Background Of Synchronous Generator

With the development of the technology and the way in which human labor is
getting minimized and the comforts increasing tremendously the use of
electrical energy is ever increasing. Basically electric power is the main source
of energy for carrying out many functions, as it is a clean and efficient energy
source, which can be easily transmitted over long distances. With the
availability of Transformer for changing the voltage levels to a very high value
(of say 132kV to 500kV) the use of AC power has increased rapidly and the DC
power is used only at remote places where AC power cannot be supplied
through power lines or cables or for a few social purposes.

Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the
discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. The early machines
were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii.

Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle”, whose operation was hetero polar
- each active conductor passed successively through regions where the
magnetic field was in opposite directions. The first public demonstration of a
more robust "alternator system" took place in 1886. Large two-phase
alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H.
Gordon, in 1882. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early
alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz. In 1891, Nikola
Tesla patented a practical "high-frequency" alternator (which operated
around 15 kHz). After 1891, poly phase alternators were introduced to supply
currents of multiple differing phases. Later alternators were designed for
varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen and about one
hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric
motors. Alternator is also known as synchronous generator.

A synchronous generator is an electrical machine producing alternating e.m.f

(Electromotive force or voltage) of constant frequency. The name Sync is
because of this machine to operate with a constant speed synchronized with
the frequency of the alternating voltage applied to the terminals of the same.
In our country the standard commercial frequency of AC supply is 60 Hz. The
AC voltages generated may be single phase or 3-phase depending on the
power supplied. For low power applications single phase generators are
preferable.
Synchronous generators are powered at constant rate and pull its excitation
from outside or external power source, or separate of the load or conduction
grid it is supplying. A component called “exciter” enables the synchronous
generator to generate its own reactive energy. The exciter also regulates its
own power. Synchronous generators can either be operated from utility grids
or unconnected.

The difference between a synchronous generator and an induction generator

is that induction generators generate only “one third” of the total amount of
power requirement of a facility, while synchronous generators can generate
or produce as much as a hundred percent of the total power of a facility.
Synchronous generators are ideal for those who are worried on the subject of
blackout and long power disruptions. These types of power generating
machines are also excellent for increasing the power consumption of
industries.

Synchronous generators can generate or produce active and reactive energy

autonomously. The synchronized torques within the power generator
provides huge amount of power. The revolution speed of these power
generators determines the amount of power it generates.

However, on small scale synchronous generators, the current are supplied

from an external source by installing insulated copper rings on the units’
generator shaft.
Construction of Synchronous Generator

FUNCTIONS OF ALTERNATOR COMPONENTS

A typical rotating-field AC generator consists of an alternator and a smaller
DC generator built into a single unit. The output of the alternator section
supplies alternating voltage to the load. The only purpose for the DC exciter
generator is to supply the direct current required to maintain the alternator
field. This DC generator is referred to as the exciter. A typical alternator is
shown in figure 3-3, view A; figure 3-3, view B, is a simplified schematic of the
generator.

Figure 3-3.—Ac generator pictorial and schematic drawings.

ALTERNATOR ROTORS
Part of the spinning machine, consisting of a ferromagnetic material wrapped
in a coil called the field winding, which is designed to produce a constant
magnetic field as well as in the case of direct current generator to interact
with the field produced by stator winding. The voltage in this winding is
continuous and the current supported by the winding is much smaller than
the stator winding, the rotor also can contain two or more windings, where an
even number and all connected in series with each winding will be
responsible the production of one of the poles of the electromagnet.

There are two types of rotors used in rotating-field alternators. They are
called the turbine-driven and salient-pole rotors.

The turbine-driven rotor shown in figure 3-4, view A, is used when the prime
mover is a high-speed turbine. The windings in the turbine-driven rotor are
arranged to form two or four distinct poles. The windings are firmly
embedded in slots to withstand the tremendous centrifugal forces
encountered at high speeds.

The salient-pole rotor shown in figure 3-4, view B, is used in low-speed

alternators. The salient-pole rotor often consists of several separately wound
pole pieces, bolted to the frame of the rotor.

If you could compare the physical size of the two types of rotors with the same
electrical characteristics, you would see that the salient-pole rotor would have
a greater diameter. At the same number of revolutions per minute, it has a
greater centrifugal force than does the turbine-driven rotor. To reduce this
force to a safe level so that the windings will not be thrown out of the
machine, the salient pole is used only in low-speed designs.

Figure 3-4.—Types of rotors used in alternators.

Stator (armature)
Fixed part of the machine, mounted around the rotor so that it can rotate
inside, also made of a ferromagnetic material wrapped in a set of coils
distributed along its circumference. The stator windings are fed by a system of
three-phase AC voltages.

For the stator runs all the electricity generated, and both the voltage and
electric current is moving quite high in relation to the field (rotor), whose
function is only to produce a magnetic field to excite the machine so it was
possible to induce voltages at the terminals of the stator windings.

Compare, for example, a large generator in which circulating 18kV and 6556A
against the stator 350V and 1464A rotor.

Principle of operation
Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators,
namely, when the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is
induced in the conductor. Typically, a rotating magnet called the rotor turns
within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the
stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF, as the
mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.

The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Often
there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating
magnetic field produces three phase currents, displaced by one-third of a
period with respect to each other.

The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless"

alternator), by permanent magnets (in very small machines), or by a rotor
winding energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. The
rotor magnetic field may even be provided by stationary field winding, with
moving poles in the rotor. Automotive alternators invariably use a rotor
winding, which allows control of the alternator generated voltage by varying
the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the
loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, owing
to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is
constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator.
Brushless AC generators are usually larger machines than those used in
automotive applications.

