Completion Fluids Operations Manuals STAP P 1 M 20091

S P E O IDENTIFICATION CODE PAG 2 OF 167
ENI S.p.A.
E & P Division REVISION
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................7
1.1 PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL..................................................................................... 7
1.2 IMPLEMENTATION..................................................................................................... 7
1.3 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL & DEROGATION ........................................ 7
2. DEFINITIONS ...........................................................................................................8
2.1 COMPLETION FLUID.................................................................................................. 8
2.2 PACKER FLUID .......................................................................................................... 8
2.3 NATURE OF COMPLETION FLUIDS AND PACKER FLUIDS .................................. 8
2.4 BRINE .......................................................................................................................... 8
2.5 PURPOSE OF THE COMPLETION FLUID ................................................................. 8
2.6 PURPOSE OF THE PACKER FLUID.......................................................................... 8
3. GENERALITIES AND PROPERTIES OF COMPLETION FLUIDS ..........................10

3.1 GUIDELINES FOR COMPLETION FLUIDS SELECTION .......................................... 13
3.1.1 SOLIDS-LADEN COMPLETION FLUIDS ....................................................................... 13
3.1.2 SOLIDS-FREE COMPLETION FLUIDS .......................................................................... 13
3.1.3 GUIDE CHART FOR SELECTING COMPLETION FLUIDS........................................... 14
4. CALCULATION OF DENSITY..................................................................................16
4.1 DENSITY OF REFERENCE ........................................................................................ 16
4.2 THERMAL EXPANSION OF AQUEOUS COMPLETION FLUIDS ............................. 18
4.3 THERMAL EXPANSION OF OIL BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS ............................ 19
4.4 THERMAL EXPANSION OF EMULSIONS ................................................................. 20
4.5 CONTROL OF THE DENSITY OF THE COMPLETION FLUID .................................. 22
5. FILTRATION OF SOLIDS-FREE COMPLETION FLUIDS .......................................23

5.1 TYPES OF SOLIDS ..................................................................................................... 23
5.2 FILTRATION OF COMPLETION FLUIDS ................................................................... 24
6. COMPATIBILITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS WITH ROCKS AND CONNATE

FLUIDS .....................................................................................................................35
6.1 MAIN CAUSES OF FORMATION DAMAGE .............................................................. 35
6.2 DAMAGE ASSOCIATED WITH FOREIGN FLUID FILTRATE ................................... 35
6.2.1 FILTRATES OF WATER BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS............................................. 35
6.3 FORMATION PARTICLES MIGRATION .................................................................... 36
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6.3.1 EFFECT OF WATER ....................................................................................................... 36

6.3.2 WATER BLOCKING ........................................................................................................ 40
6.3.2.1 FILTRATE OF OIL BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS ................................... 41
6.3.3 INCREASED FLUID VISCOSITY .................................................................................... 42
6.3.3.1 SLUDGE ...................................................................................................... 42
6.3.4 FILTRATE OF OIL-BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS ...................................................... 43
6.4 SCALE DEPOSITION.................................................................................................. 43
6.4.1 CAUSES OF SCALE DEPOSITION ................................................................................ 44
6.4.2 TENDENCY TO SCALE .................................................................................................. 44
6.4.3 PREDICTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SCALE ......................................................... 45
6.5 ASPHALTENE PLUGGING......................................................................................... 46
6.6 WAXES (PARAFFINS) ................................................................................................ 46
6.7 DIAGNOSIS OF FORMATION DAMAGE ................................................................... 46
6.8 FORMATION DAMAGE REDUCTION ........................................................................ 47
6.8.1 USE OF SURFACTANTS FOR WELL TREATMENTS .................................................. 47
6.8.1.1 ROCK WETTABILITY .................................................................................. 47
6.8.1.2 MECHANICS OF EMULSIONS ................................................................... 48
6.8.2 FORMATION DAMAGE SUSCEPTIBLE TO SURFACTANT TREATMENT ................. 48
6.8.2.1 OIL-WETTING OF FORMATION ROCK ..................................................... 49
6.8.2.2 WATER BLOCKS ........................................................................................ 49
6.8.2.3 VISCOUS EMULSION BLOCKS ................................................................. 49
6.8.2.4 PARTICLES BLOCK.................................................................................... 50
6.8.3 SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SURFACTANT-RELATED DAMAGE......................................... 50
6.8.3.1 SELECTION OF AN EMULSION BREAKING SURFACTANT.................... 51
6.8.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR WELL TREATING SURFACTANTS......................................... 51
7. CARRYING CAPACITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS ...............................................52

7.1 AN OUTLINE OF RHEOLOGY.................................................................................... 52
7.2 SOLID TRANSPORTATION........................................................................................ 55
7.3 VISCOSIFYING COMPLETION FLUIDS..................................................................... 64
8. CHOICE OF THE BRINE ..........................................................................................68

8.1 THERMAL STABILITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS AND COMPATIBILITY
BETWEEN VARIOUS BRINES ................................................................................... 68
8.1.1 CRYSTALLIZATION TEMPERATURE ........................................................................... 68
8.2 HEAT OF DISSOLUTION AND HYGROSCOPICITY ................................................. 70
8.2.1 CALCIUM-FREE FLUIDS: INTERACTION WITH HIGH CARBONATE / HIGH SULPHATE
ION FORMATION ............................................................................................................ 71
8.2.2 ORGANIC SALTS (FORMATES) .................................................................................... 72
8.2.3 AMMONIUM CHLORIDE ................................................................................................. 73
8.2.4 COMPATIBILITY AMONG THE DIFFERENT SALTS .................................................... 73
8.3 HOW CORRECT THE DENSITY OF A BRINE ........................................................... 74
8.4 PERFORMING CALCULATION FOR BLENDING FLUIDS........................................ 74
9. INTERACTIONS OF COMPLETION FLUIDS AND PACKER FLUIDS WITH

COMPLETION EQUIPMENTS..................................................................................77
9.1 CORROSIVITY ............................................................................................................ 77
9.1.1 PACKER FLUIDS ............................................................................................................ 77
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9.1.2 CLEAR BRINE CORROSION.......................................................................................... 78

9.1.2.1 OXYGEN CORROSION .............................................................................. 78
9.1.2.2 ACID CORROSION ..................................................................................... 79
9.1.3 CORROSION IN HALIDE BASED CLEAR BRINES ...................................................... 79
9.1.3.1 CORROSION IN FORMATE BASED CLEAR BRINES............................... 80
9.1.3.2 CORROSION IN CONTAMINATED PACKER FLUID................................. 81
9.1.4 PACKER FLUID CHEMICAL TREATMENTS................................................................. 82
9.1.5 PACKER FLUIDS AND MATERIAL CORROSION PERFORMANCE ........................... 83
9.1.5.1 RULES AND ADVICE .................................................................................. 83
9.2 COMPATIBILITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS WITH ELASTOMERS ........................ 84
9.2.1 TYPES OF FLUIDS.......................................................................................................... 85
9.2.1.1 BROMIDES.................................................................................................. 85
9.2.1.2 FORMATES ................................................................................................. 85
9.2.1.3 BRINES........................................................................................................ 86
9.2.1.4 OIL FIELD MUDS ........................................................................................ 86
9.2.1.5 AROMATIC SOLVENTS.............................................................................. 86
9.2.1.6 DIESEL ........................................................................................................ 86
9.2.2 CRITERIA OF SELECTION............................................................................................. 87
10. PREPARATION OF SALT SOLUTIONS ..................................................................91

10.1 SELECTION OF THE MIX WATER............................................................................. 91
10.2 DENSITY CONTROL................................................................................................... 91
10.3 PH CONTROL ............................................................................................................. 91
10.3.1 DEFINITION OF PH ......................................................................................................... 91
10.3.2 DETERMINATION OF PH OF SALT SOLUTIONS......................................................... 93
10.4 T URBIDITY CONTROL .............................................................................................. 95
10.5 VISCOSIFICATION...................................................................................................... 95
10.6 FILTRATION................................................................................................................ 96
10.7 ADDITION OF OTHER ADDITIVES ............................................................................ 97
11. DISPLACEMENT......................................................................................................98
11.1 DISPLACEMENT OF THE COMPLETION FLUID IN THE WELL .............................. 98
11.2 DISPLACEMENT OPERATION AND WELL CLEAN UP ........................................... 99
11.2.1 CLEANING OF SURFACE EQUIPMENT AND CONDITIONING OF MUD.................... 99
11.2.2 SPACERS, PILLS AND CHEMICAL WASHERS ........................................................... 99
11.2.2.1 SIMPLE FIELD TEST TO VERIFY THE COMPATIBILITY OF SURFACTANTS
..................................................................................................................... 100
11.2.3 DISPLACING TECHNIQUES........................................................................................... 101
11.2.4 DIRECT AND REVERSE DISPLACEMENT ................................................................... 101
11.2.5 DISPLACEMENT OF BRINE........................................................................................... 102
11.3 A TWO STEP PROCEDURE (WITH SEAWATER FLUSH)........................................ 102
11.4 A ONE STEP PROCEDURE (WITHOUT SEAWATER FLUSH)................................. 103
12. FLUID LOSS CONTROL ..........................................................................................104

12.1 FLUID LOSS RECOGNITION ..................................................................................... 104
12.2 USE OF VISCOUS PILLS FOR FLUID LOSS CONTROL.......................................... 105
12.3 USE OF SOLID PLUGGING MATERIALS FOR FLUID LOSS CONTROL ................ 106
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12.4 POLYMERS FOR SOLID PLUGGING MATERIALS IN SUSPENSION ..................... 108

12.5 SELECTING RIGHT PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (PSD) OF SOLID
PLUGGING MATERIALS ............................................................................................ 109
12.6 WELL CONTROL ........................................................................................................ 112
13. QUALITY AND COSTS OF THE BRINES................................................................113
14. ENVIRONMENTAL ...................................................................................................115

14.1 GLOSSARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL TERMS ............................................................. 115
14.2 BRINE AND HSE......................................................................................................... 120
15. COMPLETION FLUID TRADEMARK COMPARISON .............................................123
APPENDIX - A.– EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF BRINES ...................128

A.1 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE BRINES ...... 128
A.2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF KCL BRINES ................................. 129
A.3 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF CACL2 BRINES ............................ 130
A.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF CACL2/CABR2 BRINES ............... 131
A.5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF CACL2/CABR2/ZNBR2 BRINES .. 132
APPENDIX - B.-TABLES FOR BRINE PREPARATION ..................................................133

B.1 SODIUM CHLORIDE ................................................................................................... 133
B.2 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE ............................................................................................ 133
B.3 SODIUM BROMIDE..................................................................................................... 134
B.4 POTASSIUM BROMIDE.............................................................................................. 135
B.5 CALCIUM CHLORIDE................................................................................................. 136
B.6 POTASSIUM CARBONATE........................................................................................ 137
B.7 CALCIUM BROMIDE................................................................................................... 138
B.8 SODIUM CHLORIDE / CALCIUM CHLORIDE............................................................ 139
B.9 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE / POTASSIUM BROMIDE.................................................. 139
B.10 SODIUM CHLORIDE / SODIUM BROMIDE................................................................ 140
B.11 SODIUM CHLORIDE / POTASSIUM CHLORIDE ....................................................... 141
B.12 SODIUM CHLORIDE / SODIUM BROMIDE................................................................ 142
B.13 CALCIUM CHLORIDE / CALCIUM BROMIDE ........................................................... 143
B.14 CALCIUM BROMIDE / ZINC BROMIDE ..................................................................... 152
B.15 ZINC BROMIDE / SODIUM BROMIDE / POTASSIUM BROMIDE ............................. 153
B.16 ZINC BROMIDE / POTASSIUM BROMIDE ................................................................ 153
B.17 ZINC BROMIDE / SODIUM BROMIDE ....................................................................... 154
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B.18 SODIUM FORMATE / POTASSIUM FORMATE ......................................................... 156

B.19 CAESIUM FORMATE / POTASSIUM FORMATE....................................................... 157
B.20 COMPATIBILITY AMONG THE DIFFERENT SALTS ................................................ 158
APPENDIX - C. - ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................166
APPENDIX - D. - REFERENCES ......................................................................................167

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL

This manual is not a training document, but is intended to be instructional and aimed
at engineers and technicians who are already familiar with completion fluid
technology. It is particularly intended to meet with Eni-E&P Division’s operational
requirements.
This manual addresses the Company’s fluid operators and all those involved in the
supervision of the work carried out by and in the planning or evaluation of the
completion fluids and packer fluids to be employed. However, it does not aim to be a
comprehensive all encompassing document giving information on the entire subject,
but aims to provide sufficient information to support the company’s technicians in
better use of fluid technology.
However, this manual only provides the necessary information to evaluate the
advantages and limitations of the various fluid systems, to ensure completion
operations in optimized performance, to reduce reservoir damage and in an
environmental friendly and cost effective manner.
This document does not describe the decision making process but summarises it
through the use of flow charts and forms, organised in a logical sequence. The
reader may select a single form or use the entire sequence in order to determine the
best solution. The method adopted, herein, will be explained in the following ‘Guide
to Using the Manual’. This document does not include standard industry calculations
or charts relating to volumes and capacities or information relating to completion
fluids and packer fluids which are available in industry handbooks.
1.2 IMPLEMENTATION
The guideline and policies specified herein will be applicable to all Eni-E&P Division
and Affiliates, drilling and completion engineering activities.
All engineers engaged in Eni-E&P Division and Affiliates well control activities are
expected to make themselves familiar with the contents of this manual and be
responsible for compliance to its policies and procedures.
1.3 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL & DEROGATION

This manual is a ‘live’ controlled document and, as such, it will only be amended and
improved by the Corporate Company, in accordance with the development of Eni-
E&P Division and Affiliates operational experience. Accordingly, it will be the
responsibility of everyone concerned in the use and application of this manual to
review the policies and related procedures on an ongoing basis.
Derogations from the manual shall be approved solely in writing by the Local Well
Operations Manager after the Local Company Manager has been advised in writing.
STAP Department in Eni-E&P Division will receive copy of the derogation.
STAP Department will consider such derogations for future amendments and
improvements of the manual, when the updating of the document will be advisable.
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2. DEFINITIONS
2.1 COMPLETION FLUID

It is the fluid in the well during the installation (or the removal) of the completion
equipment (300 psi minimum overbalance).
2.2 PACKER FLUID

It is the fluid in the casing/tubing annulus above the upper packer, after the packer
has been set. Packer fluid can be either the same fluid used while running the
completion (completion fluid) or any other fluid displaced in the annulus above the
upper packer after the completion operation.
2.3 NATURE OF COMPLETION FLUIDS AND PACKER FLUIDS

Completion fluids and packer fluids may be:
1) Drilling fluids (OBM – WBM)
2) Drill-in fluids (DIF)
3) Brine (solids-free)
2.4 BRINE
It is a water solution of salts.
2.5 PURPOSE OF THE COMPLETION FLUID

The pressure exerted by the completion fluid on the walls of the well contributes to
maintaining a stable wellbore (mechanical control), avoiding its collapse, especially
where the fluid contains a non-damaging plugging material which is capable of
forming an impermeable filter cake. Wellbore instability is not perceived as a
problem in consolidated formations but rather in partially-consolidated or totally
unconsolidated sandstones where loose material can enter the well.
The completion fluid serves to control formation pressures, to remove solids from the
well and to assist in moving treating fluids to a particular point downhole.
Using the wrong completion fluid or the wrong packer fluid, the formation can be
damaged.
Formation damage or skin damage is any reduction in the natural reservoir rock
permeability caused by the invasion of foreign fluids to the section adjacent the well
bore during drilling, completion or workover operations.
2.6 PURPOSE OF THE PACKER FLUID

The packer fluid (in the annulus above the upper packer after the completion
operation) serves to keep the annulus filled and allow a continous monitoring of the
down-hole conditions.
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It must be suitable to be left into the annulus of the well for all the productive life of
the well.
These fluids range from low-density gases such as nitrogen to high-density muds
and packer fluids.
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3. GENERALITIES AND PROPERTIES OF COMPLETION FLUIDS

The petroleum industry has recognized since the early days of the development of
the rotary drilling that drilling muds can damage the payzone and reduce well
productivity. However, no fluids other than the clay based fluids were available or
economically feasible to use. Today new material, techniques and equipment are
available to formulate and maintain proper drilling-in and completion fluids. Many
operators are now investing more money in these special fluids and realizing high
well flow capacity, fewer workover operations and considerable savings in
stimulation and cost.
Completion operations for deep sensitive reservoirs, high angle and horizontal wells
require these non-damaging fluids. Potential payzones should not be drilled with clay
based muds. Bentonite and barite no longer have to be the backbone of drilling and
completion fluid formulation. Non-damaging fluids are clean fluids which will cause
minimum or no loss of the natural reservoir rock permeability. These fluids can be
solids free, clay free acid soluble, water soluble or oil soluble.
Non-damaging fluids should be used for operations such as drilling-in, perforating,
cleaning out sanded wells, well control, underreaming, gravel packing and packer
fluids. Dirty muds must not be placed against producing formations. The relatively
high initial cost of these special fluids can be economically justified and in most
cases they can be reclaimed, conditioned and used again.
The main properties that a completion fluid must possess are as follows:
1) Have sufficient density (under well conditions) to control the pressure of the open
intervals by exerting an adequate overbalance;
2) Not be damaging and therefore:
• it must not contain solids which could obstruct the pore throats of the rock
(plugging) or in the case of excessive losses it must contain easily
removable solids;
• it must have a filtrate compatible with the formation and that will not cause
alteration in the rock wettability, capillary phenomena such as water
blocking, swelling and dispersions;
• it must have a filtrate compatible with the reservoir fluids to avoid the
formation of emulsions, the precipitation of inorganic salts (scale) or organic
materials (paraffins, asphaltenes or sludge);
3) The capacity to transport the debris (or solids used during particular completion
operations) present in the well during circulation and to keep them in suspension
(or avoid an excessive settling or compacting) even in the case of the transport of
a high concentration of solids or of the interruption in the circulation;
4) Maintain the stability of the wellbore in the uncased section of the hole, even in
the presence of unconsolidated formations;
5) Thermal stability;
6) Not be hazardous to the environment or to personnel;
7) Not excessively expensive;
8) Low corrosivity towards metal equipment;
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9) Not contain substances damaging or incompatible to the treatment and

refinement plants (catalyzers).
The completion fluid should satisfy, as the drilling fluid, requirements which are
dependent on the characteristics of the formation and on the sequence of the
planned operations.
The substantial differences between completion fluids and drilling fluids are the
compatibility of the completion fluid filtrate with the rock and the in situ fluids (a
compatibility which is not always respected by the mud filtrate that, moreover, does
not generally penetrate deeply in the formation if the filter cake is created rapidly and
is of good quality) and the absence of solids (in drilling fluids these solids are often
present in high concentrations and are deformable in order to plug in an efficient
manner, sometimes irreversibly, the pores of the rock).
As already mentioned, both completion and drilling fluids, should limit the damage to
the formation, which may otherwise cause an unacceptable reduction in the
productivity. This characteristic is attainable with drilling fluids, by the formation of a
filter cake which prevents the deep penetration of solids and fluids incompatible with
the rock and with the formation waters and oils; the zone exposed to the filter cake
and the filtrate, may subsequently be by-passed either by the perforating or by the
underreaming of the open hole section. Completion fluids, on the other hand, should
be intrinsically compatible both with the formation matrix and with the formation
fluids (oil and formation water).
Completion fluids can be divided in two main groups: water-based fluids (brines),
and oil based fluids (oils and emulsions). This manual deals principally with brines
but does makes some references to oil base fluids, in particular emulsions of water
in oil (also called reverse emulsions). Emulsions of oil in water (also called direct
emulsions) are not used because they are generally dangerous: the appropriate
surfactants required for their preparation may in fact be rapidly absorbed by the
human body causing serious health problems. Therefore, in all the parts of this
document, emulsions will be considerated as the dispersion of water-in-oil and never
the opposite (the only case when we can have direct emulsions in the well is due to
the presence of particular surfactants in the reservoir oil which cause, as natural
consequence of their chemical composition, the formation of these dispersions of
formation water or completion brine in the produced oil).
The drilling fluid, if properly reconditioned, can even be used as the completion fluid,
as often occurs in high temperature, high pressure wells (where oil based muds are
mainly used): this type of completion fluid (reconditioned mud) is not discussed in
this manual and for which reference must be made to other texts which deal with
drilling muds.i
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Figure 3-1 - Fluid Properties Chart

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3.1 GUIDELINES FOR COMPLETION FLUIDS SELECTION
3.1.1 SOLIDS-LADEN COMPLETION FLUIDS

Increased density can be obtained by using weighting materials such as calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), iron carbonate (FeCO3), barite, manganese oxide (Mn3O4).
Table 3-1 shows the density range and acid solubility of each type of solids-laden
fluid.
Weight Material Density Range (ppg) Density Range (kg/l) Acid Solubility
CaCO3 10-14 1.20-1.68 98%
FeCO3 10-18 1.20-2.16 90%
Barite 10-21 1.20-2.52 0%
Micromax (Mn3O4) 10-23 1.20-2.75 98%
Table 3-1 – Solids-Laden Completion Fluids
3.1.2 SOLIDS-FREE COMPLETION FLUIDS

In these fluids the density is controlled by soluble salts such as NH4Cl, NaCl, KCl,
KFormate, NaBr, KBr, CaCl2, CaBr2, ZnBr2, Cs Formate . Specific gravity can be
raised to 2.4 Kg/l.
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3.1.3 GUIDE CHART FOR SELECTING COMPLETION FLUIDS

• Solids-Free Fluids
Fluid Type Wt. in kg/l Usable Temp Cost Range Ability to

Range Inhibit Clays
Water
(1) Fresh 1 High 149°C Low Poor
(2) Sea Water 1.02 High Low Poor
(filtered)
(3) Brines
(a) NaCl 1.20 Low to Low Good
Medium
(b) KCl 1.17
(c) NaBr 1.52
(d) KBr 1.30
(e) CaCl2 1.39 Low to Medium Good
Medium
(f) CaBr2 1.70 Medium Very High Good
121°C
(g) ZnBr2 2.30 Medium Extremely Good
High
(h) ZnCl2 1.92 Medium Very High Good
(i) Formates 2.35
Oils
(1) Diesel 0.84 High Medium Excellent
(2) Crudes 0.84-0.95 High Medium Excellent
(3) Emulsions 0.84-1 High Medium Excellent
(4) LTO (Low 0.8-0.9 High Medium Excellent
Toxicity Oil)
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Fluids Containing Solids

Fluid Type Wt. in kg/l Usable Temp Cost Range Ability to
Range Inhibit Clays
Saturated brine Brine wt + Low to Low to Good
base plus acid weighting Medium Medium
soluble material 1.62
weighting
materials
(CaCO3/FeCO3)
Saturated brine Brine wt + Salt Low to Low to Good
with sized salt to 1.68 kg/l Medium Medium
added for
bridging and
weight
Fresh or Sea 1-2.04 kg/l Medium to Low to Excellent
Water base High Medium
plus clay
stabilizers, then
weighted with
CaCO3 and
FeCO3, Mn3O4
Emulsions oil 0.96-2.04 Medium to Low to Excellent
external High Medium
(weighted with
CaCO3 or
FeCO3)
Oils weighted 0.84-2.04 Medium to Medium to Excellent
with CaCO3 or High High
FeCO3
Brines oil Brine Weight Low to Medium to Good
soluble resins Medium High
for bridging
Drilling Muds 0.96-2.64 High Low Variable
Table 3-2 - Chart for Selecting Completion Fluids

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4. CALCULATION OF DENSITY
4.1 DENSITY OF REFERENCE

The value of the density of the completion fluid to be used is a function of the
pressure and the depth of the layers to be controlled: the fluid must exert a pressure
which is greater than the pore pressure (formation pressure) increased by a margin
of safety (which should increase with decreasing depth because in the shallower
layers any production of formation fluids is harder to control given the shorter
reaction time available) that could be set at 30 Kg/cm2.
The value of the safety margin however may be modified taking into account the
type of fluid and the equipment in the well, as well as the planned operations. For
example, during the operations for pulling out the string, formation fluids can be
drawn into the well, because of the piston effect: the magnitude of this effect will be
a function of the rheological behaviour of the fluid, the diameters, and the speed of
pulling out the string (while the string is removed from the well the fluid moves in the
opposite direction and the pressure drop caused by the flow in the tubing string and
annulus must be subtracted from the weight of the hydrostatic column exerted on
bottom). Consequently the recommended value can be decreased or increased as a
function of the operations and the type of completion fluid used.
Calculation of the density of the completion fluid is made with the following formula:
sg = pressure needed at well bottom / (depth in m/10)
Where:
sg = specific gravity
In fact, the depth to be used in the calculation must be the depth at the top of the
level to be controlled, otherwise there is the risk of having a lower than required
safety of margin in that zone.
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Figure 4-1 – Calculation of the Density of the Completion Fluid
As highlighted in Figure 4-1, the calculation of brine density is influenced by the

depth at which the static pressure is referred, and therefore we must consider as
depth, for safety purposes, that at the top of the level so that a greater density will be
calculated for the completion fluid.
For example to counteract a level at a depth of 1222 m (top) with a formation
pressure of 129 Kg/cm2 ( gradient = 1.056 kg/cm2/10m) a solution is required which
has a density equal to:
129 + 30
sg = = 1.301 Kg/l
1222 / 10
This value of density, for example, is achievable with water based salt solutions of
CaCl2 (Calcium Chloride). The control of a level with the gradient of 1.056 Kg/cm2
/10 m but deeper (e.g. 2222m, formation pressure = 235 Kg/cm2) would lead to the
use of brine with a density:
235 + 30
sg = = 1.193 Kg/l
2222 / 10
obtainable with a salt solution of NaCl (Sodium Chloride) even though this density is
very close to the limit of density corresponding to the saturation of the salt.
Oil-based fluids have a density which depends on the density of both the organic
fluid component and of the brine component used to prepare emulsions, the latter of
which may have a high density. The resultant density of these fluids can be altered
by modifying the ratio of oil/brine. The values of density expressed in the preceding
examples, must be considered as those required in the well at certain conditions of
temperature and pressure. In APPENDIX - B, the values of density are reported,
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with reference to an average room temperature of (21° C, 70°F): in practice,

completion fluids must ensure the required gradient (density) at the conditions of
temperature and pressure in the well therefore they have to be prepared with a
higher density to take into account the expansion of the fluid, considering both the
gradient of static temperature as well as the gradient of dynamic temperature
obtained during the circulation in the well.
weight
sg =
volume
In practice, the word “density” is used in the meaning of “specific gravity”. In this
manual, too, it is generally used the word “density”.
4.2 THERMAL EXPANSION OF AQUEOUS COMPLETION FLUIDS

