locator chart. LIS GM. LiL Lil Reading. 14?-14l

159
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