Diagram of a simple alternator with a rotating magnetic core (rotor) and stationary wire (stator) also
showing the current induced in the stator by the rotating magnetic field of the rotor.

FAULTS ON SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Some common fault types are classified as:

• Phase Faults

• Ground Faults

• Loss of Excitation

• Over excitation

• Over voltage

• Unbalanced Currents

• Abnormal Frequencies

• Motoring

• Dead Machine Energization

• Breaker Failures
• System Faults

In addition to the above faults and disturbance conditions, several other

conditions should be considered. Examples of these are: loss of synchronism,
overload, inter-turn faults, stator and rotor thermal protection, and field
ground.

PHASE FAULT
Phase faults in a generator stator winding can cause thermal
damage to insulation, windings, and the core, and mechanical
tensional shock to shafts and couplings. Trapped flux within the
machine can cause fault current to flow for many seconds after the
generator is tripped and the field is disconnected.
GROUND-FAULT
One of the main causes of ground faults is insulation failure. The
zero sequence impedance of a generator is usually lower than the
positive or negative sequence impedance for a solidly grounded
generator and hence the single phase to ground-fault current is
greater than the three phase fault current. To limit the ground-fault
current, generators are usually grounded through impedance.
LOSS-OF-FIELD (EXCITATION)
Loss of excitation on a synchronous machine can be caused by
operator error, excitation system failure, a short in the field leads,
accidental tripping of the field breakers, or flashover of the exciter
commutator. When the machine loses its excitation, the rotor
accelerates and the synchronous machine operates as an induction
generator. As a result, the machine draws inductive reactive power
from the system instead of supplying it to the system. Also heavy
currents are induced in the rotor teeth and wedges and can cause
thermal damage to the machine if the machine continues to operate.

OVER-EXCITATION
When the ratio of the voltage to frequency (volts/Hz) exceeds 1.05
pu for a generator, severe overheating can occur due to saturation of
the magnetic core of the generator and the subsequent inducement
of stray flux in components not designed to carry flux. Such over
excitation most often occurs during start-up or shut down while the
unit is operating at reduced frequencies, or during a complete load
rejection which leaves transmission lines connected to the
generating station. Failure in the excitation system can also cause
over excitation.
OVER-VOLTAGE
Generator overvoltage may occur during a load rejection or
excitation control failure. In case of hydro generators, upon load
rejection the generator may speed up and the voltage can reach high
levels without necessarily exceeding the generator’s V/Hz limit.
UNBALANCED CURRENTS
Unbalanced faults and other system conditions can cause
unbalanced three-phase currents in the generator. The negative
sequence components of these currents cause double-frequency
currents in the rotor that can lead to severe overheating and
damage. The negative sequence over-current function is provided to
protect the unit before the specified limit for the machine is reached.
ABNORMAL FREQUENCY:
Full or partial load rejection can lead to over speed of the generator,
and hence, over frequency operation. In general, over frequency
operation does not pose any serious problems and control action
can be taken to reduce the generator speed and frequency to normal
without tripping the generator. Generators are shipped with over
speed detectors. An over frequency relay can be used to supplement
this over speed equipment.
Overloading of a generator, perhaps due to loss of system
generation and insufficient load shedding, can lead to prolonged
operation of the generator at reduced frequencies. This can cause
particular problems for gas or steam turbine generators, which are
susceptible to damage from operation outside of their normal
frequency band.
DEAD MACHINE ENERGIZATION
If a dead machine is accidentally energized (energized while on
turning gear), it will start and behave as an induction motor. During
the period when the machine is accelerating, very high currents are
induced in the rotor and the machine may be damaged very quickly.
MOTORING
If the power input to the prime mover is removed while the
generator is still on line, the generator will act as a synchronous
motor and drive and possibly damage the prime mover. The percent
of rated power required to motor varies depending on the type of
prime mover.
GENERATOR PROTECTION:
The generator protection system design should take into account by the types
of faults and abnormal operating conditions that could be present at the
generating plants. The protection system design will depend on the size and
relative value of the generating unit. Large critical units tend to have extensive
protection systems with redundancy provided by having primary and backup
protective functions. Smaller, less critical units may have a subset of the
primary protection provided for the larger unit with little, if any, backup
protection.

The “IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection” ANSI C37.102 [1] is one of the
premier documents available to the protection engineer for guidance in
generator protection system design.

PRIMARY AND BACKUP PROTECTION:

The “primary protection” is the protective function designed as the “first
choice” for detection of a designated fault type in the protection zone. This
protection trips the appropriate breakers to clear faults in the protected zone
only. The primary protection is typically the fastest protective function for
detecting the designated fault type. “Backup protection” is a form of
protection that operates independently of the primary protective function.
Backup protection may trip breakers outside the protected zone. Backup
protection may be slower to operate than the primary protection so that the
primary protection has the first chance to operate.
Generator Protection Schemes.
The following are the main protection schemes adopted for our generator.

1. Generator Differential Protection

2. Generator & Transformer Differential Protection
3. Loss of Field or Loss of Excitation Protection
4. Negative Sequence or Current Unbalance Protection
5. Over Fluxing or Over Excitation Protection
6. Over Current Protection
7. Stator Earth Fault Protection
8. Rotor Earth Fault Protection (64R)
9. Restricted Earth Fault Protection
10. Backup Impedance Protection
11. Low Forward Power Protection
12. Reverse Power Protection
13. Pole Slip Protection
14. Pole Discrepancy Protection
15. Local Breaker Back Protection
16. Bus Bar Protection
17. Over Frequency Protection
18. Under Frequency Protection
19. Over Voltage Protection