Density of a fluid is not a constant, but it is influenced by temperature and pressure;
the effect of pressure however is minimal compared with the effect of thermal
expansion and in practice it can be neglected. Further, while the increase in density
of the fluid, caused by high pressures, does not lead to hazardous situations in the
well, the thermal expansion, which lowers the hydrostatic head applied against the
formation pressure, can result in hazardous conditions since it may reduce or even
cancel the bottomhole overbalance with the risk of the production of formation fluids.
As temperature increases, each body, even maintaining the same weight, tends to
expand and therefore occupy a greater volume, reducing its density. The importance
of this phenomenon, definable in terms of the coefficient of expansion (G) is a
function of the type of fluid as described in Table 4-1.
∆sg
G=
∆temperature
G = coefficient of thermal expansion
COMPLETION FLUID G (Kg/lx°C

Brine: NaCl, KCl,NH4Cl 2.11x10-4
Brine: CaCl2 1.55x10-4
Brine: miscele CaCl2/CaBr2 1.44x10-4
Brine: miscele CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 1.81x10-4
Synthetic oil or diesel oil 6.1 ÷ 9.3 x10 -4 (function of oil
type)
Emulsions oil/brine Function of type of oil, type of
brine and their relative ratio
Table 4-1 – Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Common Fluids
Figures from A.1 to A.5 in APPENDIX - A show the effects of temperature change on
the density of brines.
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4.3 THERMAL EXPANSION OF OIL BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS

With regard to oils, the thermal expansion factor is a function of the composition of
the oil. The following chart enables the determination of the value of the coefficient
as a function of the specific gravity of the fluid (referred to water at 15°C).
from sg to sg average sg G=∆d/∆T (Kg/l°C)

0,640 0,643 0,642 9,5
0,644 0,648 0,646 9,4
0,649 0,654 0,652 9,3
0,655 0,661 0,658 9,2
0,662 0,667 0,665 9,1
0,668 0,674 0,671 9,0
0,675 0,681 0,678 8,9
0,682 0,688 0,685 8,8
0,689 0,696 0,693 8,7
0,697 0,703 0,700 8,6
0,704 0,711 0,708 8,5
0,712 0,719 0,716 8,4
0,720 0,726 0,723 8,3
0,727 0,734 0,731 8,2
0,735 0,741 0,738 8,1
0,742 0,747 0,745 8,0
0,748 0,753 0,751 7,9
0,754 0,759 0,757 7,8
0,760 0,765 0,763 7,7
0,766 0,771 0,769 7,6
0,772 0,777 0,775 7,5
0,778 0,780 0,779 7,4
0,781 0,790 0,786 7,3
0,791 0,799 0,795 7,2
0,800 0,808 0,804 7,1
0,809 0,818 0,814 7,0
0,819 0,828 0,824 6,9
0,829 0,838 0,834 6,8
0,839 0,852 0,846 6,7
0,853 0,870 0,862 6,6
0,871 0,890 0,881 6,5
0,891 0,970 0,931 6,4
0,971 1.000 0,986 6,3
1.001 1.074 1.035 6,2
Table 4-2 – Coefficient of Oil Thermal Expansion as Function of Density
The same values of the thermal expansion coefficient of these oils are reported in
Figure 4-2.
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Figure 4-2 – Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of the Oils
4.4 THERMAL EXPANSION OF EMULSIONS

With regard to the coefficient of thermal expansion for emulsions, we can use the
value obtained from the linear combination of the coefficients of the two fluids that
make up the completion fluid. For example an emulsion of 60% of oil 0.85 s.g. and
40% of brine NaCl 1.1 s.g., the coefficient will be given by:
G=(0.6⋅6.7+0.4⋅2.1)⋅10-4=4.9⋅10-4
To calculate the optimum density of the completion brine, the coefficient G can be
used in the following formula based on a linear static gradient of temperature:
sg = sg0 + 0.5 G (WHT + BHT – 2 T0)
where:
sg = density of the completion brine which must take into account the decrease of
density due to the increase of temperature in the well (Kg/l).
sgo= density of the same brine at the reference temperature indicated in the tables
(Kg/l)
T0= temperature (C°) at which the density d0 (Kg/l) is measured and reported in the
tables (usually 21°C, 70°F)
WHT = Well Head Temperature in circulating conditions (°C)
BHT = bottom hole temperature approximately taken as equal to the bottomhole
static temperature (°C)
The values of temperature are related to the conditions of circulation and should be
measured in the well; in the absence of this data it can be assumed that the tubing
head temperature is equal to the combined average value of temperature of the
static tubing head temperature and the SBHT; for a greater safety margin the tubing
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head temperature should be assumed to be higher than the anticipated temperature

(by at least +10% more than the calculated average temperature of the well) since,
as already mentioned this temperature may be higher than expected during the
circulation. For example, if the tubing head temperature is 30°C for static conditions
or low flow rate (production flow rate or circulation flowrate, for example of the
drilling mud) and the static bottomhole temperature is equal to 70°C, the tubing head
value, during circulation will be considered equal to:
WHT= 0.5⋅(70+30)⋅[(100+10)/100]=55°C
For the first of the examples seen in section 4.1, if reference temperature of the
charts is 21°C, we will have a density of preparation equal to:
sg=1.301+0.5⋅1.55⋅10-4⋅(30+65-2⋅21)= 1.305 Kg/l @21°C

where:
Reference temperature in tables = 21°C,
BHT = 65°C,
WHT = 30°C
Density requested at well conditions = 1.301 Kg/l (CaCl2)
The density in this case is practically identical (the difference is in the third decimal
figure) to the density measured at ambient temperature.
As regards the other example of section 4.1, we have:
sg = 1.193+0.5⋅2.11⋅10-4⋅(55+95-2⋅21)= 1.204 Kg/l @21°C
where:
BHT = 95°C,
WHT = 55°C,
Requested density at well conditions = 1.193 Kg/l (NaCl)
But the maximum density of NaCl solutions (at saturation) is 1.200 Kg/l and so
another salt must be used (for example CaCl2).
Similar calculations could be made for oils that, compared with water-based
solutions, have in general a greater effect of expansion with temperature; the same
can be said for emulsions, given the presence of oil in these systems. Because of
the great variety of oils which are commercially available, and the possibility of using
a wide range of oil/water ratios for the preparation of emulsions, it is not possible to
determine unequivocally the thermal expansion coefficients. Oil-based fluids are also
affected by the effect of pressure.
In these cases the density of the completion fluids to be prepared can be calculated
after determining this coefficient experimentally, but, in the case where it is not
possible to resort to laboratory tests, the value of density could be calculated in the
following manner. After preparing a fluid that, at the average temperature of the well
Tmed, (increased of the 10% for safety), has the necessary density to control the
formation pressure, it is allowed to cool down to ambient temperature.
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BHT + WHT
Ta = X1.1
2
Ta = Average well temperature
The measure of density of the cooled fluid will indicate the value to be achieved
during the preparation in the field, at the same temperature at which the density was
determined. By ambient temperature we mean the actual temperature of the brine in
the tanks resulting from the effects of the surrounding temperature. Thus this value
can vary by a few degrees from 0°C to over 30-40°C in hot environments. In these
situations, to carry out the control of the brine density, the value determined
experimentally shall be adjusted for the difference of temperature between the
environment and the reference values in the tables.
Each time that the density of the brine is determined, the temperature at which it was
measured must be recorded together with if possible the calculated at the reference
temperature (21°C, 70°F). Possible comparisons of densities determined at different
temperatures can be made only on the basis of values normalized to the reference
temperature.
4.5 CONTROL OF THE DENSITY OF THE COMPLETION FLUID

The density of a fluid can be checked by various methods, but generally a mud
balance for drilling fluids is used, which already has a scale calibrated in units of
density (ppg. - pound per gallon; 8.33 ppg=1kg/l). The use of densimeters is less
frequent, but if available, they allow the easy determination of the value of density:
the densimeter (a floating glass cylinder) is placed with caution, in a glass cylinder at
least 30 cm high (e.g. a laboratory test cylinder of 250 ml) containing the fluid to be
measured. The cylinder sinks until its weight has been balanced by the Archimedean
buoyancy: the value of density is then read from a graduated scale, on the cylinder
at the point corresponding to the level of the fluid.
During the preparation, monovalent salts (1 cation + 1 anion: NaCl, KCl, NH4Cl,
NaBr, KBr) yield saline solutions which have temperatures lower than the
surrounding environment (or the initial temperature of the mix water), while bivalent
salts (1 cation + 2 anions: CaCl2, CaBr2, ZnBr2) produce saline solutions whose
temperatures are higher than ambient. Therefore because of the thermal expansion,
the obtained densities may appear different from the predetermined value. It is
absolutely necessary to note the temperature at which the density of any fluid (±
1°C) is measured, so that this can be properly taken into account.
In general, for oil-based fluids the same considerations apply: the densities must be
measured at a known temperature and as close as possible to the temperature of
the well.
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5. FILTRATION OF SOLIDS-FREE COMPLETION FLUIDS

Completion fluids do not usually contain solids, but this property is only obtained and
maintained after a filtration operation, which will be described after first discussing
the type of solids which may be present and their damaging characteristics on
mineralized formations.
5.1 TYPES OF SOLIDS

Solids can be categorized as deformable and non-deformable. Pressing a plastic
deformable material (e.g. plasticine™ or clay) against a hole (for example the lock of
a door) an extrusion of part of the material occurs inside the locking mechanism
together with a filling of the available empty space, with the result that it will be
subsequently difficult to insert the key to open the door: the key lock will be
damaged unless we have a tool or a substance which is capable of removing the
plugging material from the lock. Probably, not even by inserting the key in the
opposite side to which the material was introduced, will it be possible to remove all
this material. The same test repeated with a non deformable solid (e.g. a clean stone
picked up from the river bed) will definitely give different results. The solid will not
penetrate in the hole and, if its diameter is close to the diameter of the opening, it will
become lodged in it.
In this situation, the insertion of the key from the non-plugged side of the lock, will
remove the solid, with the application of a certain force, restoring the normal
conditions of functioning.
The pores of the rock (the lock of the preceding example) are invaded, as a function
of the permeability of the formation, by deformable solids present in the fluid (e.g.
drilling mud) which sometimes cannot be removed by the fluids subsequently
produced during the clean up (key inserted in the non-plugged side). The damaged
zone (created by plugging of the pores) must be overcome by the penetration of the
perforation tunnels so that the well can produce according its theoretical potential
productivity (the tunnels must be protected, for example by perforating in
underbalance, such that the condition of the absence of damage can be obtained,
skin = 0 or CF=100%); other systems capable of creating a conductive zone
between the well and the formation or which can eliminate or overcome the
damaged zone are matrix stimulation (if the tunnels were not protected and therefore
have become damaged) and fracturing with limited extension (where the damaged
zone extends deeply into the formation).
At this point it is clear that a completion fluid should not contain deformable solids
(e.g. clays, plugging starches etc...) because, at least in some phases of the
operations, it will come into contact with the productive formation after perforating
and should avoid causing damage by plugging of the pores. Therefore, completion
fluids must be free of solids and especially deformable ones, and to ensure this
condition, adequate precautions must be taken or, when necessary, they must be
filtered.
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5.2 FILTRATION OF COMPLETION FLUIDS

Filtration is a process which removes most of the solids contained in a fluid. In fact it
is not possible to eliminate all the solids present in the fluid since the particles which
are much smaller than the pores of the filter will in any case be able to pass through.
Filtration (Figure 5-1) is a complex process and the removal of the solids can take
place according to various mechanisms. Coarse solids, whose dimensions are larger
than the pores of the filter, are captured on the surface and create a filter cake
which, acting itself as a filter, tends to improve the quality of the filtration, but to the
detriment of creating a greater pressure drop since, in general, the cake will have a
very low permeability. The smaller particles, tending to pass through the filter, can
collide with the material that makes up the filter medium and remain entrapped.
Depending on the thickness, the geometry, and the flow conditions, other particles
could penetrate and settle within the filter medium or be stopped on its surface.
FILTER
FLUID
LINE
(A) = Surface Filtration: the particle does not pass the restrictions of the pores of the filters
(B) = Internal impact: the particle as a result of inertia, leaves the main fluid stream and impacts on the
filter surface and stops;
(C) = Direct interception: the particle transported by the main fluid stream that passes very close to the
filter surface, collides and stops.
(D) = Settling: a particle with large dimensions settles if the fluid slows down;
(E) = Brownian motion: smaller particles are continuously in motion because of the thermal activity of the
molecules of the fluid and can collide, during their chaotic motion, with the walls of the filter.
Figure 5-1 – Filtration Mechanism
Filters can be subdivided into:

• Absolute filters
• Nominal filters
Absolute filters mainly act according to the mechanism of direct impact visualized in
the cases (A), (B) and (C) in Figure 5-1. Particles, blocked in this way, can no longer
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move unless the differential pressure on the filter or the direction of flow is changed.
Examples of this type of absolute filters are cartridges.
Nominal filters mainly act according to the other mechanisms visualized by cases
(D) and (E) in Figure 5-1. In these filters, the matrix is often incoherent and therefore
they can release the filtering material (referred to as break-out of the filter) or the
filtered solids. An example of this filter is the filter-press loaded with DE material
(Diatomaceous Earth).
Cartridges are classified as an absolute filter and are classical filtering systems (e.g.
car air filter) and essentially function with the surface mechanism. The filter cake
which is created however, rapidly raises the pressure drop across the membrane
and therefore this type of filter can not be used directly with very dirty fluids,
especially if they contain deformable solids which create filter cakes with low
permeability (e.g. clays). Cartridges are usually placed in appropriate vessels which
accommodate a certain quantity of cartridges (e.g. 16-24) in order to ensure an
adequate flow rate (each cartridge allows filtration at an average flowrate of 0.5 bpm
of clean water); once dirty, (on reaching a maximum working pressure differential of
30-40 psi), all the cartridges must be replaced (time for substitution: 15-20 min). In
order to avoid interruption of the filtration operations two vessels are usually
available so that one of them is used for the filtration while the other is being
cleaned. In order to ensure high efficiency in removing the solids, the cartridges
should hold back also smaller particles than those declared to be held back.
Therefore an absolute filter (e.g. of 10 µm) can remove also more than 90% of the
solids with a smaller diameter (e.g. of 2 µm). A nominal filter does not ensure the
removal of all the solids whose diameters are equal to the diameter of the filter
because of the hypothetical (since it is not sure they occur) releasing of material.
The degree of cleaning of the treated fluid is determined by the opening of the pores
of the absolute filter (e.g. of 10 µm) that has been used and by the β factor of the
same filter (e.g. a good absolute filter has a β ≥ 5000). The definition and the use of
this factor are necessary because also an absolute filter permits the passage of
some particles with a diameter equal to the opening of the filter. If, for example the
fluid inlet to be filtered contains 150 millions of particles per cm3 whose diameters
are larger than the diameter of the filter and the filtrate outlet contains only 15000
particles per cm3,, the β factor will be 10000 (=1.5⋅108/1.5⋅104). A filter (even if it is a
cartridge) with low value of β (e.g. β ≤ 100) must be considered as a nominal filter.
Because of this different selectivity the cartridges filters have definitely different
costs depending on their efficiency defined by the β factor.
Because of their high sensibility, efficiency and selectivity, the cartridge filtration
systems are protected with a DE system constituted by inert fossil material put on
some cloths of the filter-press (Figure 5-4). The filtering material DE is initially
inserted in the fluid to be filtered until it creates a filter cake against the bearing
cloths that constitute the centre of the functioning of the filter-press: the cake acts
like a filter and stops most of the suspended solids. In the phase of the formation of
the cake, the fluid circulates again through the filter-press until, in outlet, a clean fluid
is obtained. The cake is then fed with new inert material during the filtration phase of
the fluid in order to avoid that the hold back solids create a layer with low
permeability. The so filtrated fluid, is then sent to a unit characterized by cartridges
with absolute filters in order to ensure a good quality of the filtrate and providing the
removal of possible solids released by the DE filter. The filter of the DE unit does not
have a fixed range of filtration since its capability to stop solids depends on the type
of filtering material (inert) and on its settling on the cloths of the unit (filter-press);
however this filtering system is very efficient and is able even to block particles
whose diameters are close to 1-2µm).
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The DE system may sometimes release inert material especially during the shocks
to which the filter cake is submitted due to sudden variations of the flowrate or
excessive vibrations of the plant; these materials released in small quantities, are
undeformable and create a filter cake with high permeability that is well supported by
the cartridges filtering unit. Once the filter-press has been filled up or the maximum
pressure differential has been reached on the cloths containing the material (100
psi), the created filter cake must be replaced and therefore it is necessary to stop the
filtration (if a second DE unit is not available, as it generally happens) and start from
the beginning all the phases of the operation (formation of the cake) with new
material (cleaning time 30-45 min).
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Figure 5-2 – Filtration Systems Schematic

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Figure 5-3 – Low Pressure Filter Unit

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Figure 5-4 - Diatomaceous Earth Material Filtration Unitii

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Figure 5-5 - Cartridge Filtration Unit

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The filtration should be performed until, in the fluid, there are only solids that can
pass freely through the pores of the rock without causing their plugging. It is well
known that, on average, particles with a diameter greater than 1/3 of the average
pore diameter may create a bridge effect: more particles with this diameter (1/3
dpores), passing at the same time through the pore may hamper each others getting
stuck between themselves and the walls of the pore, plugging it. Particles whose
diameter is greater than 1/6 of the average pore diameter may be dragged by the
fluids, essentially without plugging the pores.
Besides being a function of the granulometry of the particles, the bridging effect is a
function also of their concentration: high concentration of solids, even if with reduced
dimensions, may, anyhow, produce bridging effects, thus damaging the pores of the
rock because of their mechanical plugging. The limit of filtration should be carried up
to 1/3 (better if 1/6) of the average diameter of the pore of the rock, diameter (in µm)
which can be approximately described by the relationship:
d pore = 1.77 ( K / Φ )1/ 2
where:
K= permeability of the liquid (mD)
Φ = porosity (fraction).
Kbrine dporo ( µ m) Livello filtrazione Livello filtrazione

(mD) (1/3dporo, µ m) (1/6dporo, µ m)
1.77 [K (mD ) / Φ ] 1/2
10 11.2 3.7 1.9
20 15.8 5.3 2.6
30 19.4 6.5 3.2
40 22.4 7.5 3.7
50 25.0 8.3 4.2
75 30.7 10.2 5.1
100 35.4 11.8 5.9
250 56.0 18.7 9.3
500 79.2 26.4 13.2
1000 111.9 37.3 18.7
2000 158.3 52.8 26.4
Table 5-1 – Limits of Particles Filtration
The value of permeability is related to brine because this is the type of fluid
subjected to filtration: it is well-known in fact that the value of permeability is not
constant and is a function of the fluid used for its determination; for example in oil
wells the wettability is a phenomenon to take into account, while in gas wells the
saturation of the rock has an important weight on permeability. In the following chart
some values are reported assuming a formation with a porosity equal to 25% (Φ
=0.25)
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With brines it is possible to go down to 1 µm as level of absolute filtration

(cartridges), we rarely go below 10 µm in order to have high flowrate to permit the
execution of some operations in field. The DE system, which however should be
used before the cartridge system, even though it is not a system of absolute
filtration, has so significant capability of filtration that it can remove particles whose
diameters are much smaller than 10µm.
Therefore the cartridges must be used as safety system to ensure a good quality of
the filtrate to hold back possible inert material (diatomaceous earth) released by the
filter press and not to remove solids originally suspended in the brine.
Therefore there is the necessity to filter completion fluids in order to prevent the
plugging of the pores by solid and deformable materials.
Organic fluids (oils and gas oils) can be filtrated since it is possible, through
membranes or filtering cakes, to trap solids contained in them. For these fluids the
considerations stated before are still valid. On the contrary it is rather difficult to
filtrate emulsions, due to their nature, since the non continuous phase (water) acts
like plugging material: the drops of brine dispersed in oil may block the pores of a
filter membrane (cartridge) or of a filter cake (DE) and therefore hinder the
operations for removing the solids. For these fluids we resort to the separated
filtration of the two phases (oil and brine) before their mixing to create the emulsion.
The control of the quality of the filtrated brine is performed by indirect
measurements. In practice, the quantity of light (a radiation of 450 nm of green
colour is usually used) diffracted by the solids contained in the fluid is determined.
The greater the quantity of solids, the greater the quantity of light diffracted and
therefore obtained by the sensor (photocell) that is placed at a right angle compared
to the incident ray (it is similar to the determination of the luminosity of a ray light that
penetrates in a dark and smoky room); the quantity in outlet from the measurement
tool is the Turbidity and measures a NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units (or FTU, the
same unit calibrated with a solution of formazine, a particular substance able to
create colloidal solution). By means of lines of calibration, defined for each type of
brine and for different intervals of density, is possible to obtain the content of solids
of completion fluids; solutions contained in sealed bottles or glass cylinders with
controlled opacity are often used as calibration standard. Each dysfunction in the
operations of calibration is quickly identified by the sudden increase of the turbidity
value since its determination is very rapid (few seconds for a reading); for particular
applications and where the filtration has particular importance for the success of the
operation, it is possible to install on line equipment or other more sophisticated tools
able to measure the quantity and the diameters of solids dispersed in the fluid. For
example the Coulter Counter is a machine able to count one by one all the particles
passing through an opening measuring their dimensions and on the basis of these
measurements it is possible to have, as output, the curves of the granulometry
distribution, besides the absolute number of particles contained in the solution,
expressed in terms of concentration (e.g.: n/cm3).
Although it is not possible to express a maximum acceptable value of NTU for brines
(the absolute value depends on the type of solution and on the calibration of the
measurement tool) it is possible to state that a well filtered brine gives readings, in
the range of NTU units, hardly higher than 10 NTU. It is good to continue the
operations of filtration of the brine in field, monitoring the NTU values in time and
stopping the filtration when the readings do not decrease further (Figure 5-7)
especially if the final value falls in the range defined above; if we obtain higher final
values (dozens or hundred NTU) it is necessary to understand the cause of the poor
efficacy of the filters (breakings, pouring off among tanks, not calibrated equipment,
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etc…) or the nature of the contamination which leads to the formation of colloids
able to pass through the filtering membranes ( e.g. presence of colloidal Iron
Hydroxide, etc…)
Due to the significant presence of suspended material in the emulsions (the droplets
of brine can disperse the light) it is not possible to use the same analytical technique
for these fluids; pure organic fluids (oils, gas oils, etc….) can be controlled by
Nephelometric measurements as well, previously adjusting the equipment, but
significant disturbances are to be expected owing to the coloration of the organic
phase.
Figure 5-6 – Correlation of Turbidimeter Response and ppm Solids from Gravimetric Analysis
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Figure 5-7 - Quality of Filtrate: Measure of the NTU vs. Well Volume
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6. COMPATIBILITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS WITH ROCKS

AND CONNATE FLUIDS
All wells are susceptible to formation damage to some degree, from relatively minor
loss of productivity to complete plugging of specific zones. The purpose of this
chapter is to help the technicians involved in the well operations to take the correct
decisions when chemicals selection is required while developing the intervention on
the wells.
6.1 MAIN CAUSES OF FORMATION DAMAGE

Damage Associated with Foreign Fluid Filtrate. This foreign fluid may be a drilling
mud, a clean completion or workover fluid, a stimulation or well-treating fluid, or even
the reservoir fluid itself if the original characteristics are altered.
Plugging Associated with Solids. Plugging by solids occurs on the formation face, in
the perforation, or in the formation. Solids may be weighting materials, clays,
viscosity builders, fluid loss-control materials, lost-circulation materials, drilled solids,
cement particles, perforating charge debris, rust and mill scale, pipe dope, un-
dissolved salt, gravel pack or frac sand fines, precipitated scales, paraffin or
asphaltenes.
Solids Precipitation. Solids may also be precipitated within the formation. For
example, scale often precipitates due to mixing of incompatible waters (insoluble
sulphate salts) or to changing equilibrium conditions (insoluble carbonate salts);
asphaltenes or paraffins may be precipitated due to changing equilibrium conditions.
6.2 DAMAGE ASSOCIATED WITH FOREIGN FLUID FILTRATE

The filtrate of a water based completion fluid is obviously aqueous, while the oil
based fluids presents an organic filtrate.
6.2.1 FILTRATES OF WATER BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS

The filtrate may be water containing several types and concentrations of positive and
negative ions and surfactants. It may be a hydrocarbon carrying various surfactants.
The liquid is forced into porous zones by differential pressure, displacing or
commingling with a portion of the virgin reservoir fluids. This may create flow
restriction due to relative permeability or viscosity effects or even the formation
blockage.
Mechanisms that may reduce the absolute formation permeability could be:
1) Particle migration effects which include:
• hydration or dehydration of clays,
• dispersion or flocculation of highly or slightly swelling clays,
• dissolution of cementing materials allowing fines.
2) Water may tend to wet the rock increasing water saturation and reducing relative
permeability to oil or gas. Filtrate invasion is normally termed water blockage. The
extent of oil productivity reduction depends on the degree of water saturation and
the radius of the affected area.
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3) Liquid filtrate may determine a viscous emulsion with the virgin reservoir oil;
stable emulsions appear to be associated with partially oil-wet systems. Viscosity
effects also include formation plugging by a high-viscosity treating fluid which, for
some reason, does not break and does not return to the well bore under the
available differential pressure.
4) It is also possible the formation of an organic solid called sludge, caused by the
contact of brine with the molecules of resin and/or asphaltene.
In a radial flow system, any reduction in permeability around the well bore results in
serious reduction of productivity or injectivity. In a linear flow situation, some
plugging of the face of the fracture can be tolerated due to the large area
represented by the faces of the fracture. However, plugging of the fracture itself
results in serious reduction in productivity or injectivity.
6.3 FORMATION PARTICLES MIGRATION

Nearly all oil-producing sandstones contain some clay as a coating on individual
sand grains and/or discrete particles mixed with the sand. Carbonate rocks may also
contain clays.
Clays most frequently found in hydrocarbon zones are montmorillonite (bentonite),
illite, mixed-layer clays (primarily illite-montmorillonite), kaolinite and chlorite. All clay
types are capable of migrating when in contact with a foreign fluid which alters the
ionic environment.
It should be remembered that high flow rate alone (even with no change in
environmental conditions) is sufficient to cause particle migration. Thus, anytime clay
is present, it can be assumed that permeability damage may occur. The degree of
damage will depend on the type and concentration of clays, their relative position in
the rock, the severity of the ionic environmental change and to an extent, the rate of
fluid flow.
6.3.1 EFFECT OF WATER

Montmorillonite is the only clay that swells by absorbing ordered formation waters
between crystals. Mixed-layer clay, which contains montmorillonite, will also swell,
but a slight swelling may be expected by the illite portion of this clay. Kaolinite,
chlorite, and illite may be classed as slightly swelling clays.
The entity of the interaction of clays with fluids can be expressed in terms of
reactivity. The most common and reactive clay is the montmorillonite or smectite (the
vermiculite is more reactive but less common); it is also possible to find mixed clays
(mixed layers) which are basically reactive too.
Montmorillonite is the only clay that swells by absorbing ordered formation water
between crystals. Mixed-layer clay, which contains montmorillonite, will also swell,
but a slight swelling may be expected by the illite portion of this clay. Kaolinite,
chlorite, and illite may be classed as slightly swelling clays.
Clays are all constituted by silicate planes (tetrahedral) and aluminates (octahedron
with part of the aluminium substituted with magnesium) linked together and each
unit, constituted by two or three octahedral/tetrahedral planes exhibits on its external
walls (on the planes) negative charges (the trivalent Aluminium Al3+ has been, in
part substituted by Mg+2, bivalent) while on the edges there are positive charges; the
negative charges are preponderant giving a negative net charge to all the structure.
Among these units there are ions which are able to shield the charges of the
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surfaces allowing the approaching and at the end the attraction. The distance
between clay layers is called C-spacing (Figure 6-1), distance variable with the type
of balancing ion and its concentration. Big or small ions but surrounded by many
molecules of water, that is to say highly solvated, attract many molecules of solvent
(that in this case is water), once entered in the zone among planes, even
maintaining integral their structure, move the planes away a bit making the C-
spacing increase; small ions and or less solvated are able to approach more planes
and therefore are considered stabilizing since the total structure appears more
compact.
Clay in contact with brine exchanges a significant number of ions up to reaching a
kind of dynamic balance: as many ions go out from the structure of the clay as many
ions enter again in it like a kind of endless run up. This phenomenon is called ionic
exchange. It is equal to 0.07-0.13 eq / 100g of dry smectite and measures the
number of equivalents of ions exchanged per unit of weight of the clay; for the
vermiculite the value is higher (0.1-0.2 eq/100g) being even more reactive. The
stronger the specific attractive action of the cation which enters between the planes
and the greater its concentration, the higher is the attraction between the different
planes (small C-spacing, compact structure). In fact, decreasing the salinity of the
solution, the number of ions entering the structure decreases (statistically
understandable since ion and structure must collide to interact) while initially the
number of ions going out from it does not change with the result that the number of
entrapped ions will tend to decrease searching a new configuration of balance, the
negative charge of the surface will not be shielded as it was before and the attractive
force will decrease allowing the planes to move away with consequent increase of
the C-spacing. This phenomenon is called swelling and is reversible: increasing
again the ionic concentration, the number of charges entrapped among the planes
will increase, the attractive force will have higher values again and the structure,
decreasing the C-spacing, will compact stabilizing itself (Figure 6-2).
Decreasing too much the salinity of the solution, the repulsive force between the
negatively charged planes becomes so strong that it disgregates the clay units, and
the different planes will tend to disperse in the fluid. Each plane, not electrically
balanced anymore, will repel the adjacent planes causing a state of dispersion
(Figure 6-3); this is for example obtainable putting small quantities of smectite in
distilled water that is a watery fluid without ions which could counterbalance the
surface charges. The state of dispersion is irreversible since an increase of salinity
obtainable adding solid salt or a brine very rich of salt in the dispersion, will cause
the flocculation of the clay, that is to say the layers will attract each others and the
small units, as soon as the minimum dimensions to decant have been achieved
(according the Stokes law) will reach the bottom of the container that contained the
dispersion, but the look, the shape and the layout of the units will be significantly
different from the initial neat state. Comparing the two states, the initial state and the
final one (after the swelling, the dispersion and the flocculation), would be like
comparing a building with the rubble gathered in an area after pulling down the
building.
In virgin formation, the degree of swelling of a clay particle is in equilibrium with the
type and concentration of salts in the connate water. Thus, clean formation water
used in workover operations should not disturb this balance.
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Figure 6-1 – Clay Mineralogy

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Clay in Swollen Clay Clay in

equilibrium (C-Spacing increased) equilibrium
(C-Spacing increased) The negative charges, not The process is reversible and
shielded anymore, repel increasing the salinity of the fluid
each other and make the the conditions of equilibrium are
structural unit of the clay restored
move away
Figure 6-2 – Swelling of Clay
Dispersed The flocculation

Packed Clay in Swollen Clay in caused by a brine
clay due to
equilibrium with equilibrium with with high salinity
insufficient
brine with high brine with not leads to a disorderly
salinity of
salinity high salinity structure
the solution
Figure 6-3 – Dispersion of the Clay Units
The brine which penetrates in the formation, should have a salinity (in terms of
quality and/ or quantity of ions) able to maintain the clays localized in the matrix and
inside the pores (in fact the clays often coat the inner part of the pores) where they
were before drilling and the only admitted phenomenon is the swelling. If the fluid is
not compatible and causes dispersion, the fluid lost in the formation will drag the
dispersed layers of clay causing the phenomenon of the dragging of fine particles;
these materials released in significant quantities (the rock often contains a certain
percentage of clay), will create bridges in the restrictions of the pores plugging them
and significantly jeopardizing the permeability of the rock which came in contact with
the not compatible brine. It is possible to place a series of the most common ions in
order that can stabilize the clay:
H + >> Zn +2 ≈ Ba + + ≈ Ca 2+ > K + ≈ NH 4+ >> Na + >> Li +

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and therefore phenomena of dispersion are not to be expected using acids and
normal brines whose salinity is at least the 3% in weight (5% for NaCl, since Na+ is
the least stabilizing). If the formation water is particularly salty, the introduction in the
formation of brine with inadequate salinity may cause a shock of salinity to the clays
with a consequent and extremely serious effect of dispersion, as though the clay
burst because of the contact with the completion fluid.
Other clays like the illite (0.01-0.04 eq/100g as ion exchange), the chlorite (0.01-0.04
eq/100g), the attapulgite/sepiolite (0.0 1-0-035 eq/100g) and the
kaolinite/dictite/nacrite (0.003-0.015 eq/100g), are much less expandable and
sensitive to the salinity of the brine. However hybrid forms exist which may tend to
swell slightly, but the state of dispersion can not be reached.
The particles of clay may contribute to phenomena like the movement of fine
particles since they can be dragged by the watery fluid especially if the rock is water-
wet, in the case they are not well-anchored to the porous matrix. In fact the clays are
always sticking to the grains of the rock and plunged in the wetting fluid: they keep
still until the wetting phase keeps still, but as soon as the saturation of this phase
(e.g. water) increases and becomes mobile (e.g. production of formation water) it will
drag the fine particles which will be able to generate a damage due to the plugging
of the pores.
Clay dispersion is affected by pH. Scanning electron microscope studies have
confirmed the effect of pH on clay particle disturbance. Clay particles in core pore
spaces were significantly disturbed and thus made mobile in contact with 8 pH fluid.
This effect was more noticeable when contacted with 10 pH fluid. Virtually no
disturbance was noted when similar core samples were contacted with a 4 pH fluid.
This is due to the reduction of the stabilizing effect of the H+ ion and therefore
especially in case light brine is used, it is necessary to control and to adjust the pH
of the saline solution. However it is necessary to consider that some salts hinder
these manipulations of the pH values.
Phenomena of damage linked with the swelling/dispersion of fine materials may be
hindered by stabilizing products (cationic polymers used at the 1-2% in the brine)
that, introduced in the formation (it is necessary to pump cushions in the formation,
or make them be absorbed, to treat the zone nearest to the well), link tighter with
each other the clay planes and the fine particles to the grain surfaces.
The clay can be cemented in place using Zirconium Oxychloride which creates a
poly-nucleated cation that bond strongly the clay particles together. This system is
stable with HCl but is removed by HF.
It is usually impossible to restore the original permeability, when clay particles in
sandstones are rearranged or disturbed. Thus, formation damage due to clays must
be prevented rather than cured.
6.3.2 WATER BLOCKING

Increased water saturation near the well bore results from filtrate invasion or
fingering or coning of formation water. Filtrate invasion is normally termed water
blocking.
The extent of oil productivity reduction depends on the degree of water saturation
and the radius of the affected area.
The increase of saturation in water may decrease the relative permeability of the
produced hydrocarbon and, until the clean up is not able to expel the absorbed fluid,
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the productivity of the invaded level will turn out to be decreased. The more depleted
the level and the lower the permeability of the formation, the more severe the
phenomenon since the flow of hydrocarbons could be inadequate to expel the brine
rapidly from the pores of the rock. The phenomenon is obviously correlated also to
the trend of relative permeability water-hydrocarbon. For highly depleted reservoirs,
especially with low permeability (e.g. gradients<0.5 Kg/cm2/ 10m and K<10-20mD to
the brine), the phenomenon can be so severe as it hinders the flowing of the
hydrocarbon into the pores; this phenomenon is defined water blocking.
WATER BLOCKING
SAND
GRAIN
Figure 6-4 – Water Blocking
This kind of problem are faced and often solved by the use of surfactants (used with
concentrations of 0.2-1%), which, reducing the superficial tension of the fluid (from
70 dine/cm to around 20-21 dine/cm), let the formation gas or oil to displace the fluid
more easily.
6.3.2.1 FILTRATE OF OIL BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS

In this case the fluid which enters in the pores of the rock is the continuous phase
(synthetic oil, gas oil etc…..).
In oil wells, the increase of the saturation in oil can not cause capillary phenomena
related to saturations such as to hinder the clean up (of the water blocking type
described before) while a variation of wettability may occur due to the soaking of the
surfactants (the same used for manufacturing the emulsion) contained in the filtrate
by the surfaces of the rock. Being equal the residual saturation in water, in water wet
rocks the effective permeability towards oil is greater, while in oil wet rocks the
permeability is lower.
The phenomenon of variation of wettability from water to oil can be expressed, in
practice by the presence of a damaged zone around the well which introduces a skin
that can be eliminated only by appropriate stimulation treatments (matrix or
fracturing stimulation).
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Problems may arise if oil is a new phase in the formation; in dry gas reservoir
(methane) the introduction of a new phase allows the introduction of a new residual
saturation (oil) which will necessarily reduce the relative permeability of the gas; the
phenomenon may be not so serious, given the high mobility of the gas, but the
decision to use oil based completion fluids in mineralized formations must be
carefully evaluated and will depend on several factors such as the permeability of
the formation, the pressure gradient available for the clean up, the presence of a
organic phase released by oil based fluid used for drilling.
6.3.3 INCREASED FLUID VISCOSITY

Plugging of the formation may occur due to the presence of emulsions in the pores
of the formation itself.
In a radial flow situation, the extent of productivity reduction depends on viscosity of
the emulsion and the radius of the affected area. Water-in-oil emulsions generally
exhibit viscosities many times higher than the viscosities of oil-in-water emulsions.
Emulsions are stabilised by surface active materials and by small solid particles
such as formation fines, drilling or completion fluid clays or solid hydrocarbon
particles.
The presence and the character of fines significantly contribute to emulsion stability.
These fines may occur because of the character of the formation or may be released
as a result of a stimulation treatment or contact with a foreign fluid. Generally, fine-
particle wettability is an important factor in emulsion stability and in determining the
continuous phase of the emulsion. Strongly water-wet fines tend to reduce emulsion
stability.
The formation wettability is a significant factor in emulsion stability. Emulsions exhibit
much greater stability and viscosity in strongly oil-wet formations.
Emulsion blocks exhibit a check valve effect which can be detected by comparing
injectivity and productivity tests.
6.3.3.1 SLUDGE
It is also possible to have the formation of the sludge, an organic solid derived from
the collapse of the molecules of asphaltenes and/or resins contained in the oil and
this can be considered as a consequence of the salification (neutralization) of
particular functional groups caused by the metallic ion used for the preparation of the
brine; these solids precipitating within the pores of the rock cause damage to the
formation. It is not possible to give a more accurate explanation of this phenomenon,
given the uncertain composition of the oils, but the more these are heavier and
richer in resin/asphaltenes, the greater is the probability of reaction between these
large molecules and the metallic ions. Even the pH of the brine may play an
important role in the incompatibility between oil and the water-based completion fluid
since the various functional groups of the macromolecules dissolved in the oil are
salified or ionized by the variation of pH. In fact, a functional group which appears to
be charged at an acid pH (e.g.: amminic group -NR1R2H+) may become neutral at
elevated values of pH
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− NR1 R 2 H + + OH − ↔ − NR1 R 2 + H 2 O
and therefore it may destabilize and lead to the precipitation of the molecule. The
acids or the brines with low pH may lead to salification reactions of the type
− NR1 R 2 + H + ↔ − NR1 R 2 H +
described above or set off complex reactions of polymerization or decomposition.
The drawbacks created by a negative interaction between oil and brine can be
avoided using particular surfactants (demulsifiers and anti-sludge agent) selected,
however, on the basis of empirical laboratory tests; another possibility is to change
the type of completion fluid and use an oil-based fluid.
6.3.4 FILTRATE OF OIL-BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS

Mud filtrate can create problems in contact with brine, in those wells drilled with oil
based- mud, especially in zones mineralized with dry gas: the organic phase is an oil
and the surfactants (used for preparation of the brine) can result in the formation of
emulsions (with the completion brine lost in the formation) or in the precipitation of
solids due to the separation of some components of the mixture of surfactants
contained in the filtrate.
When it enters the formation, the filtrate of the completion fluid (oil) comes into
contact with an aqueous phase (the formation water), with another organic phase
(hydrocarbon) and possibly with the filtrate of the drilling mud.
If the organic filtrate contains surfactants used during the preparation of the
completion fluid, it is possible that this will generate emulsions with the formation
water; if the organic completion fluid does not contain any surfactants, it is possible
to anticipate only the increase in the oil of the invaded zone without any
consequences on the productivity of the reservoir oil.
6.4 SCALE DEPOSITION

Oilfield scales are inorganic crystalline deposits that form as a result of the
precipitation of solids from brines present in the reservoir and production flow
system.
The precipitation of these solids occurs as the results of changes in the ionic
composition, pH, pressure and temperature of the water. There are three principal
mechanisms by which scales form in oilfield systems:
1) Decrease in pressure and/or increase in temperature of a water, leading to a
reduction in the solubility of the salt (most commonly these lead to precipitation of
carbonate scales, such as CaCO3),
2) Mixing of two incompatible waters (most commonly formation water rich in cations
such as barium, calcium and/or strontium, mixing with sulphate rich water, i.e.
seawater, leading to the precipitation of sulphate scales, such as BaSO4 and
CaSO4),
3) Water evaporation, resulting in the salt concentration increasing above the
solubility limit and leading to salt precipitation (as may occur in HP/HT gas and/or
gas condensed wells where a dry gas stream may mix with a low rate water
stream resulting in dehydration and most commonly the precipitation of NaCl)
Scale is deposited in formation matrix and fractures, well bore, downhole pumps,
tubing, casing, flow lines. Scale sometimes limits or blocks oil and gas production.
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Wells exhibit appreciable reduced productivity or injectivity and often require a large
number of costly remedial jobs.
Scale deposited slowly may be very hard and dense, and may be difficult to remove
with acid or other chemicals.
6.4.1 CAUSES OF SCALE DEPOSITION

Primary factors affecting scale precipitation, deposition, and crystal growth are:
• Supersaturation.
• Commingling of two unlike waters having incompatible compounds in solution.
• Change of temperature and pressure on solution.
• Evaporation (affects concentration).
• Agitation.
• Contact time.
• pH.
6.4.2 TENDENCY TO SCALE

1 - Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3 – Calcite and Aragonite)
In oil wells, calcium carbonate precipitation is usually caused by pressure drop
releasing water dissolved CO2. When CO2 is released from solution, change the
equilibrium of the reaction:
CO2 + H2O ↔ HCO3- + CO3- -
and the pH increases, the solubility of dissolved carbonates decreases, and the
more soluble bicarbonates (HCO3-) salts are converted to less soluble carbonates
(CO3- -).
Scale precipitation also varies with calcium ion concentration (common ion effect-
such as from CaCI2), alkalinity of water (concentration of bicarbonate ion),
temperature, total salt concentration, contact time, and degree of agitation:
• Scaling will increase with increased temperature.

• Scaling increases with an increase in pH.
• Scaling increases and becomes harder with increased contact time.
• Scaling increases with increase in turbulence.
Also mixing of two incompatible waters (one with high bicarbonate ion content and
one with high concentration of Ca ion) will cause precipitation of CaCO3 scale.
2 - Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4 . 2H2O – Gypsum and CaSO4 – Anhydrite)

The most common form of calcium sulphate scale deposited down hole is gypsum
(hydrous calcium sulphate CaSO4.2H2O).
• Mixing of two waters, one containing calcium ions and the other containing
sulphate ions, often causes scaling, particularly in water injection with sea
water.
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• A reduction in pressure decreases solubility and increases scaling

• Agitation increases scaling tendency.
• Evaporation of water due to evolution of free gas near or in the well bore may
cause supersaturation and gypsum scaling.
• A change in temperature will change the solubility of calcium sulphate or
gypsum and the tendency to precipitate.
3 – Barium and Strontium Sulphate (BaSO4 – Barite and SrSO4 – Celestite)
• Both BaSO4 and SrSO4 are usually caused by commingling of two unlike
waters, one containing soluble salts of barium or strontium and the other
containing sulphate ions.
• For a given water salinity, BaSO4 scaling increases.
• With decreases in temperature as a result of decreasing BaSO4 solubility.
• Pressure drop may decrease the solubility of BaSO4
4 – Sodium Chloride (NaCl – Halite)
Precipitation of sodium chloride is normally caused by supersaturating usually due to

evaporation or decreases in temperature.
5 – Iron scales
Iron scales are frequently the result of corrosion products such as various iron
oxides and iron sulphide.
High salinity, acid gases (CO2 and H2S), oxygen, sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB),
give corrosion problems, each of these can react with iron in solution or with steel
surfaces to form a precipitate of iron oxide, iron sulphide, iron carbonate.
6.4.3 PREDICTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SCALE

A fundamental part of any field evaluation for scale management is the assessment
of the amount and location of possible scale deposition within the oil production
process.
In the past the scaling tendency is calculated with the Stiff and Davis method,
actually many independent commercially codes are available.
These codes is useful for modelling interactions in sedimentary basins and oil
reservoirs and can be used to study the effects of boiling, mixing of solutions,
partitioning of gases between water, oil and gas phases and to study the effects of
ion exchange, adsorption/desorption, dissolution/precipitation of solid phases.
The method of collecting samples and the water analysis is fundamental in good
results of scale prediction. In particular the best procedure is to measure pH,
bicarbonate and CO2 content (when it is possible) immediately after sampling. Start
from these data, the chemical composition of water collected at well head, reservoir
description (T, P and lithology description) the mathematical codes calculate the
equilibrium at reservoir condition from water and mineralogical species (saturation
index, S.I.). The value of S.I. equal to zero indicate the equilibrium situation, the
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value of S.I.<0 indicate the under saturation and the impossibility to have
precipitation, the S.I.>0 indicate the possibility to have scale precipitation.
X-ray diffraction is the most used method for scale identification. Each crystalline
chemical compound in the scale diffracts X-rays in a characteristic manner.
Chemical analysis may also be used for scale identification. Samples of scale are
dissolved in specific chemical solution, based on type of scale (determined by
qualitative X-ray analysis). Chemical elements are then analysed by standard
analytics techniques.
6.5 ASPHALTENE PLUGGING

Temperature and pressure reductions accompanying flow of crude oil and containing
appreciable quantities of asphaltic material may result in deposition of these
materials in the formation.
Deposition may reduce formation permeability by blocking pore spaces or by
causing the formation to become oil wet.
The dilution of a crude oil with a paraffin-base oil (a low aromatic content) may
create precipitates: the asphaltenes contained in oil may in fact precipitate causing
severe damages; also the resins are less stable in non-polar solvent and may also
precipitate. The degree of precipitation and the severity of the damage depend both
on the type of filtrate and on the type of formation oil.
The gas phase may not negatively interact with the organic filtrate, but the decision
to use oil-based completion fluids in dry gas reservoirs must be carefully evaluated
as previously mentioned because of the introduction of an additional phase in the
formation which may reduce the effective permeability to the produced hydrocarbon.
Nevertheless, it is possible to predict the compatibility of resins and asphaltenes of a
given oil with oil-based completion fluid only by means of adequate laboratory tests.
6.6 WAXES (PARAFFINS)

Waxes are also common organic species that cause formation damage. Waxes are
long-chain hydrocarbons that precipitate from certain crude oils when the
temperature is reduced or the oil composition changes because of the liberation of
gas as the pressure is reduced.
6.7 DIAGNOSIS OF FORMATION DAMAGE

It is usually possible to determine that formation damage or skin effect exists in a
particular well. This can be done through well tests such as injectivity or productivity
tests.
• Analysis of pressure build-up or fall-off tests will indicate the relative
magnitude of the damage or skin effect.
• Production logging surveys may show zones not contributing to the total flow
stream.
Careful examination of completion, testing and workover reports is helpful to identify
the type of formation damage.
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6.8 FORMATION DAMAGE REDUCTION
6.8.1 USE OF SURFACTANTS FOR WELL TREATMENTS

Surfactants, or surface-active agents, are chemicals that can favourably or
unfavourably affect the flow of fluids near the well bore. The use of surfactants
should be considered for all well completion, well killing, workover and well
stimulation.
Surfactants have the ability to lower the surface tension of a liquid that is in contact
with a gas by adsorbing at the interface between the liquid and gas. Surfactants can
also reduce interfacial tension between two immiscible liquids by adsorbing at the
interfaces between the liquids.
Because the primary action of most surfactants is due to electrostatic forces, a
surfactant is classified by the ionic nature of the molecule's Water-Soluble group.
Anionic surfactants are organic molecules where the Water-Soluble group is
negatively charged (phosphonates).
Cationic surfactants are organic molecules where the water-soluble group is
positively charged.
Non-ionic surfactants are organic molecules that do not ionise and, therefore, remain
uncharged.
Amphoteric surfactants are organic molecules where the water-soluble group can be
either positively charged, negatively charged or uncharged.
6.8.1.1 ROCK WETTABILITY

Wettability is a descriptive term used to indicate whether a rock or metal surface has
the capacity to be preferentially coated with a film of oil or a film of water.
Surfactants may adsorb at the interface between the liquid and rock or metal surface
and may change the electrical charge on the rock or metal, thereby altering the
wettability. Although the surface of a solid can have varying degrees of wettability
under normal reservoir conditions, the following conditions usually exist:
• Sand and clay are water-wet and have a negative surface charge.
• Limestone and dolomite are water-wet and have a positive surface charge in
the pH range of 0 to 8.
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WETTING PHASE
ROCK
GRAIN
NON
WETTING
PHASE
Figure 6-5 – Rock Wettability
6.8.1.2 MECHANICS OF EMULSIONS

Emulsions can occur between two immiscible liquids and may be stable depending
on effects that occur at the interface. Energy is required to create the emulsion and
stabilisers must collect at the interface between the liquids to keep the emulsion
from breaking.
The most significant stabilisers of emulsions are:
1) Fine particles of clay or other materials.
2) Asphaltenes.
3) Surfactants.
Surfactants have the ability to break an emulsion by acting on the stabilising
materials in such a way as to remove them from the interfacial film surrounding an
emulsion droplet.
6.8.2 FORMATION DAMAGE SUSCEPTIBLE TO SURFACTANT TREATMENT

Types of damage which may be prevented, alleviated or aggravated by surfactants
are:
1) Oil-wetting of formation rock.
2) Water blocks.
3) Viscous emulsion blocks.
4) Particle blocks.
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6.8.2.1 OIL-WETTING OF FORMATION ROCK

Oil wetting of a normally water-wet formation can reduce permeability to oil by 15 to
85% with an average reduction of about 40%.
When the formation near the well bore becomes oil-wet, oil is preferentially attracted
to the surface of reservoir rock. This appreciably increases the thickness of the film
coating the reservoir rock and reduces the size of flow paths from the reservoir as
well as decreasing the relative permeability to oil.
Gas wells are also adversely affected by oil-wetting the formation. Oil-wetting a
reservoir rock can result in severe water or emulsion blocking.
Sources of oil-wetting in oil and gas wells are:
• Surfactants in some drilling mud filtrates and workover and well stimulation
fluids may oil-wet the formation.
• Corrosion inhibitors and bactericides are usually cationic surfactants, which
will oil-wet sandstone and clay.
• Oil-based mud containing blown asphalt will oil-wet: sandstone, clays or
carbonates. Oil emulsion mud usually contains considerable cationic
surfactants and may oil-wet sandstones and clays.
• A strong water-wetting surfactant may convert some oil-wetted surfaces to
water-wet surfaces. This will enlarge flow paths to oil and restore oil
permeability to that of the undamaged water-wet matrix around the well bore.
However, cationic surfactants are extremely difficult to remove from sandstone
and clay. The best approach is to avoid contact of formation sands and clay
with cationic surfactants.
6.8.2.2 WATER BLOCKS

When large quantities of water are lost to a partially oil-wet formation, the return of
original oil or gas productivity may be slow, especially in partially pressure-depleted
reservoirs. This problem is caused by a temporary reduction in relative permeability
near the well bore to oil or gas. It is usually self-correcting but may persist for
months or years.
Water blocking can usually be prevented by adding to all injected well fluids about
0.1 to 0.2% by volume of surfactant selected to lower surface and interfacial tension.
The surfactant should also water-wet the formation and prevent emulsions.
Cleanup of a water-blocked well can be accelerated by injecting into the formation a
solution of 1% to 3% by volume of a selected surfactant in clean water or oil. The
surfactant should lower surface and interfacial tension and leave the formation in a
water-wet condition. Removing damage requires many times the volume of
surfactant required to prevent damage.
6.8.2.3 VISCOUS EMULSION BLOCKS

Viscous emulsions of oil and water in the formation near the well bore can drastically
reduce the productivity of oil or gas wells. In carbonates, emulsions are usually
associated with fracture acidizing.
It has been proven that if an emulsion block exists, the calculated average well
permeability, as determined by injectivity tests, will be higher than the average
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permeability determined from production tests. This provides a reliable way to

predict emulsion blocks and is frequently called the check valve effect.
Emulsions in the formation can be broken by injecting demulsifying surfactants into
the formation, provided intimate contact is made between the surfactant and each
emulsion droplet. To break the emulsion, the surfactant must be absorbed on the
surface of the emulsion droplets and lower interfacial tension.
Breaking an emulsion in the formation usually requires the injection of 2% to 3% by
volume of demulsifying surfactant in clean water or clean oil. The treatment volumes
should be at least equal to or greater than the volume of the damaging fluid
previously lost to the formation. The amount of surfactant required to remove an
emulsion block will usually be 20 to 30 times the volume of surfactant required to
prevent the block.
6.8.2.4 PARTICLES BLOCK

As a rule, it is desirable to maintain formation clays in the original condition in the
reservoir. Dispersing, flocculating, breaking loose or moving clays probably causes
more damage to wells than the swelling clays.
Change of particle size affects formation damage. Oil wetting of clays with cationic
surfactants greatly increases the size of clay particles and increase the severity of
clay-blockage. Hydrated sodium clays may be reduced in size by an HCl treatment.
When hydrated sodium clay reacts with acid, the hydrogen ions (H+) will replace the
sodium ions (Na+) by ion exchange. An anionic surfactant should usually be
used when acidizing sandstone to prevent clay flocculation.
High surface tension of liquids near the well bore will reduce the flow of oil and gas
into a well and increase well cleanup time. A selected surfactant may be added to
lower surface tension and accelerate well clean up.
A correct surfactant, which is designed for specific well conditions, can lower surface
and interfacial tension, favourable change wettability, break or prevent emulsions,
prevent remove water blocks. The proper use of surfactants during well
completion workover or well stimulation can prevent or remove many types of
damage and result in increased productivity or injectivity.
6.8.3 SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SURFACTANT-RELATED DAMAGE

Emphasis in the use of surfactants should be aimed at preventing damage. As
previously noted, acidizing can cause emulsions, water blocks and high surface
tension problems in carbonates. Sandstones are even more prone to damage during
acidizing caused by water and emulsion blocking, high surface tension, oil-wetting
and clay dispersion or flocculation. A surfactant should be employed on all acidizing
jobs and should be selected through tests in compliance with API specifications.
Because sandstone wells are more susceptible to damage, all fluids and chemicals
that are injected or circulated into sandstone wells during well servicing, workover,
well completion and stimulation should be tested for compatibility with formation
fluids.
If laboratory tests show potential damage caused by fluid circulation or injection into
a well, surfactants should be selected through laboratory tests to prevent damage.
If a surfactant is needed, tests must be run to determine the best surfactant for the
job.
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6.8.3.1 SELECTION OF AN EMULSION BREAKING SURFACTANT

If an emulsion block is indicated on a workover or well completion, emulsion
breaking tests should be made using selected surfactants and samples of produced
emulsion. If samples of the emulsion are not available, the alternative is to
reconstruct, in the laboratory, a similar emulsion using the formation fines, fluids and
chemicals that caused the downhole emulsion.
It is usually advisable to run several emulsion breaking tests using different
surfactants to select the most effective emulsion breaker.
Systems that will not form stable emulsions usually will not require surfactants in the
treating solutions. Conversely, if reconstructed systems involved in previous well
treatments show stable emulsions, well damage may be due to emulsion blocking of
the formation.
6.8.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR WELL TREATING SURFACTANTS

Surfactant used to prevent or remove damage should:
• Reduce surface and interfacial tension.
• Prevent the formation of emulsions and break emulsions previously formed.
• Water-wet the reservoir rock, considering salinity and pH of water involved.
• Should not swell, shrink, or disturb formation clays.
• Maintain surface activity at reservoir conditions.
• Have solubility in the carrier or treating fluid at reservoir temperature. Some
satisfactory surfactants are dispersed in their carrying fluid.
Many commercial surfactants appear to lose much of their surface activity above
50,000 ppm salt. To overcome this difficulty, it is sometimes desirable to pump a
preflush of solvent or relatively low salinity water, such as 1% KCI, ahead of the
surfactant treatment. The use of a solvent preflush may also reduce water
production, immediately following treatment. However, a solvent preflush should not
be used in dry gas wells.
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7. CARRYING CAPACITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS

Viscosity is a property of a fluid which can be defined as the friction that must be
overcome to maintain the fluid in motion. A very viscous fluid appears like a paste
(for example non-solidified honey, undiluted paint, etc.) and it is easy to imagine that
a particle immersed in a fluid will settle more quickly (falls to the bottom of the
container or reaches a certain settling velocity) the lower is the viscosity of the
medium. Consequently, the carrying capacity of a fluid depends on its rheological
behaviour.
7.1 AN OUTLINE OF RHEOLOGY

Simple fluids such as brine and oils exhibit the so-called newtonian behaviour, which
means that the viscosity of the fluid is constant at a given pressure and temperature.
For these type of fluids, the shear stress σ (KPa) that needs to be applied to an
object to maintain it in motion in the fluid is linearly dependent on the shear rate D
(s-1).
The viscosity η (cps or mPa·s) is defined as the ratio between shear stress and
shear rate and, being a constant, the shear stress is linearly dependent on the shear
rate.
σ =η ⋅ D (linear relation, Newton’s law)

η =σ /D (constant viscosity, newtonian fluids)
Fluids viscosified with polymers exhibit non-newtonian behaviour in which the shear
stress does not vary linearly with the shear rate and therefore for each shear rate
value, there is a different viscosity.
In order to completely describe the rheological behaviour of the fluid, it is necessary
to plot an experimental curve showing the viscosity trend for various ranges of
shear: a single value of viscosity, determined at a certain value of shear rate, cannot
describe this behaviour.
The viscosity is determined by means of particular instruments called viscosimeters
and the most commonly used are:
a) Capillary viscosimeter: it consists of a thin quartz tube through which
the fluid passes by gravitational effect; noting the tube diameter and fluid
density, from the time (t, seconds) which is required for a precise volume of
liquid to pass, the kinematic viscosity is calculated (ν = k·t [stokes], where k is
a constant of the instrument). The dynamic viscosity is obtained by multiplying
the kinematic viscosity by the value of density (η = ν·ρ [cps] or [mPa]). This
instrument is usable only for newtonian fluids, since it is not possible to apply
a prefixed shear rates to the fluid.
b) Rotational viscosimeter: the most well-known model is the Fann 35. A
cylinder (rotor) rotates externally and concentrically to a second fixed cylinder
(bob) which is dragged by the fluid movement in the annular space between
the two cylinders; from the drag force exerted on the bob (measured by a
dynamometer) the value of viscosity is obtained taking note of the rotational
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speed of the rotor and some constants of the instrument (such as the rotor
and bob diameters and the response law of the dynamometer). It is possible to
measure the viscosity for various ranges of shear rate since different shear
rates can be applied and the corresponding shear stress to maintain motion
can be read.
Such viscosity is constant for newtonian fluids, whereas for non-newtonian fluids an
apparent viscosity is defined, given by the ratio σ / D (ηapp) which is a function of
the shear rate. Non-newtonian fluids are generally described by one or more values
of apparent viscosity corresponding to one or more shear rates (e.g. 1000 cps at 3s-1
and 10 cps at 511 s-1) or by equations (models) in common use; for example for
Ostwald’s type non-newtonian fluids:
Ostwald’s Law: σ = k ⋅ D n or η = σ / D = k ⋅ D n −1
(also called Power Law) the rheology of fluid is defined in terms of k or k

(consistency index) and n (flow index):
• the greater the value of k the higher the viscosity of a fluid
• the greater the value of n above 1, the greater is the increase of viscosity with
increased shear rate (dilatant fluids)
• the lower the value of n below 1, the lower is the decrease of viscosity with
increased shear rate (pseudoplastic fluids)
The trends of the shear stress (σ) and viscosity (η) are shown in Figure 7-1.
Figure 7-1 – Shear Stress vs. Shear Rate

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Figure 7-2 – Viscosity vs. Shear Rate
The most commonly used non-newtonian fluids are the pseudoplastic fluids (flow
index, n<1) where the viscosity decreases with the increase in the shear rate. Such
phenomenon is due to the dispersion of the polymer molecules which tend to
change their structure with the variation in the shear rate: as the shear rate is
increased, the molecules stretch and as a consequence the apparent viscosity
decreases.
Fluids which exhibit a yield behave differently; when these fluids are in a state of rest
(gel state), it is necessary to apply a stress of a certain magnitude to put in motion
an immersed object. Once the fluid is in motion, the gel state disappears and it is no
longer necessary to apply an elevated stress to move the immersed object. Drilling
muds always have a yield since, if circulation is interrupted, they can maintain the
solids in suspension for a very long time in so far as the gel state can be regarded
as a state in which the fluid assumes an infinite viscosity. If the mud is maintained in
motion, the gel state does not appear and the drilling mud behaves as a fluid without
yield.
The model which describes the rheology of a fluid of this type can be expressed by a
modified power law by Ostwald ( σ = σo + k Dn) or by an analogous law which takes
into account the fact that a shear σ (σo>σ>0) can be applied to the fluid without
having flow (shear rate = 0, D = 0, even for σ not equal to zero). In this case, the
gelled fluid behaves as a solid (η = σ / D = σ / 0 = ∞, infinite viscosity) with high
deformation and maintains this property until the stress exceeds the threshold value
σo whereupon the force of the gel disappears and movement of the previously
gelled fluid occurs. The gel structure maintains in suspension those solids which
exert a stress σ < σo that is, light or small sized solids for which the preceding
correlation is valid.
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The viscosity of dilatant fluids on the other hand increases as the shear rate is
increased (n > 1). One of the most noted examples is demonstrated by wet sand that
offers resistance to motion under a person’s foot; some cement slurries also exhibit
a dilatant behaviour.
7.2 SOLID TRANSPORTATION

The velocity of a particle in free fall depends on its shape, size and density as well
as on the properties of the fluid (density and viscosity) through which it moves. The
maximum fall velocity (terminal velocity) is reached when the force of resistance to
motion (friction and buoyancy) balance the gravitational force exerted on the particle.
Consider a solid particle contained in a fluid returned to the surface through the
annulus during a milling or an underreaming operation; if the terminal velocity of the
particle is lower than the fluid velocity, then the particle will move upwards in the
direction of motion of the fluid with a transport velocity Vt given by the algebraic
difference (or vector addition) between the terminal velocity and the fluid velocity.
The terminal velocity of a spherical particle immersed in a fluid is given by Stoke’s
Law and is a function of both the fluid and particle densities. In the case of laminar
flow, the fluid viscosity will also have a notable effect on the transport velocity,
whereas, in the case of turbulent flow, the fluid viscosity does not have any
influence.
Stoke’s Law is expressed by the following equations:
Terminal velocity equation valid in case of laminar flow:
2 gd p2 ρ p − ρ f
Eq. 7.A vt = ⋅
36 µ
Terminal velocity equation valid in case of turbulent flow:
Eq. 7.B
vt = 9 ⋅
[d (ρ − ρ )]
p p f
12
[ρ ] f
12
where:
vt = velocity (cm/s)
g = 981 cm/s2
dp = diameter of the spherical particle (cm)
ρp, ρf = particle and fluid specific weights (g/cm3)
µ = fluid viscosity (poise)
Note: the equations reported above should not be applied for non-spherical particles
(e.g. metal cuttings produced during a milling operation of casing) but equations
which are applicable to different shapes of particles have still not yet been
developed. However, the use of these equations do allow an estimate of the velocity
of differently shaped particles as well as the comparison for the effect of different
dynamic conditions in the well regarding the carrying capacity of fluids.
Supposing that a solid body to be transported to surface has a certain density and
size (and assuming a spherical shape for simplicity), it is possible to evaluate, as a
function of the fluid viscosity and velocity and hence the conditions of turbulent or
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laminar flow, its settling velocity and consequently its transport velocity. To evaluate
the viscosity of a non-newtonian fluid (for newtonian fluids the viscosity is constant),
it is necessary to know the well geometry (casing and tubing diameters) and the
circulation flow rate in order to evaluate the shear in the annulus and hence the
value of apparent viscosity of the fluid to be used in the Stoke’s law equation. The
flow regime (laminar or turbulent) is determined by Reynolds number: if the value in
the well is equal to or lower than a critical value (NRecrit) laminar flow exists, whereas
if the value is much higher than NRecrit the flow is turbulent (in the intermediate zone,
the flow condition is in transition between the two extremes).
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow for a newtonian fluid (NRe = Reynold’s
number)
Eq. 7.C ρ f ⋅ν f ⋅ d e
N Re crit =
µ
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow for a pseudoplastic fluid (NRe = Reynold’s
number)
Eq. 7.D n(n + 2)(n+2) /(n+1)

N Recrit = 6464⋅
(3n + 1)2
where:
vt = fluid velocity (cm/s)
de = hydraulic diameter (flow section/wet perimeter, cm)
ρf = fluid specific weight (g/cm3)
The value of Reynolds number, corresponding to the given well geometry, the
rheological behaviour of the fluid (in terms of consistency index and flow index) and
the flow rate, allows the determination of which equation should be used for the
calculation of the settling velocity of the particle (Eq. 7.A or Eq. 7.B). It should be
noted that the Reynolds number is dependent on the fluid viscosity (µ which appears
in the denominator) and consequently the presence of a polymer increases the
critical value (which indicates the transition between laminar and turbulent flow
condition) as indicated in Table 7-1 and Figure 7-3 derived from the application of
Eq. 7.D.
n.
NRecrit
(consistency index)
1 2099
0.9 2158
0.8 2219
0.7 2280
0.6 2337
0.5 2381
Table 7-1 – NRecrit as a Function of Consistency Index
In addition to the turbulence arising from flow in the annulus, the same particle may
be subject to a phenomenon of local turbulence which is capable of accelerating the
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settling; the critical value of Reynolds number relative to the particle also depends
on the viscosity of the fluid and can be derived from Eq. 7.E.
Transition from laminar to turbolent flow for a newtonian fluid Nre = 2100 (NRe =
Reynold’s number)
Eq. 7.E de ⋅ vt ρ f
N Re, p =
µ
where:
vt = velocity (cm/s)
dp = diameter of the spherical particle (cm)
ρf = fluid specific weights (g/cm3)
Figure 7-3 – Effect of Rheological Behaviour of the Fluid on NRecrit of a Settling Particle
The settling velocity under turbulent flow conditions does not depend on viscosity (it
depends only on Nre). Therefore, increasing the flow rate in a pipe, a fluid with a
higher viscosity will enter in turbulent flow later than a fluid with a lower viscosity but,
after the transition from laminar to turbulent flow conditions, the settling velocity of a
suspended particle will be independent of the viscosity.
The described equations have been used in order to obtain a simplified model of
transport which has allowed the following general observations to be made:
a) In turbulent flow conditions, the carrying capacity (given by the ratio
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between the upward velocity of the solid and the fluid velocity in the annulus)
does not depend on fluid viscosity; that is, it does not depend on the quantity
of polymer used in the preparation of a viscosified brine but rather on the
circulation flow rate; this observation derives from the fact that fluid viscosity
does not appear in Eq. 7.B.
b) With viscosified brine (e.g. with HEC), the maximum carrying capacity
is observed at flow rates which correspond to laminar flow regime (since
viscosity is high, vt is a minimum in agreement with Eq. 7.A).
If completion fluids cannot be pumped at high flow rates in order to create a
turbulent flow conditions (i.e. lack of power in small rigs), their carrying capacity may
not be sufficient to remove the heaviest cuttings from the well because of their very
high settling velocity. In such situations, it is necessary to increase the viscosity (vt
decreases in accordance with Eq. 7.A and therefore the particles tend to remain
suspended and follow the direction of flow of the fluid) so that the carrying capacity
is increased to the extent of removing solids from the well.
At high flow rates, a low viscosity fluid such as brine is always able to transport most
of the solids without difficulty: for example, any gravel which remains inside the drill
string at the end of a gravel pack operation, can be easily removed with the
completion brine in reverse circulation.
Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the use of polymers in operations which
require the transport of solids: if transport can be assured with only the completion
fluid in turbulent flow regime and the high flow rate does not cause any undesired
side-effect such as hole caving or high leak-off (loss of fluid in the formation caused
by the high bottomhole pressure differential), it is not recommended to use a
polymer. If the carrying capacity has to be increased through the use of polymers, it
is necessary to impose a laminar flow regime (by controlling the polymer quantity
and decreasing the velocity) to prevent the fluid from becoming excessively
weighted with cuttings at low flow rate.
Table 7-2 shows the optimum values calculated by the model for metal spheres (sg
= 7,5 g/cm3) with a diameter of 0,1 cm in 3% KCl and for 7” casing (ID = 6,3”) and 3-
1/2” string:
HEC Qmax under laminar flow Qmax under laminar flow

Temp. HEC (lb/gal) (g/l) condition condition
35°C 45lb/1000 gal 5,4 g/l 5,2 bpm 8,3 m3/min
Table 7-2 – Optimum Concentrations of HEC for the Transport of Metal Spheres
Values of polymer concentrations in 3% KCl have been determined by observing at

which concentration the velocity of transport maintained an effective value for each
flow rate. Obviously, for a given temperature (e.g. 60°C), fluids containing higher
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concentrations than those indicated in Table 7-2 (e.g. 65lb/1000 gals, i.e. 7.8 g/l)
satisfy the stated condition: the velocity of transport never reaches zero whatever
the circulation flow rate.
For example, at 60°C, the output plot of the model (Figure 7-4) leads to the
conclusion that the concentration of polymer of 60lb/1000gals (i.e. 7.2 g/l)
guarantees the transport of solids at any flow rate but at flow rates greater than 4,8
bpm, a decrease in the carrying capacity is observed since such the capacity is
governed exclusively by the turbulence regime (the curved line in the chart) which is
common to all fluids, even to non-viscosified brine.
Similar calculations (Figure 7-5), performed on sand particles in the same dynamic
system, lead to the conclusion that 50lb/1000gals (i.e. 6.0 g/l) of HEC are sufficient
to guarantee transport but the maximum applicable flow rate which takes advantage
of the fluid viscosity is lower, after which the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
regime occurs and the capacity falls again to the curve common to all polymer
concentrations in the same brine.
Figure 7-4 – Capacity to Transport 1mm Metal Spheres KCl 3% Viscosified with HEC
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Figure 7-5 – Capacity to Transport Sand KCl 3% Viscosified with HEC
Furthermore, it can be observed that the turbulent flow regime is more efficient for
the transport of lighter particles such as sand. Therefore, in order to carry formation
sand to the surface, for example during underreaming operations, it is necessary to
avoid turbulent flow conditions, using lower flow rates and lower polymer
concentrations with respect to those calculated for metal cuttings, as indicated in
Table 7-3.
Obviously, utilizing polymer concentrations (as reported in Table 7-2) established for
the transport of metal spheres, the transport of sand will be assured (since sand is
lighter than metal spheres), but the maximum flow rates indicated in Table 7-2 must
be respected rather than those reported in Table 7-3 which refer to lower
concentrations of polymer.
HEC Qmax under laminar flow Qmax under laminar flow

Temp. HEC (lb/gals) (g/l) condition condition
35°C 35lb/1000 gal 4,2 g/l 2.0 bpm 3,2 m3/min
Table 7-3 – Optimum Concentrations of HEC for the Transport of Sand
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The values of polymer concentrations calculated with the equations previously

presented are confirmed by the application of equations which can be found in the
manuals published by Service Companies and they are therefore available in
technical literature:
Fluid velocity in a tubing:
Eq. 7.F 4Q
Vtb = 13.476
πd 2
Fluid velocity in an annulus:
Eq. 7.G 4Q
Van =13.476
π ⋅(D2 −d2)
Value of Reynolds number for a fluid pumped in a tubing (NRe = Reynold’s number):
1.86⋅ ρ ⋅Vtb(2−n') ⋅ d n'

Eq. 7.H NRe =
96n' k((3n'+1/ 4n' )n' )
Value of Reynolds number for a fluid pumped in an annulus (NRe = Reynold’s

number):
Eq. 7.I 2.28⋅ ρ ⋅Vtb(2−n') ⋅ (Dn' − d n' )

NRe =
96n' k((3n'+1/ 4n' )n' )
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow for Nre>Nre(cr):
Eq. 7.J N Re( cr ) = 3470 − 1370 n '
where:
vtb = average velocity through tubing (ft/s)
van = average velocity through annulus (ft/s)
d = tubing diameter (OD, in)
D = casing diameter (ID, in)
ρ = specific weight of fluid (ppg)
Q = flow rate of fluid (bpm)
n’ = flow index of viscous fluid (n’ = n, dimensionless)
k’ = consistency index of viscous fluid (k’ = k [(3n + 1)/ n], lbfsn’/ft2)
[1 lbfsn’/ft2 = 47,88 Pa·s, Poise]
By applying Eq. 7.F-7.J and still assuming a casing with ID = 6,3” and a string with
OD = 3-1/2”, values of NRe and NRe(cr) for various polymer concentrations (HEC) in
3% KCl and at 50°C have been determined; these values are reported in Figure 7-6.
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Figure 7-6 - NRe Calculated for Different Concentration of HEC in KCl 3%
From the Figure 7-6, it can be predicted that for polymer concentrations equal to
55lb/1000gals (i.e. 6.6 g/l), the maximum allowable flow rate to maintain a linear flow
regime is around 5,0bpm (against 5,4bpm as reported in Table 7-2), whereas for
polymer concentrations equal to 45lb/1000gals (i.e. 5.4 g/l), the maximum flow rate
is 3,1bpm (against 2,3bpm as reported in Table 7-3). The discrepancy between the
predictions of the two systems of equations can be found in the different way the
critical value of Reynolds number is calculated, as illustrated in Figure 7-7.
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Figure 7-7 - NRecrit Calculated According to Different Equations
Eq. 7.A-7.E have to be preferred since they predict lower limits of flow rates and
these equations are therefore used to establish the velocities for the transport of
solids in conditions of circulation.
In order to ensure a laminar flow regime at higher flow rates than those
recommended, it is necessary to increase polymer concentration which will result in
the use of a fluid having a very high capacity of transport which is capable of
carrying much heavier or larger cuttings to surface than is actually required;
moreover, the increase in cost for the greater use of the polymer needs to be taken
into account.
Whichever fluid is used (brine in turbulent flow or viscosified brine in laminar flow), it
is always a good practice during the circulation to displace pills which create a
different flow regime from the established one.
For example, with a simple brine the only practical flow regime is turbulence but in
this situation the settling velocity of the cuttings is at a maximum: the displacement
of a highly viscous pill (80-120lb/1000gals = 9.6-14.4 g/l of HEC according to the
temperature and flow rate and a volume equal to 100-150m of annulus) imposes a
laminar flow regime which is capable of carrying to surface the cuttings which remain
downhole. Similarly, if the flow regime during the operation is laminar as a result of
the use of viscosified brine and low flow rates, some cuttings can adhere to the wall
of the casing where the fluid velocity is zero (by definition of laminar flow) and
consequently the carrying capacity is zero. The displacement of a pill of non-viscous
brine (volume equal to 50-100m in the annulus) will induce turbulent flow conditions
which are capable of releasing these cuttings and subsequently transporting them to
surface through the action of the viscous fluid which follows in laminar flow and has
a high carrying capacity. When using viscosified salt solutions in laminar flow
conditions, it is possible to avoid the displacement of low viscosity pills if the
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concentration of the polymer is not excessive, since the different flow regimes can
be achieved simply by varying the flow rate.
Another factor which negatively affects the recovery of metallic cuttings (metal
shavings produced during milling operations) is caused the magnetization of the
particles which then adhere more easily to the wall of the casing: even in this case,
the variations of flow regime should be beneficial.
The rate of rotation of the drill string can also affect the recovery of cuttings with
viscosified brine: although it is well-known that rotation assists in the recovery of
solids since it prevents the orientation of the particles according to their size less
than with respect to the direction of flow, high rates of rotation decrease the viscosity
of the viscous medium. The variations of flow rate established for the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow conditions are achieved more easily when assisted by
variations in the rate of rotation: the higher is the rate rotation the easier turbulent
conditions will be achieved.
The concepts presented above can be applied to other operations such as sand pills
used as an abrasive for the casing cleaning.
Milling and underreaming operations in front of pay zones should however be
executed with non-damaging drilling fluids specifically planned for these operations:
these fluids are called DIF, Drill-in-Fluids. Drilling in front of pay zones is in fact,
from the point of view of productivity, the most delicate and critical of all the drilling
phases: the use of unsuitable fluids can cause severe damage which may be
removed only by subsequent stimulation treatments, which may not necessarily be
successful.
7.3 VISCOSIFYING COMPLETION FLUIDS

The most common polymers used to viscosify saline solutions are: HEC
(hydroxyethyl cellulose, a synthetic polymer obtained by modifying cellulose chains)
and XC (Xanthan Gum, a natural polymer synthesized by bacteria). Other types of
polymers are available such as PAA (polyacrilamides) but, since they are generally
more damaging, they will not be considered here (PAAs are used in drilling muds
and in cross-linked fluid-loss pills).
HEC and XC are both available as solids and are more frequently used in this form;
they differ because of the following:
a) Viscosity yield: The viscosity generated with HEC is, for the same concentration,
lower than the viscosity obtained from XC and, consequently, larger quantities of
HEC may be required (i.e. 45lb/1000gal = 5.4 g/l of XC correspond to about
67lb/1000gal = 8.0 g/l of HEC); this is essentially due to the different spatial
distribution of the chains, branched for XC and linear for HEC;
b) Degradation: it is easy to break the polymer chains of HEC (by means of enzymes
at 40-50°C, oxidants at 50-80°C and acids at higher temperatures) but much more
difficult for XC which is degradable only by strong oxidants (3-13% of LiClO or
NaClO, i.e. lithium or sodium hypochlorite, and preferably the former since it is
solid and has a more constant purity) which are extremely corrosive or
alternatively by strong acids (HCl) which have to be used at high concentrations
(above 15%);
c) Environmental sensitivity: the presence of bivalent and iron ions may lead to a
decrease in viscosity yield and problems in breaking the XC chains. Since XC is a
biopolymer, it is more easily attacked by bacteria from the surrounding
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environment which can be introduced to the brine during its preparation: the
contamination accelerates the degradation and therefore it is necessary to plan
for the addition of additives to XC in order to maintain a stable viscosity. When
polymers are added to an aqueous solution, they will tend to hydrate and once the
hydration is completed, the fluid will achieve its maximum value of viscosity. The
polymers chains will degrade with time and more rapidly when breakers are
added leaving an insoluble residue; consequently, it is necessary to use good
quality polymers with low residue in order to minimize the damage caused to the
formation.
The following guidelines should be observed during the preparation of viscous

completion fluids:
a) Add the polymer to the brine with pH = 5-6 (use a weak or diluted acid to lower
pH); this will avoid premature hydration of the polymer and allow a good
dispersion of the powder. The addition of a solid polymer to a fluid with high pH
can cause the formation of fish eyes because of the rapid hydration on the
surface of the solid particles which prevents further hydration of the inner
molecules of the polymer. These partially-hydrated particles can create severe
damage since they may be compared to highly deformable solids;
b) The dispersion should be well agitated for at least 15 minutes and the pH is then
raised to 9-10 (using a diluted base but generally more concentrated than the acid
used during the preceding point) accelerating the polymer hydration which results
in an increase of viscosity; agitate for further 15 minutes. Moreover remember
that:
• A pH = 7-8,5 should not be exceeded in solutions containing calcium or magnesium
ions (e.g. sea water or brine prepared from hard water or sea water, CaCl2 brine etc.),
since the precipitation of hydroxides will occur;
• For solutions containing ammonium ions, a pH = 6-7,5 should not be exceeded
since the addition of a base will lead to the evolution of ammonia gas, which is an
extremely dangerous gas;
• Where solutions contain zinc ions, no increase in pH is allowed since this would
cause a massive precipitation of hydroxides;
• Temperature accelerates the rate of hydration and therefore increasing the brine
temperature to 45-55°C (by circulating through a choke or by circulating brine through a
heater, if available), the yield time decreases; in the case of heavy brines, this may be
the only feasible procedure when it is not possible to modify the pH. When it is not
possible to modify the pH and it is not feasible to increase the temperature, it is
possible to use pre-hydrated polymers, consisting of extended polymer dispersed in
solvent. Particular attentions should be paid to the nature of solvent since, if it is
soluble in water (e.g. EGMBE, mutual solvent), there are no drawbacks, whereas in the
case of hydrocarbon distillates, given the high concentration of use, an undesired
organic phase could be introduced into dry gas formations. Pre-hydrated polymers can
be used without the requirement for the modification the pH of saline solutions and
therefore they are particularly suitable for use in heavy brines where such modification
may be impossible or affect the final quality of the brine;
c) Agitate for a further 15-30 minutes after the base has been added;
d) Shear the final fluid, even if it has been prepared from pre-hydrated polymer by,
for example, circulating through a choke (applying a ∆P = 50 kg/cm2), in order to
complete the hydration process and break any fish eyes that may be present. If
possible, it is a good practice to use specifically designed equipment (generally
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called shearing device, homogenizer or hydrolyser) to achieve the complete and

rapid hydration of polymers, breaking the fish eyes and partially-hydrated particles
which may have formed or be present. A shearing device is made up of metallic
parts in relative motion to one another (e.g. a fixed and rotating disc, both with a
diameter of approximately 12cm and with a series of 2mm holes). A homogenizer
is a sort of centrifugal pump with a series of opposite rotating blades. An
hydrolyser on the other hand is made up of non-rotating parts: a wire wrapped
screen (φ = 2-3/8”), similar to that used for gravel packing completions (gauge 0,1
equivalent to 1/100 inch) is installed in a 4” pipe which is connected to two 2-3/8”
pipes; the fluid must pass through this filter and then through a series of 1/100
inch holes. An unwanted effect may occur through the use of these systems
whereby the polymer may degrade and result in a decrease in viscosity of the
system.
Figure 7-8 – Hydrolyser
e) Filter the viscosified fluid (DE filter + 10µm nominal cartridge) ensuring both the
removal of solids and fish eyes (fluids viscosified with XC are hard to filter).
Although this operation is always recommended, it may not be possible to perform
this continuously while using the fluid for underreaming operations as it will
become contaminated by large quantities of sand and clay; however, the
presence of these solids, if not removed, may cause severe formation damage;
f) Add the required additives in order to complete the preparation (e.g. biocide
and/or oxygen scavengers);
g) Add the breaker (when required) immediately prior to using the viscous fluid; for
the concentration, reference is made to charts and tables provided by Service
Companies or to ad hoc tests performed in the laboratory; nevertheless, it is
necessary to take into account some incompatibilities when selecting the breaker:
Enzymes lose their functionality in brines prepared with bivalent salts (calcium and
zinc) and where the pH of the solution is far from neutral;
Oxidants react with bromide ion (2Br - + Ox ==> Br2gas ; bromide is a toxic gas) and
therefore lose their effectiveness in brines prepared from NaBr, KBr, CaBr2 and
ZnBr2 (the reaction rate of the evolution of chlorine is extremely slow and practically
does not take place in chloride brines;
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Oxidant breakers can react with other additives or contaminants that are easily
oxidised (e.g. alcohols and hydrocarbons);
Acids used as breakers (e.g. HCOOH or HCl), rather than reacting slowly with the
polymer (in terms of ten of minutes or hours), react very rapidly with any carbonates
contained in the rock, spending itself and losing any beneficial effect on the
decrease of viscosity;
If the breaking of the polymer does not occur within the planned period of time and if
the well is damaged (e.g. after inside casing gravel pack completion with the slurry
pack technique), it is possible to resort to matrix stimulations operations performed
by the injection of light salt solutions containing a high concentration of breaker;
such solutions must be compatible with the viscous fluid which is preventing
production. If it is possible to shut-in the well for a period of time (at least one
month), it is recommended to wait before performing a stimulation treatment: the
polymer may degrade by itself or by other mechanisms, restoring the productivity to
acceptable levels. Matrix stimulation treatments after polymer damage should
preferably be performed with the injection of weak acids which manage to penetrate
deep into the formation (retarding effect) rather than with aggressive acids which can
lead to the dissolving of large quantities of rock material.
Although it is possible to viscosify oil-based fluids, such operation is practically never
performed for completions since the polymers are very expensive and hard to treat
(e.g. reliable breakers are not available).
Emulsions which are prepared for completion operations already have a high
viscosity which can be modified by varying the ratio oil/brine since the greater the
proportion of the dispersed phase, the stability of the system permitting, the higher is
the viscosity: the addition of oil (external phase) decreases the viscosity of the
system (effect of dilution), whereas the increase in the aqueous phase (internal
phase) by increasing the number of suspended droplets, increases significantly the
viscosity. Emulsions are almost never used for underreaming operations since, if
loaded with shaly solids, they may be transformed irreversibly into damaging fluids
(shales are deformable solids) similar, at least in part, to drilling muds. Although it is
not recommended, the viscosity of oil-based completion fluids may be brought about
by proven procedures of the Service Companies (different surfactants are available
and only these Companies possess the necessary know-how to carry out
modifications of the systems; however, it would be prudent to have assistance from
a laboratory in order to avoid problems which have not been reported by these
Companies).
Consequently, the problem of the viscosifying of completion fluids can be restricted
to the viscosifying of salt solutions.
Polymer Type* Viscosity Filtration Suspension Acid Temp. Brine
Development Control Properties Solubility Stab. Tolerance
HEC NI Excellent Poor Poor Excellent 100-120°C Excellent
HEMC NI Excellent Poor Poor Good 100-120°C Excellent
CMC A Good Good Fair Poor 100-120°C Poor
XC-Polymer A Fair Poor Excellent Good 100-140°C Fair
PAC A Poor Good Poor Poor 100-150°C Poor
Starch NI Poor Good Poor Poor 100-120°C Good
Guar NI Excellent Poor Poor Fair 80-100°C Good
Polyacrylate A Poor Good Poor Insol. 140-170°C Poor
* NI = Non-Ionic A = Anionic
Table 7-4 - Characteristics of Water Soluble Polymers Used for Viscosity, Suspension or
Filtration Control; Temperature Stability is Dependent to the Salinity (Salt type and Conc.).
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8. CHOICE OF THE BRINE
8.1 THERMAL STABILITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS AND COMPATIBILITY

BETWEEN VARIOUS BRINES
Brines are very stable at high temperatures whereas some problems may arise at
low temperatures as salt and ice may separate out or they may solidify completely.
Other phenomena are associated with the possible low compatibility between
different brines which may be accidentally or intentionally mixed together.
Oil-based fluids (OBM and inverse emulsions) have a stability which is dictated by
the chemical nature of the surfactants used in their preparation. It is well-known that
emulsions destabilize above certain temperatures since increasing the thermal
agitation of the fluid increases the probability that the droplets of the dispersed brine
coalesce, which is the joining of droplets into bigger drops until the complete
separation of the two phases of oil and brine. However, formulations exist (available
from Service Companies) which allow the preparation of very stable emulsions for
application in high temperature wells: their utilisation is a consequence of the
incompatibility between aqueous solutions and formation fluids and to the high
corrosiveness of brine at bottom hole conditions. At very low temperatures,
solidification of the dispersed brine may occur causing the emulsions to break.
Regarding the stability of simple organic phases (oil, diesel, etc.), it is to be expected
that they are stable at high temperatures whereas, at low temperature, partial
crystallization of the fluid can occur with the separation of the various components
according to the temperature reached.
A deeper examination of the stability of completion fluids is possible then only for
aqueous fluids.
8.1.1 CRYSTALLIZATION TEMPERATURE

FCTA = First Crystal To Appear
During the cooling of a saline solution, FCTA is the temperature at which the first
crystal of solid salt is formed.
LCTD = Last Crystal To Disappear (or Last Crystal To Dissolve)
During the warming of a saline solution containing the solid salt, LCTD is the
temperature at which the salt is completely dissolved.
LCTD > FCTA only for kinetic reasons, i.e. for reasons related to the speed of
cooling/warming of the solution (for example, we can have a undercooled water at
temperature under 0°C in the liquid state, but the fluid is in instable condition and it
will suddenly solidify.
LCTD = FCTA = TCT (True Crystallization Temperature) only in ideal cases.
If the difference between LCTD and FCTA is equal or less than 1°C, we can assume
that is
LCTD = FCTA = TCT
The value of the LCTD is often used for safety reasons as it is the highest value of
the characteristic temperature.
Special brine formulations are utilized to accommodate seasonal changes in
temperature. Summer blends are fluids appropriate for use in warmer weather.
Their crystallization points range from approximately 7°C to 20°C. Winter blends
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are used in colder weather or colder climates and have crystallization points ranging
from approximately -7°C to below -18°C.
At times, a crystallization point between those of summer and winter blends is
desirable. Special formulations are then used to prepare fluids that can be called
fall, spring or intermediate blends.
At first, it may seem practical to consistently formulate fluids having lower than
necessary, and therefore safe, crystallization points. Although this approach may be
easier, it is likely to be much more expensive. Generally, if a fluid with a lower
crystallization point is provided, the cost of the brine will be considerably higher than
necessary. This is just one of numerous factors to consider when selecting a fluid
that is both effective and economical.
The determination of the crystallization point of a salt solution is carried out by a
cooling cycle (until the appearance of the solid phase) followed by a heating cycle
(until the complete dissolving of the solid formed during the cooling cycle). Following
the trend of temperature as a function of time, when transitions of phase occur
(beginning of solidification/precipitation or end of dissolving), discontinuities are
observed (Figure 8-1). The faster the determination is made, the greater the
difference is between LCTD and FCTA. If the same measurement is carried out
more slowly, the two values will tend to approach one another and when the
difference is in the range of ±1°C, the LCTD and FCTA are assumed to be equal to
the TCT.
Figure 8-1 - Temperature vs. Time to Determine the Crystallization Point
The value of the crystallization temperature has to be considered when brine is

prepared in unfavourable climatic or environmental conditions (e.g. offshore) or
when it is possible to reach low temperatures in the fluid surface lines during
operations. An example is the lowering of the temperature which is encountered
during the clean up of gas wells, especially if they are damaged: the high pressure
differential generated in the near wellbore area causes a significant expansion of
gas, with a resultant cooling effect: the cooling action will continue as long as the
cleaning operation proceeds and will extend into the formation, even if not very far,
causing the crystallization of the wetting phase and a consequent rapid decline in
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the productivity. In the simplest cases, it is just necessary to allow the bottomhole
temperature rise in order to remove the damage; where salt is precipitated (in the
case of solutions close to saturation) rather than the formation of ice, the solvent
(water) will be removed by the cleaning action and the redissolving will be
prevented, inducing permanent damage in the formation.
8.2 HEAT OF DISSOLUTION AND HYGROSCOPICITY

The dissolution of a salt in water is a phenomenon that can be exothermic or
endothermic.
If the phenomenon is exothermic, the temperature of the solution rises; if the
phenomenon is endothermic, the temperature drops.
Monovalent salts (cation + anion: NaCl, KCl, NH4Cl, KBr, except NaBr because it
slightly warms the solution) dissolves in endothermic way and they may be defined
as “cold salts”.
Bivalent salts (cation + 2 anions: CaCl2, CaBr2, ZnBr2) dissolves in exothermic way
and they may be defined as “hot salts”.
The heat of dissolution for various salts that may be used in the preparation of salt
solutions are presented in Table 8-1; the values are also expressed in units of
weight of salt dissolved. The transition crystal ==> solution is impeded in the case of
monovalent salts which would prefer to remain as crystals (in other words, the
crystal has a very low internal energy and consequently is extremely stable),
whereas for bivalent salts the transition is energetically encouraged (the stability is in
favour of the solution). This different affinity of salts for water also reflects their
chemical and physical properties: bivalent salts (and NaBr) are hygroscopic and
absorb humidity from air, assuming rapidly a liquefied appearance, whereas
monovalent salts are much less hygroscopic than the bivalent ones and can be left
exposed to air without observing any evident phenomena of hydration. The
corresponding salt solutions are also hygroscopic, especially the heavier ones
prepared with NaBr or bivalent salts, and they should be protected, as far as
possible, from humidity; the absorption of water tends to decrease the density of the
brine as this phenomenon, but fortunately relatively slowly, causes a real dilution.
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Salt name Salt Minimum density Maximum density Heat of dissolution

formula (kg/l) at 21°C (kg/l) at 21°C (Kcal/Kg of salt)
Ammonium 1.05
NH4Cl 1.07 -72.5
chloride
Potassium 1.04
KCl 1.17 -56.2
chloride
Sodium 1.08
NaCl 1.19 -20.2
chloride
Potassium 1.06
KBr 1.30 -42.7
bromide
Calcium 1.1
CaCl2 1.39 156.9
chloride
Sodium 1.08
NaBr 1.52 1.8
bromide
Calcium 1.35
CaBr2 1.71 122.6
bromide
Zinc bromide ZnBr2 1.70 2.30 66.7
Potassium 1.30
K2CO3 1.56 46.9
carbonate
Table 8-1 - Salts Used for Brine Preparation
In Table 8-1 are shown the maximum density reachable with the most common salts
in water solutions. The table has been divided separating the salts which are used
for the preparation of brine in the range of density 1.1-1.2 kg/l (sodium, potassium
and ammonium chloride) and the other salts which can achieve higher densities: the
compatibility between salts in the same group is generally good, whereas the
compatibility between salts of different groups may be poor. The compatibility
among salts of the same section of Table 8-1 is usually good, but the
compatibility between two salts of different groups is not always good.
In the Tables from B.1 to B.7 in APPENDIX - B, preparation of single-salt solution
are shown.
NaCl, KCl and NH4Cl are fully compatible each other and so it is possible to prepare
all the blends of brine NaCl/KCl/NH4Cl. NaBr and KBr are two compatible salts (it is
possible to obtain NaBr/KBr brine blend). Although they are monovalent, they can
give elevated densities. Their compatibility with the chlorides (NaCl and KCl) is
complete and so it is possible to make heavy the solutions of chloride by preparing
NaCl/NaBr and KCl/KBr blends. The formulations of such brines are shown in
Tables B.9 and B.10 in APPENDIX - B.
The maximum attainable densities in water are reported in Table 8-1 for salts which
are commonly used in the field; the salt which does not contain halogen ions
(K2CO3) has been inserted at the end because it has a very different behaviour
compared with the other salts and it is rarely used (for convenience, the values of
the heat of dissolution are also reported).
8.2.1 CALCIUM-FREE FLUIDS: INTERACTION WITH HIGH CARBONATE / HIGH

SULPHATE ION FORMATION
Zinc bromide, calcium bromide and / or calcium chloride and their mixtures are
widely used for many years as solids-free well completion fluids. But these calcium-
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contain iron fluids may create negative effects for some particular rock formation in
the presence of high carbonate and/or high sulphate ion concentration. Since the
fluids with significant zinc and calcium ion concentration in subterranean wells
containing carbonate or carbon dioxide result in precipitation of calcium and zinc
carbonates.
After studies, utilizing NaBr (1,52 kg/l), KBr (1,306 kg/l), KCl (1,17 kg/l), NaCl (1,19
kg/l) or their mixtures (density < 1.48 kg/l) as completion fluids, the precipitation
within reservoir rock and, therefore, to formation damage problems have been
partially resolved in place of calcium containing solutions.
But carbon dioxide or carbonate containing wells have been encountered which
require drilling and completion fluids mostly with densities of at least 1.68 – 2.40 kg/l.
For the operational requirements, the heavy completion fluids for use in sulphate
and/or carbonate containing wells have been developed in recently years.
One type of the calcium free high density completion fluids are composed by
mixtures of zinc bromide (ZnBr2), one or more alkali metal bromide (NaBr, KBr and
LiBr) and water. The brines can reach the densities up to about 2.46 kg/l, as showed
in the following:
• the density ZnBr2/NaBr in the range of 1,50 – 2,30, preferable 1,80 – 2,30 kg/l;
• the density ZnBr2/KBr in the range of 1.38 – 2.30, preferable 1,80 – 2,30 kg/l;
• the density ZnBr2/LiBr in the range of 1.62 – 2.16, preferable 1.80 – 2.16 kg/l.
The pH values of theses mixtures are about 1.0 to 7.5. These solutions can work
well with corrosion inhibitors to provide a less or non-corrosive environment for down
hole application.
The calcium free solutions may be prepared by mixing a zinc bromide/alkali metal
bromide base fluid with one or more monovalent alkali metal bromide solutions. The
zinc bromide /alkali metal bromide base fluids may be prepared:
1) by combining solid zinc bromide and water with a solid alkali metal bromide or an
aqueous solution;
2) by dissolving dry alkali metal bromide (s) in aqueous zinc bromide solutions.
iii
8.2.2 ORGANIC SALTS (FORMATES)

Inorganic salts may cause some environmental problems. Another solution for use
as completion fluids at high density in oil and gas formations containing high
carbonate and/or sulphate ion concentrations is to utilize salts of formate (HCOONa,
HCOOK and HCOOCs).
More recently, brines containing ions which are compatible with the environment are
assuming a greater importance especially in particular areas such as the North Sea
where environmentalists have highlighted the risks connected to the high
concentrations of heavy salts in the ecosystem. In this respect, formates (Table 8-2)
appear to offer a great flexibility for the preparation of brines.
Formates match this requirements, their cost is more elevated respect of inorganic
salts.
On account of their high cost, formates must only be used in those cases where it is
not possible, for environmental reasons, to use the more common salts.
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Salt name Salt Abbreviation Maximum density

formula (kg/l)
Sodium NF
HCOONa 1.34
formate
Potassium KF
HCOOK 1.60
formate
Caesium CF
HCOOCs 2.35
formate
Table 8-2 – Organic Salts Used for Brine Preparation
8.2.3 AMMONIUM CHLORIDE

Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) usually is not utilized. It is fully compatible with NaCl
and KCl, but the disadvantages of its use are:
• it can give maximum densities too low (1.07 Kg/l);
• it can produce ammonia (a dangerous gas)
NH4Cl can be used only if there is not any alternative (Table B.20 in APPENDIX B).
8.2.4 COMPATIBILITY AMONG THE DIFFERENT SALTS

If a NaCl brine 1.19 kg/l is mixed with a CaCl2 brine 1.35 kg/l, the formation of a solid
is observed which rapidly falls to the bottom of the container – this phenomenon is
called precipitation. The solid consists of NaCl crystals: the mixing of the two salts
has brought about a saturated system for one of the two salts (NaCl) which then
separates out from the system. The “cold salt” has assumed a stable crystalline
form, whereas the “hot salt” has remained dissolved in water which is its preferred
state. By heating the system to a higher temperature, it could be restored to a single-
phase solution and the phenomenon described above may be expressed in the
following terms: the mixing of the two brines has produced a system with a
crystallization point higher than the temperature at which the experiment has been
performed. However, the precipitation of one of the components should always be
avoided and it is necessary to pay great attention to the mixing of different salt
solutions, especially if one solution has been prepared with monovalent salts (cold)
and the other with bivalent salts (hot).
The problem of the mixing of different solutions seldom arises, whereas a more
frequent situation is the addition of solid salt to an already prepared salt solution with
the scope of increasing the density but avoiding the large increase in volume
encountered when mixing solutions. The mixing operation may cause the partial or
total precipitation of the salt with the lowest heat of dissolution (coldest salt). It could
also happen that the addition of salt causes the total precipitation of the precipitating
component, thus effecting a substitution of salt (as much salt separates on the
bottom as is added to the top of the tank) and in such a case it could be better to
eliminate the light brine in order to prepare a new one with the required density.
Some tables are included in Table B.20 in APPENDIX - B which gives the results of
mixing different brines at densities close to saturation; for lighter brines, the range of
compatibility is obviously greater than those in the tables.
NaCl, KCl and NH4Cl are completely compatible with each other and consequently it
is practically possible to prepare all mixtures of brine NaCl/KCl/NH4Cl. NaBr and KBr
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are also compatible with each other (it is possible to obtain a combination of
NaBr/KBr) and, even though monovalent, they can achieve high densities; their
compatibility with their respective chlorides (NaCl and KCl) is complete and it is
therefore possible to weight up chloride solutions by preparing mixtures of
NaCl/NaBr and KCl/KBr (in this latter case it is preferable not to exchange the cation
in order to maintain the degree of inhibition offered by potassium). The solutions
containing only calcium ions, CaCl2 CaBr2, and eventually zinc ions (ZnBr2) are
compatible with each other and can be mixed in a wide range of ratios. Because of
its high pH, K2CO3 is incompatible with all brines containing calcium, zinc and even
ammonium chloride (attention: ammonia gas is released).
It is particularly important to consider the change from low-medium density brines (≤
1.2 kg/l) to higher density brines which must overcome the transition from the use of
monovalent to bivalent ions. It is in fact possible that, because of the unexpected
existence of over-pressurized zones, it may be necessary to increase the weight of a
low density brine (under 1.2 kg/l) consisting of a monovalent salt above the density
limit which corresponds to its saturation, necessitating the use of bivalent salts. Such
operation is not always possible without destabilizing the entire system and causing
the precipitation of monovalent salt. The results of the addition of solid salts to NaCl
and CaCl2 solutions are reported in APPENDIX - B; it emerges from the tests that:
• the density of NaCl brine (1.18 kg/l) can be increased with KBr up to 1.32 kg/l;
• the density of CaCl2 brine (1.34 kg/l) can be increased with CaBr2 up to 1.49 kg/l.
8.3 HOW CORRECT THE DENSITY OF A BRINE

When brine with a given density is available and this density is too low, it is possible
to correct the density to the desired value. In Table 8-3 some examples are shown
for NaCl 1.18 Kg/l and CaCl2 1.34 kg/l.
Addiction of 2.5g of NaBr in 50 ml of NaCl d=1.18 Æ residual solid d=1.22
Addiction of 5.0g of KBr in 50 ml of NaCl d=1.18 Æ clear solution d=1.24
Addiction of 15.0g of KBr in 50 ml of NaCl d=1.18 Æ residual solid d=1.34
Addiction of 5.0g of CaBr2 in 50 ml of NaCl d=1.18 Æ residual solid d=1.25
Addiction of 5.0g of CaBr2 in 50 ml of CaCl2 d=1.34 Æ clear solution d=1.40
Addiction of 15.0g of CaBr2 in 50 ml of CaCl2 d=1.34 Æ traces of solids d=1.50
Table 8-3 – How Correct the Density of a Brine
8.4 PERFORMING CALCULATION FOR BLENDING FLUIDS

When a fluid is created by blending two fluids, the material balance equation can be
used to determine the volume and/or density of the final fluid. The equation can also
be used to identify what fluid volume or density is required in order to achieve a
desired final volume.
The material balance equation is written as follows:
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V1 + V2 = Vf
V1sg1 + V2sg2 = Vfsgf
where:
V1 = volume of one of the materials to be mixed together
sg1 = density of the above material
V2 = volume of the second material to be mixed
sg2 = density of the second material
Vf = total or sum of all volumes mixed together
sgf = density of the final fluid; it is the proportional average density of all
volumes mixed together
When working and formulating brine, the engineer will have to perform basic
calculations in order to increase or to cut brine densities. The following equations are
going to review these basic engineering calculations.
Density increase of single salt brine:
⎛ Vow * Wf ⎞
Wa = Vo⎜⎜ − Wo ⎟⎟
⎝ Vfw ⎠
Vfw
Vf = Vo *
Vow
where:
Wa = weight of salt to add
Vo = original volume of brine
Vow = original volume of water
Wf = final weight of salt
Vfw = final volume of water
Wo = original weight of salt
Vf = final volume of brine
Increase the density of a two salt brine with dry calcium bromide:
⎛ CoWf ⎞
Wa = Vo⎜⎜ − Wo ⎟⎟
⎝ Cf ⎠
⎛ CoBf ⎞
Ba = Vo⎜⎜ − Bo ⎟⎟
⎝ Cf ⎠
⎛ Co ⎞
Vf = Vo⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Cf ⎠
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where:
Co = original weight of CaCl2
Cf = final weight of CaCl2
Bo = original weight of CaBr2
Bf = final weight of CaBr2
Ba = CaBr2 to be added
Wa = water to be added
Vo = original volume of brine
Wf = final weight of salt
Wo = original weight of salt
Vf = final volume of brine
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9. INTERACTIONS OF COMPLETION FLUIDS AND PACKER

FLUIDS WITH COMPLETION EQUIPMENTS
9.1 CORROSIVITY
Packer fluid used as completion fluids can be single, two or three mixtures due to
the fact that single salt brines have density limitations and mixture of salts are
needed to satisfy hydrostatic pressure requirements. The medium density ranges
from 8.4 to 19.2 lb/gal (1-2.3 g/cm3).
The most used brines are: KCl, NaCl, CaCl2, CaBr2 e ZnBr2.
Their corrosivity depends on temperature, contact time of the packer fluid with the
steel surface, brine composition and relative density, ratio between metal surface
area and brine volume and pH.
Generally the corrosivity increases with temperature and with acidity.
Mixtures of salts are more corrosive than the single salt brines; the brines which
contain the ZnBr2 have the highest corrosion rates since the pH of these solutions is
acidic.
Usually, corrosion inhibitors are used to protect the steel from corrosion. However
the high ion concentration of these fluids makes inhibition difficult due to limited
dispersibility and solubility of the most conventional inhibitors in these environments.
Moreover, corrosion inhibitors have been originally designed for use with carbon
steels rather than CRA materials and their efficiency has to be proven especially at
high temperature.
9.1.1 PACKER FLUIDS

Packer fluids include:
• Mud – oil base packer fluids
• Mud – water base packer fluids
• Clear brine packer fluids.
The most commonly chemical used, alone or in combination, as clear brine packer
fluids (aqueous solutions) are:
Brine Density (g/cm3)

NaCl 1.02-1.19
NaBr 1.5
CaCl2 1.39
CaBr2 1.39-1.71
ZnBr2 Less than 2.3
Table 9-1 – List of Brines
Brines used as packer fluids can be single –two – or three salt mixtures.
More recent products are the Formate Brines, introduced in the nineties.
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9.1.2 CLEAR BRINE CORROSION

Clear brine packer fluids can be single salts or mixture of two or three different salts;
single salt brines have density limitations, and mixtures of salts are needed to satisfy
hydrostatic pressure requirements.
Corrosivity of brine fluids is related to the chemical activity of halide used (Cl-, Br)
and pH in the fluid.
Corrosion by packer fluid is due to the following general mechanisms, corresponding
to the relevant cathodic processes:
• oxygen corrosion;
• acid corrosion.
Corrosion forms include:
• weight loss - general corrosion;
• localised - pitting and crevice corrosion;
• stress corrosion cracking.
It is also known that halides have a pronounced detrimental influence on the
performance of Cr-Ni-Mo alloys in general and, may cause cracking of some
stainless steels.
In brines with pH corrected in the alkaline range, caustic stress corrosion cracking in
principle could occur. Initiation conditions for caustic stress corrosion cracking are:
• pH greater than 12;
• temperature greater than 50 °C;
• applied stress greater than 70 % of yield strength.
The limit of 12 for pH reasonably excludes that risk conditions are met.
9.1.2.1 OXYGEN CORROSION

Although the oxygen solubility in concentrated brines is low, some oxygen can be
dissolved in the brine from the initial make-up.
Oxygen inlet can also occur if the annulus pressure falls below the external
(ambient) pressure and air is driven into the annulus.
Oxygen, until consumed by the relevant cathodic reaction, can generate a number of
corrosion forms, including:
• general corrosion of carbon and low alloy steels;
• pitting and crevice corrosion on corrosion resistant alloy;
• stress corrosion cracking on corrosion resistant alloy;
• bi-metallic corrosion.
Occurrence of above corrosion forms depends on actual operating conditions, brine
and metallic materials.
In case of oxygen dissolved in the brine from initial make-up, oxygen corrosion could
represent a transient phenomenon, ending once all dissolved oxygen is consumed.
The most risky situation, however, is met in case of air is entering into the annulus
during the operating life of the well. An air cap in the annulus, in fact, represents a
reservoir of oxygen which can be progressively dissolved into the packer fluid
increasing its corrosivity.
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Addition of oxygen scavengers in the brine is mandatory; however, prolonged

exposure of the brine to air leads to depletion of the oxygen scavenger in the
solution.
Failure of a 25 Cr duplex stainless steel tubing was recently reported in Erskine
Field, North Sea [iv]. The failure occurred as pitting corrosion –originated by O2
contamination- which developed into chloride stress corrosion cracks.
9.1.2.2 ACID CORROSION

Acid corrosion depends on the type of brine and concentration.
pH of concentrated halide brines is generally acidic because of hydrolysis reactions
of the cation. Acidity is further increased by the high concentration of the solutions:
the high ionic strength, in fact, enhances the activity coefficient of the hydrogen ion
leading to a lower pH compared with dilute solutions. On the contrary, formate based
brines are neutral: furthermore the pH is reported to be easily modifiable to alkaline
values.
The corrosion rate is normally observed to increase as temperature increases.
Corrosion morphology includes both general - weight loss corrosion and localised
pitting corrosion.
The accepted limit for general corrosion is of 0.1 mm/y of penetration (corresponding
approximately to 4 mils/y).
The brines containing ZnBr2 have the highest corrosivity since the pH of these
solutions (if not adequately buffered) is acidic.
As a general rule, mixtures of salts are more corrosive than the single salt brines.
Accordingly, corrosion rate is often observed to increase as the solution specific
gravity increases.
9.1.3 CORROSION IN HALIDE BASED CLEAR BRINES

From corrosion viewpoint, halide based clear brines present the following feature:
• they are high concentrated halide solutions, and
• they have a neutral to acid pH.
Halide ions are known to be strong de-passivating agents, able to break the passive
layers on stainless steels and to initiate pitting and crevice corrosion attacks; on
carbon steels, they prevent formation of layers of insoluble and partially protective
corrosion products.
The pH of halide brines is in the neutral to acid range. Exact pH depends on specific
products: it is between 5 and neutrality for calcium chloride and bromide brines and
as low as 1.5 for pure zinc bromide solutions; in commercial brines, however, pH
controller are added which move the pH toward neutrality.
Acid corrosion, in particular at high temperature, represents the main concern for
carbon and low alloy steels. Corrosivity increases in the order: CaCl2; CaCl2 + CaBr2
blends; CaCl2 + CaBr2 + ZnBr2 blends.
Based on laboratory test results, at downhole temperature lower than 100 °C, the
corrosion rate of carbon and low alloy steels in de-aerated neutral halide brine
(CaCl2 and CaCl2 + CaBr2 blends), is low to moderate, with expected penetration
rates below the limit of 0.1 mm/y in uninhibited solutions.
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Higher penetration rates are expected in CaCl2 + CaBr2 + ZnBr2 blends: based on
laboratory tests, acid corrosion rate of carbon and low alloy steels, always referred
to uninhibited conditions, is of about 0.2 mm/y.
Addition of corrosion inhibitors, although their efficiency is uncertain in particular
after long term exposures, would lead to corrosion rates below those ones reported
here above.
Based on laboratory test results the following conclusions can be issued for acid
corrosion of carbon and low alloy steels in contact with halide based clear brines:
• corrosion rate at temperature below 100 °C is expected to be lower than 0.1 mm/y
(taken as acceptable limit) except for ZnBr2 or ZnBr2 containing blends;
• in CaCl2 + CaBr2 + ZnBr2 blends corrosion rate, in uninhibited conditions, is of about
0.2 mm/y;
• corrosion rate increases as temperature increases;
• corrosion rate increases as brine density increases;
• corrosion rate decreases as exposure time increases;
• corrosion rates can be mitigated by addition of corrosion inhibitor: however, the
inhibition efficiency is uncertain.
Concerning occurrence of stress corrosion cracking, in absence of oxygen the risk
seems to be negligible for low-medium temperatures. In laboratory tests [v]
performed in halide based brines, cracks have been observed only at high
temperature (260 °C) and on high strength steels.
Oxygen corrosion is a major concern for corrosion resistant alloys: risk of occurrence
of pitting corrosion depends on type of alloy and it increases as temperature
increases; pitting corrosion, especially at high temperature, can easily evolve into
chloride stress corrosion cracking.
9.1.3.1 CORROSION IN FORMATE BASED CLEAR BRINES

Formate brines, introduced in the nineties, are more recent products. With respect to
traditional brines, they are claimed to offer several advantages, as for instance:
• are biodegradable and non toxic;
• are easily recycled;
cover a high range of densities;
• show a low corrosivity.
The low corrosivity is related to the formate solution pH that, contrary to halide ones,
is in the neutral to alkaline range. pH is also claimed by suppliers to be easily
adjustable up to pH values of 12. Cabot Specialty Fluids, for instance, reports for
caesium formate a pH buffered at 10.0-10.5 for normal operations, also in presence
of CO2, and 11.5 for critical H2S containing environments. pH correction is performed
by addition of buffer compounds, in particular carbonate - bicarbonates (typically
with 0.5 to 2.0 % of a one-to-one mixture carbonate/ bicarbonates).
Formate brines are known to be quite expensive, this factor limiting their application
to extreme and very particular situations.
As above stated, suppliers claim for formate based clear brine a lower corrosivity
compared to halide based brines. Laboratory corrosion tests are available in the
public literature, most of which performed by formate suppliers, generally confirming
a low to negligible corrosivity, at least in de-aerated conditions. Some unexplained
corrosion rate data, however, were found.
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Corrosion rates in aerated solutions appear to be much higher than 0.1 mm/y; this
condition is probably dominated by presence of dissolved oxygen and probably not
different from halide brines.
In de-aerated formate brines, corrosion rate of carbon and low alloy steels is
reported to be negligible in most cases, but with a few unexplained test results,
where extremely high corrosion rates, higher than 1 mm/y, were observed, also at
neutral to alkaline pH’s.
In summary, it seems that further investigations, possibly based on tests performed
by independent laboratories, to assess the true corrosivity of formate based clear
brines, are necessary.
9.1.3.2 CORROSION IN CONTAMINATED PACKER FLUID

In case of leaks of the packer or of a tubing string connection, the annulus can be
contaminated by produced fluids and by acid gas, i.e. H2S and CO2. This can lead to
severe conditions, resulting from combination of packer fluid and produced fluid
corrosivity.
In case of leaks, CO2 will dissolve in the packer fluid leading to an increase of its
corrosivity. The static conditions in the annulus, however, are expected, at least
partially, to mitigate the fluid corrosivity, due to corrosion product films formation.
A major concern is represented by H2S. In case of gas leaks from the packer, a sour
environment shall be expected in the annulus due to the high H2S concentration in
produced fluids.
As a rule of thumb, SSC (Sulphide Stress Cracking) resistance of carbon and low
alloy steel increases with temperature, on the contrary for corrosion resistant alloys
risks of SSC increase with temperature. The combination of presence of H2S with
low pH, in particular in ZnBr2 containing brines, could lead to severe conditions.
Based on laboratory test results, performed by ENI-Agip Division for T. Block
Development , duplex and supermartensitic suffered SCC in CaCl2 polluted by CO2
(40 bar) and H2S (0.02 bar) at T= 135°C; moreover all the tested materials exhibited
localised corrosion. Same materials were immune in NaBr brine at the same
conditions.
A failure in high density clear brine CaCl2 packer fluid was also reported by Shell
[NACE Corrosion 02, paper 2067]: stress corrosion cracking was detected on a cold
worked 22 Cr duplex stainless steel production tubing. Failure analysis concluded
that well failure was caused by decomposition of sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN)
and/or ammonium bisulphite (NH4HSO3) –respectively oxygen scavenger and high
temperature corrosion inhibitor- in the 11.0 ppg CaCl2 annular completion fluid.
The decomposition produced H2S at a partial pressure sufficient to cause the cold
worked 22Cr duplex stainless steel production tubing to fail by environmentally
assisted cracking in multiple locations.
In presence of halide based brines as packer fluid, the acid pH and the high halide
ions concentration represent aggravating factors for SSC occurrence. On the
contrary, formate brines with alkaline pH, possibly between 10 and 12, reduce the
risks of SSC.
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9.1.4 PACKER FLUID CHEMICAL TREATMENTS

Different chemicals are added to limit packer fluid corrosivity.
• Oxygen scavenger
Treatment with oxygen scavenger is performed with the following aims:
to prevent any weight loss corrosion of carbon and low alloy steel components;
to avoid formation of solid corrosion products which could drop to the bottom of the
annulus blocking injection valves.
to reduce any risk of initiation of localised corrosion attacks on corrosion resistant
alloys.
• Biocide
Biocide is sometime added to prevent the growth of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria
(SRB).
Treatment with biocide is unnecessary if the brine salinity is greater than 120 g/l or
the minimum temperature in the annulus is greater than 80 °C.
• Corrosion inhibitors
Effectiveness of treatment of packer fluids with corrosion inhibitors is not fully
reliable. In fact some film-forming or passivating inhibitors are at best inefficient and
may even promote localised corrosion.
As a general statement, high ion concentration of clear brines makes inhibition
difficult due to limited dispersibility and solubility of the most conventional inhibitors
in these environments. Most used corrosion inhibitors are films forming amines or
low-molecular-weigh organic products, which contain a sulphur group. Moreover,
corrosion inhibitors have been originally designed for use with carbon steels rather
than CRA materials and their efficiency has to be proven especially at high
temperature.
Some works show a relatively low corrosion rate if brines and a proper corrosion
inhibitor are present. Some field experience causes concern regarding the corrosion
particularly as the temperature increases.
Several products are available on the market and it is recommended to refer to
relevant specialists.
As a rule of the thumb, the cut-off point when deciding whether to use a corrosion
inhibitor or not is a specific gravity of 1.2, with a corrosion inhibitor being required
above this specific gravity.
• pH control
Corrosion prevention in halide based brines can also be achieved by addition to the
packer fluids of alkaline compounds in order to maintain a neutral to slightly alkaline
pH value. This will also prevent bacterial activity. pH control is also essential to
prevent SSC of susceptible materials if the completion or packer fluids become
contaminated by small amounts of H2S.
However, pH modifications are strictly correlated to the nature of packer fluid
composition; brine pH is normally indicated for each specific product on the relevant
datasheet.
A pH greater than 10 is suggested.
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9.1.5 PACKER FLUIDS AND MATERIAL CORROSION PERFORMANCE

The materials and packer fluids considered for the corrosion evaluation are here
below reported.
Tubing Material Classes:

• carbon and low alloy steels
• martensitic stainless steels
• duplex stainless steels
• nickel-base alloys
Packer fluids:
• NaCl and sea water
• CaCl2
• NaBr
• NaCl/NaBr
• CaCl2/CaBr2
• ZnBr2/CaBr2
• CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2
Evaluation criteria used to determine the packer fluid corrosivity is the following:
Weight loss corrosion

• low corrosion rate < 0.05 mm/y
• moderate 0.05 mm/y < corrosion rate < 0.2 mm/y
• severe corrosion rate > 0.2 mm/y
Localised corrosion
• low pitting intensity: 0-2
• moderate pitting intensity: 2-4
• severe pitting intensity: 4-6
Where, for pitting intensity, reference is made to an empiric scale from 0 to 6 where
‘0’ means: “no pitting” and ‘6’ means “large and diffuse pitting” [vi].
9.1.5.1 RULES AND ADVICE

On the base of the test results existing in literature and available field data, using the
evaluation criteria above exposed, the following general rules can be drawn:
• if packer fluid is mud - oil base → packer fluid corrosion is negligible
• if packer fluid is mud – oil or water based it is recommended addition of biocide to
prevent microbial induced corrosion
• If the tubing material is carbon steel or low alloy steel:
Corrosion in neutral brines, pH > 4, is negligible also at elevated temperatures.
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When mixtures of salts are present (in particular heavy brines) and at temperatures
higher than 150°C, addition of pH controller and corrosion inhibitor is recommended.
In presence of CaBr2/ZnBr2, SCC phenomena cannot be excluded.
In case of contamination of the packer fluid with CO2, corrosion rate can increase.
• If the tubing material is martensitic stainless steel:
Corrosion can be considered acceptable except for the following brines:
ZnBr2/CaBr2 , CaCl2/CaBr2 e CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 where risk of localised corrosion
(pitting and crevice) and SCC are foreseen.
• If the tubing material is duplex stainless steel:
In presence of NaCl, CaCl2 and NaBr uniform and localised corrosion is considered
acceptable up to temperature as high as 150°C. At T > 150°C the corrosion risk for
localised corrosion increases and it cannot be considered anymore acceptable.
In presence of ZnBr2/CaBr2 duplex 25%Cr is considered resistant, with and without
corrosion inhibitor; duplex 22%Cr presents SCC risk at T> 150°C. Below this
temperature the risk is acceptable.
• If the tubing material is superaustenitic stainless steel or based nickel alloy:
uniform and localised corrosion is acceptable.
9.2 COMPATIBILITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS WITH ELASTOMERS

In the completing string, as “elastomer” it is identified the element that provide the
seal between the packer and the casing, the packer and the tubing string, or inside
the packer itself and other completion accessories like for example the SSD.
To select the appropriate seal compound, one of the factors to be taken in
consideration is the type of completion and packer fluid.
In this chapter are called “elastomer” also the materials that normally are called
“thermo-plastic” or “non elastomers”, to make easier the understanding of the
completion fluids compatibility.
COMMON / TRADE ASTM D1418

TYPE RUBBER
NAME DESIGNATION
Acylonitrile Butadiene Nitrile, Buna-N NBR
Hydrogenated Nitrile HNBR or HSN HNBR
Ethylene/Propylene Diene EPDM EPDM
Fluorocarbon Viton®, Fluorel® FKM
Tetrafluoroethylene Propylene Aflas®, Fluoraz® FEPM
Perfluorocarbon Kalrez®, Chemraz® FFKM
Chlorsulfonate Polyethylene Hypalon CSM
Polychloroprene Neoprene CR
Polyether Urethane Urethane EU
Epichloro Hydrin Hydrin CO
Polyester Urethane Urethane AU
Fluorosilicone - FVMQ
Table 9-2 – ASTM D1418 Designation for Common Oilfield Compounds
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9.2.1 TYPES OF FLUIDS

There are an infinite number of fluid variations that can be used in a downhole
environment but there are a number of common fluids and gases that have been
tested. These media are listed in Table 9-3 and are discussed with more detail in
the following sections.
Materials NBR HNBR EPDM FKM FEPM FFKM
Cost of -325 O-ring 0.12 2 2-15 2-15 5-15 120
Sweet Crude
Methane Satisfactory
Sour (H2S) 5%
CO2 ED resistent compounds available from each compound family Not Recommended
salt water
Zinc Bromide (acidic) Fair
Formates (basic)
High pH (>8) Not Tested
Inorganic Acids
(HCL, HF)
Organic Acids
(Formic, Acetic)
"Oil Based" fluids
Testing is always recommned with these fluids
(not clearly defined)
Aromatic Solvents
(Xylene, Tolulene)
Diesel
Table 9-3 – General Fluid Compatibility of Elastomers in Oilfield Fluids.
9.2.1.1 BROMIDES
Bromides are generally acidic and have Bromine coupled with Zinc, Calcium or
Sodium to add weight with ZnBr2 being the heaviest and most acidic. Bromides are
generally classified as brines but are much more aggressive towards NBR and
HNBR than typical brines. The weight and pH of the pure solutions are shown in
Table 9-4.
Fluid Max Wt. (ppg) pH

Sodium Bromide 12.4 6
Calcium Bromide 14.2 4
Zinc Bromide 18.5 2
Table 9-4 – Weights and pH of Bromide Fluids.
9.2.1.2 FORMATES
Formates are generally basic and can be coupled with Sodium (NaCOOH),
Potassium (KCOOH) or Caesium (CsCOOH). Formates offer clean and solids-free
completion brine with better environmental characteristics than the Chlorides and
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Bromides. The pH is usually kept between 10 to 12 to prevent corrosion of the metal

components. Pure Caesium Formate is very expensive at $5000 per barrel and
heavy at 22 ppg.
9.2.1.3 BRINES
Basic brines include saltwater and chlorides and are generally compatible with the
elastomers listed in Table 9-4. They can be buffered to be basic or acidic and
corrosion inhibitors are frequently added. Testing is advised if extra ingredients are
added.
9.2.1.4 OIL FIELD MUDS

Oil based fluids is an extremely generic nondescriptive term an includes a very wide
range of fluids that can contain, hydrocracked hydrocarbons, petroleum distillates,
light oils, aromatic solvents, ethers, esters, diesel, etc…and one really needs to test
for fluid compatibility unless one can supply a specific recipe for the fluid. The
MSDS is not too helpful.
For example, FEPM seals can have as much as 13% thickness swell in certain oil-
base fluids and can exhibit a loss of 16% in hardness.vii With a 13% thickness swell
of the elements, there is a potential for the packer to become stuck during running.
If running should be successful but the elements have become soft, it is also
possible that the rubber will not have enough strength to energize the back-up
system. For other tight-tolerance seals such as V-rings, only 2% swell in the
diameter of the ring can lead to problems when stabbing into a seal bore.
Even so, based on a wide variety of testing performed on these different types of
muds, generally, FKM are never to be used in these fluids because they lose
significant strength. HNBR and NBR may lose up to 50% of its physical properties
and swell some but much less than FEPM. FEPM (Aflas®) will usually lose
significant strength and swell a lot. FFKM (Chemraz® or Kalrez®) perform well in
these fluids. So usually with these nasty chemicals for long term applications we go
with FFKM seals and NBR or HNBR packer elements.
Testing is always advised if we have never evaluated the fluid before.
9.2.1.5 AROMATIC SOLVENTS

Toluene, benzene, xylene are all very powerful aromatic solvents that are used to
soften the production fluids to increase flow. They cause some rubber to swell
significantly. For example, NBR will swell over 50% in just 6 hours at room
temperature. This phenomenon is accelerated with increases in temperature.
9.2.1.6 DIESEL
Diesel is used to stimulate wells as well as for a general inexpensive completion fluid
that will sit on top of packers. Diesel will cause FEPM and EPDM to swell
significantly.
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9.2.2 CRITERIA OF SELECTION

International organizations for standardization (e.g. API, ISO, ASTM etc.) actually
give very few rules for choice of packer’s elastomers available for various sour
environments. viii
Service Companies usually give, in their catalogues, some information concerning
the compatibility of more common elastomers with completion and packer fluids. In
Table 9-5, Table 9-6, Table 9-7 some examples are shown.ix
See also Completion Design Manual (STAP-P-1-M-7100 – Section 6.11).
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Table 9-5 – Long Term Guidelines: 90+ duro O-rings (1)

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Table 9-6 – Long Term Guidelines: Packer Elements (1)

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Table 9-7 - Long Term Guidelines: V-rings (1)x

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10. PREPARATION OF SALT SOLUTIONS
10.1 SELECTION OF THE MIX WATER

The preparation of brines starts with the appropriate selection of the mix water. It is
always recommended to use fresh water with a low degree of hardness. In this way,
any precipitation of the mix water components, induced by the dissolving of the salts,
will be avoided. If no choice is available or whenever it is not convenient since it is
preferable to use other sources of supply (e.g. sea water on offshore platforms), it is
necessary to anticipate the formation of solids in the prepared fluid. It is not possible
to set limits to the degree of hardness of the mix waters which are acceptable since
the problems which could arise are due to several factors such as the type of brine
that will be prepared, the type of additives, the changes in pH that the solution will
undergo, etc.
When the pH of sea water is increased above 7.5-8 (e.g. during the preparation of
viscous pills containing polymers that hydrate rapidly at pH = 8-9), the precipitation
of hydroxides will occur (both magnesium and calcium hydroxide). Hydroxides are
generally voluminous and flocculent, they resist settling (after a few hours, they can
occupy 25-40% of the tank volume) and quickly plug the filter medium: thus the cost
savings obtained by the selection of sea water for the preparation of brine could
have strong negative repercussions on the overall cost of brine. For example, the
addition of CaCl2 to sea water can lead to the precipitation of sodium chloride (30g/l,
30kg/m3) when high densities are required (d≥1.25kg/l). This phenomenon can be
activated by salts other than CaCl2, but the precipitation generally occurs when the
brine density approaches the maximum allowable density for the salt which is being
added: for example, when using CaBr2, the precipitation of NaCl will occur at
densities greater than 1.25kg/l. The precipitated NaCl is crystalline and can be easily
filtered and, if the amount to be removed is not too great, this phenomenon can be
tolerated; settling in a tank represents a good system for the removal of the greater
part of the crystalline solids.
10.2 DENSITY CONTROL

Once the necessary quantity of salt has been dissolved to obtain a brine with the
required density for well control (available from the tables in APPENDIX - B) and
which need to be corrected for thermal expansion of the fluid at well conditions), the
density at the reference temperature of the tables (21°C, 70°F) is checked (by
means of densimeter or mud balance); if it is necessary to further increase the
density, additional salt can be added, while any decreases can be carried out by
dilution with water or lighter brines.
10.3 PH CONTROL
10.3.1 DEFINITION OF PH
The water molecule (H2O) has the tendency to dissociate spontaneously into H+ ions
(hydrogen ions or simple protons) and OH− ions (hydroxyl ions):
H 2 O ⇔ H + + OH -
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This is a reversible reaction and the equilibrium leads to the presence of 10-7
moles/litre of H+ ions and 10-7 moles/litre of OH− ions. The reaction is governed by
the equilibrium constant (K) which is given by the product of the concentration of the
produced ions with respect to the concentration of the reactant:
Kw =
[H ]⋅ [OH ]
+ −
[H 2 O]
The concentration of the solvent (water) is considered to be constant (55.56 mol/l)

and can therefore be included in the equilibrium constant
[ ][ ]
K w = H + ⋅ OH − = 10 −14 mole 2 / l 2
The dissociation of water generates H+ ions and OH- in equal proportions and
therefore [H+] = [OH-]. Since [H+]⋅[OH-] = [H+]⋅[H+] = [H+]2 = 10-14 it follows that
[H+]=10-7 as stated above.
The pH is a measurement of the H+ ion concentration in a solution and it is
expressed as the negative logarithm to the base of ten of the hydrogen ion
concentration:
pH = − log 10 H + [ ]
Therefore, pure water has a
pH= - log10⋅[H+] = - log10⋅[10-7] = 7
If a strong acid is added to water (e.g. HCl 10-4 mole/l), there will be an increase in
the hydrogen ion concentration and a decrease in the hydroxyl ion concentration:
HCl ⇒ H + + Cl − (totally dissociated)
The quantity of OH- ions will be given only by the dissociation of water, and hence
the equilibrium constant can be deduced with approximation:
[OH ] = K [H ] = 10
−
w
+ −14
/ 10 −4 = 10 −10 mole / l
Therefore, the pH of the solution will be equal to - log10⋅[10-4] = 4; this value, being
less than 7, indicates an acid environment.
If a strong base is added to water (i.e. NaOH 10-4 mole/l), there will be an increase in
the hydroxyl ions and a decrease in the proton concentration.
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NaOH ⇒ Na + + OH − (totally dissociated)
The quantity of H+ ions will be given only by the dissociation of water and hence the
equilibrium constant can be deduced with approximation:
[H ] = K [OH ] = 10
+
w
− −14
/ 10 −4 = 10 −10 mole / l
The pH of the solution will therefore be equal to - log10⋅[10-10] = 10; this value being
greater than 7, indicates a base (or alkaline) environment.
An acid solution (having a pH less than 7) can be neutralized (that is to say the pH
can be brought back to 7) by a base which releases OH- ions which can react with
the H+ ions released by the acid.
Obviously, the opposite reasoning is also valid: an acid can neutralize a base
solution, by the reaction of the H+ ions with the OH- ions released in solution.
The concentrations have been expressed in mole/l: the number of moles is given by
the weight of the added material (100% pure) divided by the molecular weight of the
same material.
With weak acids/bases (that is, not totally dissociated and therefore governed in the
same way as water by their own equilibrium constants) and for concentrations of
strong acids/bases lower then 10-4 mole/l, the calculation becomes more complex,
but the concept of pH does not change.
10.3.2 DETERMINATION OF PH OF SALT SOLUTIONS

The pH of an aqueous solution is determined by electrochemistry through the
measurement of the potential created across a semi-permeable glass membrane.
The glass electrode often uses, as a reference, a calomel electrode and the
difference of potential which is developed is expressed directly in pH units (a
calibration is necessary with buffer solutions of known pH) and with high precision (±
0.01 units).
In the field and whenever the pH value does not need to be determined with high
precision (i.e. ± 0.1 or ±0.5 units), indicators may be used which assume different
colours according to the acidity/alkalinity of the solution to which they are introduced.
The measurement is often carried out by wetting a strip of absorbent paper
containing the indicator (or better, a series of indicators) with the solution whose pH
needs to be determined: the coloration of the paper is then compared with a scale of
reference from which the required value is determined. The indicating paper can
cover the entire range of pH (from 0 to 14) or it can contain indicators functioning in
more limited pH ranges.
It is highly recommended to control the pH of the brine with indicating paper having a
wide range in the interval pH = 0-14 (do not use paper with a limited interval) or even
better, if available, with a calibrated glass electrode. In the field, the pH of brines with
medium to high salinity (d>1.1 Kg/l) prepared starting with solid salts, often deviate
from the value of neutrality (e.g. supplies of CaCl2 have been encountered that,
when used to prepare brines with density 1.28 kg/l, resulted in a pH of around 10.5-
11); this indicates the presence of contaminating substances (generally carbonates
and/or hydroxides) which dissolve in water with an alkaline reaction. It may also
happen that a salt in the field creates a salt solution whose pH is near to neutrality,
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but this does not necessarily mean that the salt is pure: for example, the salt used in
the field to prepare CaCl2 1.34 g/l, from the pH and density measurements,
contained a significant quantity of iron which lowered the pH through the formation of
Fe(OH)3 :
Fe +3 + 3H 2 O ⇒ Fe(OH ) 3( s. gel ) + 3H +
which is a colloidal and flocculent solid (as are almost all poorly soluble hydroxides)
that settles with difficulty and impedes the filtration operations.
In the case where the brine is found to be very rich in solids, modification of the pH
to values lower than neutrality (pH = 6-6.5) could dissolve a part of the material (if
made up of hydroxides or carbonates) which should not re-precipitate.
For all chlorinated and brominated brines containing sodium, potassium and calcium
ions, it is recommended to adjust the pH of the salt solution close to the value of
neutrality (and even better if the pH = 7.5-8); the modification, preferably made with
the hydroxide of the same cation (KOH for potassium salts, NaOH for sodium salts
and Ca(OH)2 for calcium salts) or with HCl (HBr, although preferable for brominated
salts, is rarely used), should be carried out after dissolving the salt but before
starting the filtration operations.
The quantities of the base/acid to be added vary exponentially (to the base 10)
according to the difference between the pH of the solution and pH = 7. Theoretically,
the quantities of the substances to add are as follows:
chemical to be
Molecular Weight
Initial pH added to 1m3 to quantity (g o ml)
(g/mole)
reach a pH =7
KOH (solid) 56 1 56 g
3 NaOH (solid) 40 40 g
Ca(OH)2 (solid) 74.1 74 g
KOH (solid) 56 1 5.6 g
4 NaOH (solid) 40 4.0 g
Ca(OH)2 (solid) 74.1 7.4 g
KOH (solid) 56 1 0.55 g
5 NaOH (solid) 40 0.39 g
Ca(OH)2 (solid) 74.1 0.73 g
Table 10-1 – Increase of pH

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chemical to be added
Molecular Weight
Initial pH to 1m3 to reach a pH quantity (g o ml)
(g/mole)
=7
HCl 37% (d=1.18 Kg/l) 36.5 0.09 ml
9 HCl 15% (d=1.07Kg/l) 36.5 0.23 ml
HCl 7.5% (d=1.03Kg/l) 36.5 0.47 ml
HCl 37% (d=1.18 Kg/l) 36.5 0.88 ml
10 HCl 15% (d=1.07Kg/l) 36.5 2.27 ml
HCl 7.5% (d=1.03Kg/l) 36.5 4.72 ml
HCl 37% (d=1.18 Kg/l) 36.5 8.8 ml
11 HCl 15% (d=1.07Kg/l) 36.5 22.7 ml
HCl 7.5% (d=1.03Kg/l) 36.5 47.2 ml
Table 10-2 – Decrease of pH
Never attempt to:

• increase the pH of NH4Cl and NH4Br brines or any brine containing ammonium
ions (danger: evolution of ammonia)
• reduce the pH of K2CO3 brine (danger: CO2 evolution)
• increase the pH of brines containing calcium ions above pH = 8 since there is a
risk of precipitation of large quantities of the metal hydroxide (if this occurs,
decrease the pH with an appropriate acid since the precipitate will re-dissolve at
the lower pH)
• modify the pH of solutions containing zinc.
10.4 T URBIDITY CONTROL

Brine will be passed through filtration equipment (filter press and possibly absolute
cartridges 10 µm) and the quality of the filtered solution must be controlled with a
turbidimeter (NTU ≤ 5-10, depending on the type of brine); where the turbidity is very
high (NTU ≥ 50-100) something is probably not functioning correctly in the filtration
equipment (open by pass, intermixing between tanks etc.); after suitable checks
have been carried out, if the value of turbidity does not decrease and in
consideration of the sensitivity of the operation to be performed with the brine, it is
recommended to contact the personnel experienced in the handling of brines to
attempt to identify the cause of the problem and evaluate its suitability for the
planned operation.
10.5 VISCOSIFICATION
The possible viscosification of the brine will be effected by the dispersion of polymer
in the filtered salt solution with a pH adjusted to 5-5.5. Some polymers may also
require the addition of particular substances since the yield in viscosity and the
rheological stability of the viscosified fluid may be affected by the contamination from
particular ions; an example is given by XC which requires the addition of Na2EDTA
(bisodium salt of ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid) in order to complex (a process
through which an ion is removed from the solution) the bivalent ions (calcium and
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magnesium). After a suitable period of agitation (at least 15 minutes after the last
addition), increasing the pH up to 8.5-9 will promote the hydration process. Where it
is dangerous to modify the pH of salt solutions, the brine (containing the dispersed
polymer at natural pH, or better, with a pH close to = 7) must be heated to at least at
45°-50° C by circulating through a choke (or using heaters, if available in the field) to
enable a faster and more complete hydration.
An incomplete hydration of the polymer can lead to overdosing which may hinder the
subsequent operations because of the occurrence of sudden and unexpected
increases in viscosity during circulation in the well (the circulating fluid is subject to
shear stresses and heating thus completing the hydration process). The viscosified
brine will then need to be passed through a shearing device or a choke to break the
fisheyes which may be present and then through the filtration equipment; it is
recommended to perform the filtration of both the brine and viscosified fluid to
ensure the quality of the filtered fluid.
The use of pre-hydrated polymers (in liquid form) is recommended only for the
heavier fluids since the dispersion of the polymer is obtained more quickly: the
hydration process should in any case be assisted by heating the brine and followed
by the operations of shearing and filtration. The pre-hydrated polymers are made up
of a polymer suspended in a solvent (the term pre-hydrated is therefore to be
considered incorrect): if the solvent is a hydrocarbon (even if pure), its use is not
recommended in dry gas wells since, when losses are encountered, a significant
quantity of oil is introduced into the formation which can reduce the permeability to
gas because of the effect of the irreducible saturation in oil; however, there are
polymers which are pre-hydrated in mutual solvent or even better, in glycols and
which can therefore be used in dry gas wells.
10.6 FILTRATION
The preliminary filtration of the fluid is always recommended even when the fluid is
viscosified for use in milling or underreaming operations: the fisheyes are in fact
highly deformable solids and are therefore damaging; obviously, the filtration
operations cannot be performed continuously during these operations because of
the significant amount of solids that enter the fluid. As already stated previously, a
fluid enriched with deformable solids can no longer be considered non-damaging:
the probability that solids removed from the formation and dispersed in the fluid may
cause a plugging of the pores in the rock is in fact very high; nevertheless, the
filtration of the underreaming fluid is recommended in order to avoid any damage
which may be caused by the presence of fisheyes (partially hydrated polymer). The
operations which are carried out in open hole (and include the possible drilling of the
pilot hole, milling of the casing and underreaming of the formation) are very delicate
since no subsequent improvement of the communication between the well and the
formation can be obtained through the execution of perforating tunnels. These
operations, which are performed in the productive zone of the formation (pay-zone),
should be performed using only non damaging fluids (called Drill-In Fluid). These
fluids have characteristics similar to a drilling mud, but have the capacity to
significantly decrease and sometimes completely avoid the damage. These fluids
are also often used during coring operations when it is necessary to take a
preserved sample of the formation and thus avoiding the invasion of the filtrate of a
common drilling mud. Drill-in Fluids are available as WBM as OBM.
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10.7 ADDITION OF OTHER ADDITIVES

At this point, the other additives which can be added to the brine should respect the
rule of compatibility (including with regard to the brine, the formation and the
formation fluids). For example:
a) the additives should be soluble in one of the mobile phases produced by the well;
in dry gas wells, the use of organic components which are insoluble or simply
dispersed in brine should be avoided since the insoluble phase introduces an
additional residual saturation in the formation with the consequent decrease of
permeability to gas; many anti-foaming agents are, for example, insoluble in
water;
b) the oxidants, such as the persulphate or perborate-based breakers of HEC, react
with bromine ions and therefore cannot be used in brominated brines;
c) the use of acid breakers (in low concentration and in the case of high reservoir
temperatures) to break the polymer chains often does not function in rocks with a
high content of carbonates because the acid immediately reacts with the rock and
not with the polymer;
d) the cationic surfactants are adsorbed by sandstones and may therefore change
the wettability of the rock decreasing the permeability to oil; anionic surfactants
tend to be adsorbed by carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomites); the cationic
and anionic surfactants are not compatible with each other and, besides not
functioning for the scope for which they were intended, when added together in
the fluid, precipitates may be formed; for equal degrees of functionality, non-ionic
surfactants are to be preferred;
e) the use of additives outside the recommended range of dosage may lead to
dramatic consequences on the productivity with severe damage which may be
difficult to remove;
f) the use of sulphite-based oxygen sequestering agents may result in the formation
of sulphate ions which can precipitate as calcium sulphate in the brine (if it
contains calcium ions, even if only in the mix water) and as scales in the reservoir
caused by the reaction with calcium and magnesium ions present in the formation
water; when oxygen sequestering agents are used, the brine should be protected
from excessive exposure to the atmosphere (e.g. avoid passing over the shale-
shakers, strong agitation, return lines to the tank not submerged below the fluid
level, etc…) since the additive will be consumed very quickly if further oxygen is
taken into the solution.
Obviously, it is not possible to cover the entire spectrum of the different situations
which may be encountered in the field, but it is recommended that the personnel
responsible for the preparation and the quality control of the brine are familiar, from
experience, with the type of additives that will be used: where this is not the case,
they should resort to the advice of personnel who are expert in the use of brines; this
will bring benefits in the growth of the know-how of the personnel responsible for the
preparation and the control of the completion brine, as well as for the results
obtained by the Company.
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11. DISPLACEMENT
Before going on with the present Section of this manual, it is suggested to refer to
the Completion Procedures Manual (STAP-P-1-M-7120 Sections 4.5 and 4.6).
11.1 DISPLACEMENT OF THE COMPLETION FLUID IN THE WELL

Completion, packer and workover fluids (solid laden or solid free) are often
incompatible with the fluids used for drilling. So necessary and adequate well
cleaning up should be executed before to displace the fluids especially brine in the
well.
The objectives of displacement are:
• to remove mud, mud solids, any other residues and contaminants from the
wellbore;
• to minimize or avoid the contamination of costly fluids;
• to reduce the brine filtration time and cost.
The clean up should be taken not only for wellbore but also in particular attention to
tubular equipment. The factors influencing the degree of clean up are:
• well parameters: temperature and pressure conditions; casing, tubing and packer
design; the type of mud in the hole;
• surface condition: the surface equipment available;
• system and product to be used: volumes, type of products and characteristics of
pill system;
• sequence and parameters of operation: flow rate and numbers of pills
Generally, the displacement operation is required to clean up the wellbore and
tubular equipment as good as possible. But an important factor to be considered is
the degree of cleaning that needs to be achieved. A high degree of cleaning is
required when it is necessary, for example:
• to change from a mud to a brine to perform the completion of a well and/or to
finish the drilling operations (e.g. underreaming) since oil and suspended clays
may provoke damage to the formation;
• to complete the well in gravel packing because the residual oil and suspended
solids may induce damage in both the formation and the gravel screen;
• to use a very heavy brine which is very expensive, and to avoid excessive
contamination by the drilling mud;
• for wireline operation
• to use particular completion tools
In other cases, (e.g. use of non-expensive brines, conventional completions etc.) the
required degree of cleaning of the equipment could be less stringent without
jeopardizing the operations and the future productivity of the well, but no fluid loss
should be present which, by drawing the solids into the perforated tunnels, could
cause damage in the perforations.
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If the cleaning operations are performed where a communication exists between the
well and the formation (e.g. in wells which have already produced and hence the
casings are already perforated), the fluids to be used for the cleaning must always
ensure the hydraulic control of the well and its density must higher enough to apply,
at the level of the open zones, a differential pressure in favour of the well towards
the formation.
Furthermore, in these wells which are already in communication with the mineralized
formation, it will be necessary to protect the rock and/or the tunnels against any
contamination which could be introduced by the loss of the pills in the formation and
which would consequently lead to a reduction in the future productivity from the well.
11.2 DISPLACEMENT OPERATION AND WELL CLEAN UP

In order to increase the cleaning up degree, it is essential to execute a good practice
for a particular displacement operation. The present practice may be as only a
general guideline for a specific operation which must be engineered according to
every particular well condition.
11.2.1 CLEANING OF SURFACE EQUIPMENT AND CONDITIONING OF MUD

All the surface equipment (pumps, tanks, lines, joints, chokes, etc) which will be
used for the displacement of the fluid in the well must be carefully cleaned before
being used. Use some flocculant agents, if needed, pumping through all surface
equipment to have more efficient cleaning up. For example:
• A well containing oil based mud (OBM):
water,
oil base
water containing a surfactant (preferably non ionic)
water.
• a well containing water based mud (WBM):
water containing a surfactant (preferably non-ionic)
water
Conditioning of mud in the well is also important to improve the quality of cleaning
up. The mud system in the well should be re-circulated correctly (for example, thin
the system with water or oil depending on system, try to use minimum chemicals or
weighting materials to treat the system). Circulate the mud through available solids
control equipment to remove large contaminants. If possible, rotate and reciprocate
pipe while in circulation.
11.2.2 SPACERS, PILLS AND CHEMICAL WASHERS

The spacers and chemical washers play the significant rules during the
displacement. To separate incompatible fluids (mud and completion fluid), the
spacers should cover at least 150-200 m of annulus at its widest diameter. Some
common used spacers are: viscous spacers, water spacers, weighted spacers, base
oil spacers and emulsified spacers. The selection of a spacer depends upon the
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fluid in the hole and the fluid that will be used for displacement. The selected spacer
(s) must be compatible with adjacent fluids.
A pill is a mixture which is different from the fluid in the hole. Pills are used to provide
viscosity, to carry debris out of the hole, to neutralize the fluids and to prevent lost
circulation.
While chemical washers, formulated by surfactants or solvents to remove inorganic
or organic contaminants and residues, act for cleaning. Their annulus height should
be as a minimum 150 – 200 m at largest section.
To effect the maximum displacement efficiency and minimum interface
mixing/contamination, if possible, all fluids should be pumped in turbulent flowing
regime. Washing fluids could be pumped initially in direct circulation with a flow rate
at turbulent regime in annulus, except of high viscous pills which should be pumped
in laminar flow conditions: the variation of the flow regimes will guarantee a better
cleaning up degree as a turbulence will remove the residual solids while the high
viscous pills, in a laminar flow condition, will transport the removed solids to surface.
The correct flow rate to obtain the required flow regimes is to apply a minimum value
to get a turbulent flow with the low viscous fluids (oil and water) while the more
viscous pills will undoubtedly fall under laminar flow conditions (a flow rate of 3-4
bpm, i.e. 0,48 – 0,64 m3/min, for 7” casing with 3 ½” drill pipe should, for example,
always be able to ensure the flowing at both conditions).
It should be mentioned also that the behaviour of the surfactants (recommended
here for the cleaning up operations) is not consistent and can vary (from 0 to 100 %)
regarding to different mud systems (WBM and OBM) also because the additions
continuously polymers, co-polymers and surfactants, etc. make each mud a unique
system. It’s better to ascertain case by case the compatibility of the surfactants
through the laboratory tests (requiring a mud sample from the well site and send it to
the laboratory with a specific requirement of what the operations are planned in the
well and which kinds of product are expected to be used) or through the simple field
tests.
11.2.2.1 SIMPLE FIELD TEST TO VERIFY THE COMPATIBILITY OF SURFACTANTS

The procedure of the simple field tests depend on type of mud system on the well,
WBM or OBM. Type of mud systems are different, the test procedures are surely
different. But in generally, the following simple field tests may be used as example:
• Well filled with WBM – field test: it is possible, in the field, to check the
effectiveness of a surfactant (and its concentration) using some bottles whose
inner surface are covered with a film of mud; and then, the water containing the
different surfactants (for screening different surfactants) at the different dosages
of the same product will be poured into the bottle. The effectiveness of each
surfactant at its optimum concentration can be determined by observing the
degree of cleaning up of each container surface after addition of the product and
light agitation of bottle.
• Well filled with OBM – field test: A similar test can be carried out using two bottles
filled separately with the following fluids: 1° bottle: 50/50 v/v of base oil/OBM; 2°
bottle: 50/50 v/v of base oil conditioned with surfactant/OBM; By comparing the
degree of mud emulsion breaking for two bottles, it is possible to determine the
effectiveness of the surfactant and its optimum concentration.
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11.2.3 DISPLACING TECHNIQUES

The drill string to be run into the well should be equipped usually with a bit without
nozzles (the nozzles may become plugged in the case where large sized solids are
removed) and with one or more scrapers. The drill string should be run to bottom of
hole and then raised 0.5 – 1 m in order to replace also the fluid remaining in the rat-
hole avoiding any stagnation of heavy fluids and/or solids.
Once the bottom has been reached and while the mud is being circulated and
conditioned, the drill string should be kept in rotation (40-50 rpm) and in
reciprocation to remove any solids remained on casings and to keep them in
suspension. The purpose of circulating the mud is to break the gel structure of the
fluid and to reduce its viscosity and consequently to facilitate the successive phase
of displacement.
For deep wells, slant wells, or wells with particular geometry, is suggest the use of a
work string equipped by a taper mill – near bit – water mellon mill, instead the
normal bit & scraper lay out. The mills shall have the OD equal to the casing drift
diameter. In some case, depending by the well design and the last cementing job
operation result, the work string should be run rotating it in the last casing section.
Two techniques for displace drilling mud out of well bore:
• A two step procedure: 1° step to displace mud and flush well bore with water or
seawater until returns are clean; 2° step to displace flush water with completion
fluid/brine. This technique may be used at the following conditions: inexpensive
supply of water available, well bore isolated from formation or non kick present,
casing/tubing/cement bonds will withstand the differential pressure and
contaminated water be easily/safely/inexpensively disposed of;
• A one step procedure: Displace the selected displacing fluid into the hole. With
this technique, the friction losses should be always verified in the annulus with
mud and workstring with displacing fluid.
11.2.4 DIRECT AND REVERSE DISPLACEMENT

There are two different displacement procedures used today: direct and reverse.
The choice of procedure depends on:
1) casing-tubing strengths and cement bond log results and
2) the density of the displacing fluid (fluid going in).
• The reverse displacement procedure should be used if
1) the bond logs and casing strength data indicate that the casing will
withstand a calculated differential pressure or
2) the displacing fluid (fluid going in) is lighter than the displaced fluid (fluid coming
out).
• The direct displacement procedure should be used if
1) the bond logs and casing strength data indicate that the casing will not withstand
a calculated differential pressure or
2) the displacing fluid (fluid going in) is heavier (or equal) than the displaced fluid
(fluid coming out).
The direct displacement procedure is suggested when there is communication with
the formation.
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Both displacement procedures (direct and reverse) make use of spacers, chemical
washers and pills for effective hole cleaning up.
11.2.5 DISPLACEMENT OF BRINE

It can be used both two techniques (two step and one step procedure) to displace of
solid-free brine. In the following there are four examples (two for two step procedure
and two for one step procedure) to indicate the general procedures for displacement
of brine as reference. It should be mentioned here the procedures are only the
examples. The precise displacement procedures for a particular operation should be
programmed by both operator and fluid service company considering the
requirement of each single well.
11.3 A TWO STEP PROCEDURE (WITH SEAWATER FLUSH)

Displacement for WBM:
• Indirect (reverse) circulate the WBM out of the well with seawater at maximum
rate;
• Continue circulate with seawater to facilitate rotating and reciprocating the work
string;
• Pump 2 or 3 neutralizing pills (seawater/drill water + NaOH about 14- 20 kg/m3)
and one chemical washer (surfactant + NaOH);
• Make a short trip when the wash water has a NTU about 75;
• Pump a viscous spacer to separate the seawater and the brine;
• Follow with clean brine;
• Circulate and filter the completion brine until the turbidity readings of the returns
are within desired specifications.
Displacement for OBM:
• Pump base oil (type according to the makeup of OBM) and a initial spacer to
remove oil mud solids;
• Pump a chemical washer composed of solvent +seawater to coat solids in a water
environment and causes flocculation;
• Pump another chemical washer to restore the surface of the tubular to a water
wet;
• Circulate with seawater until the solid content is less than 0,2 %;
• Pump a viscous spacer between the seawater and the brine;
• Displace the spacers with the completion brine;
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11.4 A ONE STEP PROCEDURE (WITHOUT SEAWATER FLUSH)

Displacement for WBM:
• Pump a neutralizing pill (water/seawater + NaOH);
• And then follow by a chemical washer (water/seawater +surfactant + NaOH) to
remove water based mud and its residues;
• After then a viscous seawater spacer or a viscosified brine between the chemical
washer and brine;
• Pump brine to displace spacers;
Displacement for OBM:
• Pump base oil (type according to the makeup of OBM) or solvent washer;
• Pump a chemical washer as flocculant agent ;
• And then follow by another chemical washer (water/seawater +surfactant +
NaOH) to remove to restore the surface of the tubular to a water wet;
• Pump a viscous brine spacer between the chemical washer and the brine;
• Displace the spacers with the completion brine;
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12. FLUID LOSS CONTROL

During the completion operations, the fluids in well bore (completion fluids, cleaning
up pills and displaced muds) may invade the formation. The formations may be as
high permeability formation, vugular formation, cavernous formation and induced
fracture.
The pressure exerted by the completion fluid on the walls contributes to maintaining
a stable wellbore (mechanical control) by avoiding its collapse, especially where the
fluid contains a non-damaging plugging material which is capable of forming an
impermeable filter cake.
Wellbore instability is not perceived as a problem in consolidated formations but
rather in partially-consolidated or totally unconsolidated sandstones where loose
materials.
In the presence of the high permeabilities and the absence of damage (also absence
the filter cake), the bottom hole pressure differential (at least 30 kg/cm2) pushes the
fluid to enter the pore space of the formation. The fluid penetrates the formation in
radial flow according to Darcy’s law while the pressure differential, in practically,
would act against the wall of wellbore if the filter cake would be present, but in
reality, it is distributed by the phenomenon of flow in the formation (fluid loss). The
pressure differential which is actually exercised on the face of the exposed rock may
be very low in the presence of fluid loss, and at such situation, some formation rock
will enter into the well hole if the rock is unstable.
Fluid entering the formations can cause various troubles and increase the cost of a
well, both in time and materials, such as:
• loss of high costly completion fluids;
• damage the pay zone;
• operational complications caused by the need to prepare and treat additional
volumes of completion fluids;
• hazards associated with the control of the formation pressure and hence the
increased risk of blowout.
Understanding the type of loss is essential in choosing the right type of treatment.
Generally, the first action to reduce “fluid loss” is to decrease the pressure
differential (hydrostatic pressure and pore pressure) by reducing the fluid weight as
much as possible. When it is not possible, there are other types of cure methods for
fluid loss control.
12.1 FLUID LOSS RECOGNITION

Before trying to cure the loss, the first step is to establish loss rate in order to select
a correct treatment method. In accordance with the established loss rate, see table
1, the severity can be classified into the different order. And consequently, it
becomes easier to understand which kind of formation encountered and what the
right treatment to use.
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Loss rate Loss rate Loss severity Possible formation Cure methods
(bbl/h) (m3/h)
1 - 20 0.159 – 3,18 Seepage Porous and High viscous pills
permeable Acidizable fine-medium
granular
Acidizable fine-medium
fiber
20 - 50 3,18 – 7.95 Partial loss Unconsolidated Acidizable fine-coarse
sands and gravels granular
Small open fractures Acidizable fine-coarse
fiber
Acidizable fine-coarse
flake
50 - 100 7,95 – 15.9 Severe loss Long sections of Acidizable medium-
unconsolidated coarse granular
sands Acidizable medium-
Fractures coarse fiber
Acidizable medium-
coarse flake
> 500 > 79,5 Total Cavernous Acidizable gunk
Large fractures treatment
Table 12-1 – Losses Recognition
Until now, the cure methods used to reduce the fluid loss in thief zones can be
divided into two main classifications: one is to use viscous pills and another is to use
removable plugging materials, as will be discussed in next paragraph separately.
12.2 USE OF VISCOUS PILLS FOR FLUID LOSS CONTROL

One of the possible cure methods of reducing the fluid loss in thief zones, and very
often used in the past, is to spot or/and to squeeze a fluid with very high viscosity.
But the viscous pills do not stop losses, but use their viscosity to reduce the rate of
loss. In generally, an approach to use of viscous pills is for seepage loss
control.
Viscous pills are typically prepared with a polymer that is soluble in the completion
fluid and that maintains viscosity under down hole conditions. These viscous pills
contain no bridging particles. Hence, no external filter cake is formed and no positive
shut-off obtained.
The pills should be filtrated before displacing it into the hole to avoid the fish eyes
(partially hydrolyzed polymers) and other solids dispersed in the viscous pills to
block the formation pore and damage the productivity. If the fish eyes and solids
remain in the viscous pills, it is recommended to use the most suitable and most
easily removal solid plugging materials (see paragraph below).
The first polymer used to prepare high viscous pills is hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC):
• HEC is a water soluble and acid soluble polymer common used to make a high
viscous pill.
• A minimum concentration, in some cases 12 kg/m3 develops enough high
viscosity to reduce the rate of loss.
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STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
• HEC is compatible with most of the common used brine (univalent or/and
bivalent).
• It behaves an excellent ability of acid solubility. According to the testing results
and experiences, it suggests to make acid treatment immediately in order to
render the acid more effective.
• HEC is very sensitive to high shear rate and to terminal degradation. Its maximum
use temperature is about 95 - 120°C.
• HEC is very slow to develop viscosity in brines of density great than 1, 40 kg/l.
Even when heated, up to 5 hours mixing time may be required in order to reach
maximum viscosity. In certain brines containing for example zinc, HEC will not
yield even when heated or prehydrated. For the situations the zinc concentration
must be increased to a sufficiently high level, relative to the other salts, so that the
solution will solvate the prehydrated HEC. (Note: the minimum zinc concentration
is about 7, 5 – 9, 0 % by weight).
• Low viscous HEC fluids can cause permeability impairment.
• A viscosity breaker should be added to HEC viscous pill to enable it to backflow
out of the formation at the end of the job. Most breakers are used only for short
term jobs, while for long term jobs, HEC will be degraded thermally, for example,
it would be applications at very high temperatures (>135°C) or in low density brine
(1,40 kg/l).
12.3 USE OF SOLID PLUGGING MATERIALS FOR FLUID LOSS CONTROL

Solid-free high viscous pills are ineffective, the use of plugging agents becomes
necessary. The most common used plugging agents are calcium carbonates and
sized salt.
It may be considered a certain method for preventing fluid loss into the formation
and/or stabilising the wellbore by creation of a filter cake similar to that of a common
drilling fluid. Although this approach appears to be in conflict with the requirements
for completion fluids, which are by definition the solid free, it is, when necessary, the
only valid solution to stop fluid loss.
The solid plugging materials selected for use should have the property of being
subsequently easy to remove either simply by the clean up operations or by acid
wash treatments. The preferred material is calcium carbonate with a controlled
particle size distribution which is suspended in a viscous fluid to avoid any rapid
settling of the solid (sg = 2,71 kg/l). In order to make solid plugging materials
efficiency, it is recommended to select right particle forms and the particle size
distribution. It is not depend on the particle concentration. The rule of thumb of
concentration usually is between 150 – 300 kg/m3.
CaCO3 is extremely soluble in acids even weak ones (e.g. hydrochloric acid HCl,
formic acid HCOOH, acetic acid CH3COOH) and in the usual concentrations used
for well operations. The use of hydrofluoric acid HF should not be considered as the
reaction can cause the precipitation of scale in the form of fluorite, CaF2 which is a
very insoluble crystal. It is understood that if the simple operation of the clean up of
the well allows the removal of the temporary plugging material then the acid wash
should be avoided. When the fluid loss zone is to be re-established, the removal of
the plugging material could be performed with an acid mixture which is compatible
both with the formation as well as the plugging material itself (do not use HF to
remove CaCO3 even if the formation is compatible with it).
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
In generally, on market, the distribution of calcium carbonate CaCO3 particle size

varies from 1 to 3000 micron. The selection of the particle size and its distribution as
bridging agents depend on the severity of loss, type of thief formation and
operational requirements. The criteria to choose the bridging materials size and
distribution will vary since there isn’t a standard procedure to use. The above three
example are given the different results and they can be used only as the reference.
In field some software are available from the service company for PSD optimization.
If non software available, the above three examples and the graphics can be used to
calculate the medium diameter of the particle size and to decide its optimized
distribution.
In the recent past years, the different drill-in-fluid (DIF) systems, both oil based
and water based, are proposed by all the service companies. The particular
designed fluid system can be also used as a completion temporary plugging system
since it contains a combination of polymers and the calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
which is capable of completely blocking the pore opening and fluid loss is eliminated
practically. The calcium carbonate is often presented in the DIF system for solid
bridging pore opening. The system, during clean up operations, often allows the
recovery of the great part of the permeability; if the clean up alone is not sufficient, a
simple acid wash is capable of effectively removing the plugging materials since they
are acid soluble.
Besides of calcium carbonate, sometimes, some others acid soluble solids would be
also considered as bridging agents, such as iron carbonate (siderite, FeCO3,
sg=3,80 kg/l) and iron oxides (haematite or itabirite Fe2O3, sg=5,00 kg/l); but in
practice, such materials can not be utilized as completion fluid since the present of
clays in the carbonate formation and elevate concentration of iron in solution could
re-precipitate the materials in the formation during the acid washing phase.
Other types of solid to be as bridging agents are the crystals of salt. In
theoretically, every salt could exist the possibility as the solid in its saturated
solution; but in the practice, only one salt – sodium chloride (NaCl) at the same salt
saturated brine (d=1,2 kg/l at 20 °C) is used frequently. The other systems based on
the calcium formate Ca(COOH)2, d= 1,15 kg/l at 20°C or the NaBr (d=1,58 at 21
°C) developed in North Sea in the last years can also be used.
The use of correct volumes for fluid loss control should be always considered. In
accordance with the experiences, the common used pill volume is 300- 500 l/m
(bridging agents 30 – 125 kg/m) for sand stone and carbonate formations without
stimulation. While for carbonate formation after stimulation, the suggested pill
volume may be 600 – 1000 l/m (bridging materials 90 – 300 kg/m), i.e. bridging
agents concentration: 150 – 300 kg/m3).
The use of corrosion additives in bromide brine should be avoided in any case
because a reaction between the bromide ion and the oxidant can result in failure of
the polymer to degrade, while it is sure that “brine” will degrade with the possible
precipitation of salt and the evolution of bromine gas. In the high temperature
condition, it is certainly that polymer degrades at the bottom hole environment, so
use the pills may still have the risk of formation damage.
Similar problems of removal is expected from cellulose dispersed in brine viscosified
by XC polymer since the degradation both polymer and bridging agent can occur
only when adding the strong oxidants (hypo-chloride; very corrosive products).
Use carbonate as the bridging agent needs only a single acid soak/squeeze
cleaning up phase; while use sized salts as the bridging agent benefits from a two
step clean up procedure because the first step can be used to destroy the viscosifier
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
and starches that suspend the salt particles, leaving a semi-permeable filter cake of
salt. The second step is an under-saturated fluid to dissolve the remaining salt.
12.4 POLYMERS FOR SOLID PLUGGING MATERIALS IN SUSPENSION

For aqueous fluids, the required viscosity to maintain the solid plugging agents in
suspension is provided by polymers: CMC and polyacrylonitrile (not acid soluble),
xanthan gum (50% acid soluble), scleroglucan and guar gum (degradable with
enzymes), starch derivatives and HEC (completely acid soluble).
• Xanthan gum (XC) offers a more stable suspension but its resistance to
degradation by acid could prevent the removal of the pill; this polymer is in fact
degraded by strong oxidants which are highly corrosive (LiClO or NaClO, i.e.
lithium or sodium hypochlorite, 3-13%: the former is preferred because it is a solid
with constant purity).
• If high carrying capacity and suspending properties is required, XC polymer is a
better choice.
• XC is not compatible with some bivalent brine (CaCl2 with density >1,28 kg/l,
CaBr2 and zinc based), but it performs well in univalent brine (also formates brine
and CaCl2 with density <1,28 kg/l).
• Scleroglucan has a good compatibility with calcium rich brines and performs over
a wide range. However, scleroglucan has two negative features: 1) needs heating
to achieve full yield and 2) is more difficult to degrade even with strong acid at
temperature below 40°C.
Therefore, HEC is to be preferred even though if circulation is interrupted, the solids
in suspension will tend to settle (both in the well and in the mixing tanks). For a
matrix formation with the primary permeability, it is usually to use a very viscous fluid
(with HEC 8 – 10 kg/m3) while a fracture formation with the secondary permeability
to use a fluid with lower viscosity.
If the HEC polymer has high quality, it will leave a minimum amount of residue in the
rock pores after breaking and this can be attacked by various chemicals (acids,
oxidants and enzymes, selected according to the well conditions). Magnesium oxide
can be added to HEC to provide high temperature stability.
The carbonate pills act by a mechanical plugging of pores: since the flow channels
are only partially obstructed by a non-deformable solid, they will allow some passage
of the fluid at very low flow rates, which becomes slower as the viscous fluid
penetrates the formation. The “sealing” effect will therefore not be perfect and the
formation will continue to absorb fluid slowly since the pore space which is not
completely plugged by the carbonate will remain to some extent open. This
phenomenon can be minimized by using the correct size of carbonate, the selection
of which is made based on the formation permeability and applying the concepts of
filtration which establish the degree of absolute filtration to be used in order to avoid
damage by plugging.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
12.5 SELECTING RIGHT PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (PSD) OF SOLID

PLUGGING MATERIALS
Currently there isn’t a standard criterion to calculate the bridging agent particle size
in base of formation information (permeability, porosity, etc). Every operational
company and/or service company has its rule of thumb to select the correct size of
plugging agents. There is different software available to use to choose plugging
materials sizes.
The following are listed different criteria and methods to select particle size and its
distribution. They can be the examples as reference.
Remember that the calculated size (Dbridge ) indicates always the average diameter
of the particle size distribution of the product and must not be thought of as the only
size. Usually, the particle size should be designed with an optimum PSD (Particle
Size Distribution) according to the characteristics of the formation to be controlled.
Example n. 1.
One of the traditional criteria to select the average diameter of the plugging particle
should be more than or equal to 1/3 of the average diameter of the pore, i.e.
Bridging size Dbridge (µm) > or = 1/3 pore size Dpore (µm);
For pore size Dpori, one of the calculation methods can be: for example,
Dpore (µm) = 1,77* √(K/φ)
where K is the permeability (mD) to brine and φ is the porosity (%) of a rock
(hypothesis φ =25%).
Example n. 2.
ENI E&P accept another criterion based on the laboratory experimental works which
have demonstrated that optimized PSD in high permeability sands may be when the
mud contains CaCO3 sized from 7 times the average pore size diameter (7 x K1/2)
down to 1 micron, i.e.
Dpore (µm) = √K
PSD = 7 Dpore ∼ 1 (µm)
where K is the permeability to mud (mD)

following a straight line in a log-lin plot. For instance, if the rock is expected to have
a permeability up to 3.6 D, the average pore size diameter should be around
(36001/2=) 60 microns. CaCO3 PSD to be used to control losses and to avoid
formation damage should have a linear distribution from 420 micron to 1 micron in a
log-lin plot:
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
Perm. 3,600 D
av. pore 60 micron 7,0 factor CaCO3 420 max size
100
90 1/3 rule
x y 0
2,623249
80 7 factor rule 100 0,655812
0 0 1,311625
m 38,121 1,967437
70
76,241 100 2,623249
% fine than
60
50
x y 0
40 1,30103 50 0,325257
0 0 0,650515
30 m 38,431 0,975772
76,862 100 1,30103
20 1,561236
1,821442
10 2,341854
2,60206
0
1 10 100 1000
diameter (micron)
Figure 12-1 – An Example to Have a Correct PSD Based on Rock Permeability Data Using ENI
Criterion
Finally, commercially available CaCO3 products (usually 80-100 Kg/m3) are mixed
together to match such a distribution (Figure 12-2).
Mixture Kg/m3 %
Fine CaCO3 40,0 50,0
Medium CaCO3 24,0 30,0
Coarse CaCO3 16,0 20,0
TOTALE 80,0 Kg/m3
100
Mixture S % cum
90
target n.2 (%)
80
CaCO3 finer than (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1000 100 10 1
diameter (micron)
Figure 12-2 – CaCO3 PSD and its percentage
This process can be executed with software which is developed by ENI E&P division
and will be available in near future. In the mean time, if no software is available
neither from ENI nor from service companies, some optimizations obtained by ENI
software are reported on Table 12-2.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
Permeability (mD) Optimized PSD (micron) Percentage

0% 25% 50 % 75% 100%
10 <1 <2,2 <4,7 <10,2 <22,1
50 <1 <2,7 <7,0 <18,7 <49,5
100 <1 <2.9 <8.4 <24.2 <70
500 <1 <3.5 <12.5 <44.3 <156.5
1000 <1 <3.9 <149 <57.4 <221.4
2000 <1 <4.2 <17.7 <74.4 <313
5000 <1 <4.7 <22.2 <104.9 <495
10000 <1 <5.1 <26.5 <136.1 <700
20000 <1 <5.6 <31.5 <176.5 <990
50000 <1 <6.3 <39.6 <248.8 <1565.2
Table 12-2 – Optimized PSD Percentage
Example n. 3.
Another example is taken from the field application in Angola. In Angola they use
different criteria for PSD selection depending on the type of thief formation (A and
B).
A: for primary permeability formation (matrix):
Dpore (µm) = 0,885 * √K/φ

Dbridge (µm) = 1/5 * Dpori
where K is the permeability (mD) of a rock and φ is the porosity (%) of a rock
(hypothesis φ =20%).
PSD = (1/10 ∼ 10) * Dbridge
B: for secondary permeability formation (fracture, acidified carbonate):
Dbridge (µm) > ½ * Dfracture.
where Dfracture is the fracture wideness.

Since the fracture wideness is very difficult to estimate. In practically, the bridging
agents will bw used with wide range particle distribution (PSD) for fluid loss control.
For example, PSD varies in range among 2000, 600, 150 and 50 micron with
corresponding concentration in percentage of 50, 30, 10 and 10. However for
acidified carbonate formation, PSD of used bridging agents vary from 100 to 10 000
micron.
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STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
12.6 WELL CONTROL

Well control procedures will be in accordance with the Company Well Control Policy
Manual (STAP-P-1-M-6150) a copy of which must be kept available on the rig.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
13. QUALITY AND COSTS OF THE BRINES

As already mentioned, the use of poor-quality salts which do not meet the technical
specifications (ENI-E&P possesses these specifications) can introduce difficulties in
the preparation and filtration as well as a negative impact on the productivity of the
well through the activation of unknown or not well-understood mechanisms of
damage.
For instance, it is known that the injection or loss of brine into the formation having a
pH higher than the pH of the formation water may lead to unfavourable reactions
with clays; a quick method for quality control of brine can be based on the values of
pH and density at 20°C; for several brines (prepared with solid salts and weighted up
to the limits of saturation) which have been measured in the laboratory are given in
Table 13-1.
pH density
Salt Origin of Salt
( with electrode) (Kg/l) at 20°C
NH4Cl pure (analysis grade) 4,9 1,07
KCl pure (analysis grade) 6,3 1,161
NaCl pure (analysis grade) 7,1 1,185
KBr pure (analysis grade) 5,8 1,337
CaCl2 77-80% from the field 5,9 1,342
CaCl2 · 6H2O pure (analysis grade) 4,6 1,431
NaBr pure (analysis grade) 7,1 1,532
CaBr2 pure (analysis grade) 6,7 1,784
K2CO3 pure (analysis grade) 14,8 1,572
Table 13-1 – Value of pH and Density at 20°C Measured in Laboratory for Several Brines
The values of density and pH of the solutions, prepared from pure salts, can be
rather different from the values which are sometimes noted in the field. For example,
CaCl2 77-80% from the well site, used in the determination of the values of pH that
are reported in Table 13-1, has a pH close to that of a brine prepared from pure salt
(in general a value of pH = 9-10 is noted in the field), but the resultant density is
lower (-6%) with respect to the density of the solution prepared from pure salt; this
difference is attributable to the presence of contaminants which limit the solubility of
the salt.
The salt solutions of chlorides and bromides should have a pH value close to or just
below neutral (pH≤ 5-7) because of the hydrolysis reaction connected to the nature
of the cation contained in the salt; exceptions are:
• K2CO3 solutions which generate high values of pH (pH=13-14) since it is a very
soluble carbonate salt;
• ZnBr2 solutions since the salt leads to an acid reaction, registering low values of
pH (pH=4);
• NH4Cl solutions, inducing an acid reaction (pH≈5);
The cost of the brines is not detailed in this book.
Their cost can be related to several factors:
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• The specific gravity; as rule of thumb, higher s.g.-higher cost.

• The kind and the purity of the salt and/or the brine.
• Logistic and contractual matters.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
14. ENVIRONMENTAL
Environmental impact of drilling and completion fluids is evidenced and much
attention has been given in recent years. The concerns on environments, on safety
use, on disposal issue depend on where and when this kind of fluid to be used since
the interest, attention and local legislation are different. It is very important to follow
the individual regulatory agency aspects for onshore and offshore operations and to
update the information on the aspects. The rapid changes in the field are required to
keep informed which may be provided by publication, annual environmental report,
directives or government decrees. There are specific agencies which regulate and
enforce rules governing the use and discharge of these wastes. When dealing with
completion fluids, especially heavy brine, it is very important to be sure what
regulations are in effect for their use in a specific area.
Generally, during the completion program phase, it should be taken in consideration
the following aspects: local legislation, compatibility of products proposed with HSE,
possibility of disposal, etc. In the operation field, the considerations on HSE should
be arranged among operational company, local environment agency and fluid
service companies.
Fluid service companies must provide the data sheet and safety sheet of all products
programmed to use. So composition on hazardous ingredients, hazards
identification, first aid measures, fire fighting measures, handling/storage, exposure
control/personal protection, physical and chemical properties,
toxicological/ecological information, disposal considerations, transport information
and regulatory information, etc. of the products may be found on material safety data
sheet (MSDS).
In recent years, non toxic environmental friendly system and product as the
alternative, in order to make the operation more HSE compatible, have been
widespread used and have been received excellent results. For example, very
recently, brines containing ions which are compatible with the environment begin to
be used in the particular environment sensitive area. Formates (sodium formate,
potassium formate and caesium formate) match this requirement. The heavy zinc
based brine is being substituted by the formats or its mixture.
The object of this chapter is to give a basic concept, general considerations and
useful information before selecting or using a suitable solution for completion
operation. The details information and correct management on the systems and the
products, especially on high cost heavy brine, should be discussed and arranged
among operator, fluid service company and local environmental agency.
14.1 GLOSSARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL TERMS

The common terms used in the environmental discipline and a short definition of the
terms are listed as following in order to enhance a comprehensive and better
understanding on environmental matters.
Acidity: The quantitative capacity of aqueous solutions to react with hydroxyl ions.
Acute dermal LD50: A single dose of a substance, expressed as milligrams per
kilogram of body weight, that is lethal to 50 % the test population of animals under
specified test conditions when applied to skin.
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Acute LC50: A concentration of a substance expressed as parts per million per parts
of medium, that is lethal to 50 % of the test population of animals under specified
test condition.
Acute oral LD50: A single orally administered dose of a substance expressed as
milligram per kilogram of body weight, that is lethal to 50 % of the test population of
animals under specified test condition.
Acute toxicity: Any poisonous effect produced within a short period of time following
exposure, usually up to 24-96 hrs, resulting in severe biological harm and often
death.
Acute toxicity scale: There is a set of classifications used today related to the
typology of testing. Usually the hazard classification of environmental samples
according to their acute toxicity is based on toxicity unit (TU) values. TU can be
calculated as TU = 100 * (1/ LC50 or EC50), where LC50 and EC50 are expressed in
mg/l.
Non toxic: TU< 0,01
Low toxic: TU = 0,01 – 1
Toxic: TU = 1 – 10
Very toxic: TU = 11 – 100
Extremely toxic: TU > 100
Aerobic: Life or processes that depends on the presence of oxygen.
Alkalinity: The ability of solutions or aqueous suspensions to neutralize an acid.
Allergen: Any of a variety of materials that, as a result of coming into contact with
appropriate body tissues, after a latent period, indices a state of sensitivity and /or
harmful reaction.
Anaerobic: Life or processes that can occur in the absence of oxygen.
Auto ignition point: The minimum temperature required to initiate or cause self
combustion of a substance in the absence of a spark or flame.
Benthic region: The bottom layer of a body of water.
Bioaccumulation: The process whereby certain toxic substances collect in tissues,
thus posing a substantial hazard to human health or the environment.
Bioassay: Using living organisms to measure the effect of a substance, factor, or
condition.
Biodegradable: Any substance that decomposes through the action of
microorganisms.
Boiling point: The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to
the pressure of the atmosphere.
Chronic: Long lasting or frequently recurring.
Chronic toxicity: The property of a substance or mixture of substances to cause
adverse effect on an organism upon repeated or continuous exposure over a period
of at least ½ the lifetime of that organism.
Chronic toxicity NOEC: No Observed Effect Concentration as the higher
concentration of compound which does not cause any effect on the organism.
COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to
oxidize the organic matter in a waste sample. Results are reported in mg/l COD.
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Corrosion: A characteristic of hazard waste which identifies waste that must be

segregated in relation to its ability to extract soluble toxic contaminants (especially
heavy metals) from other waste.
Dermal toxicity: The ability of a pesticide or toxic chemical to poison people or
animals coming into contact with skin.
Disposal: 1) The planned release or placement of waste in a manner that precludes
recovery. 2) The discharge, deposit, injection, dumping, spilling, leaking, or placing
of any solid or hazardous waste in the environment so that they can be emitted into
the air or discharged into any waters, including ground waters.
Disposal site: An interim or finally approved and precise geographical area within
which ocean dumping of wastes is permitted under conditions specified in permits
issued under the Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act.
EC50: The concentration of a substance that affects 50 % of a test population after a
specified time.
Effluent: Waste materials discharged into the environment, treated or untreated.
Generally, refers to water pollution.
Environment: Water, air, land, plants, man and other animals living therein, and
interrelationships which exist among them.
Environmental sensitive areas: Areas which have beneficial qualities. They are
termed as “natural assets” by EPA and they include wetlands, floodplains,
permafrost areas, critical habitats of endangered species, and recharge zone of
sole-source aquifers.
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency.
FDA: Food and Drug Administration.
Flash point: The minimum temperature at which a liquid or solid gives off sufficient
vapour to form an ignitable vapour – air mixture near the surface of the liquid or
solid.
Fume: solid particle under 1 micro in diameter, formed as vapours condense or as
chemical reactions take place.
Hazardous material: A substance or material which has been determined by the
Secretary of transportation to be capable of posing an unreasonable risk to health,
safety, and property when transported in commerce.
Hazard rating: A numerical value given to a substance which indicates the degree of
hazard posed by that substance.
Heavy metals: Metallic elements like mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, lead,
barium, selenium and silver (high molecular weights) can damage organisms at low
concentrations and tend to accumulate in the food chain.
Ignition: A characteristic of hazardous waste which identifies waste that presents a
fire hazard because it is ignitable under routine waste disposal and storage
conditions.
Incineration: The controlled process by which combustible solid, liquid, or gaseous
wastes are burned and discharged into non-combustible gases.
Inhalation LC50: A concentration of a substance, expressed as milligrams per litre of
air or parts per million of air, that is lethal to 50 % of test population of animals under
specified test conditions.
Irritation scale:
Mild: edges of an affected area are well designed by definite raising;
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
Moderate: area raised approximately 1 mm;

Severe: beet redness, swelling, injury in depth.
LD50: (Lethal Dose Fifty) A calculated dose of a substance which is expected to
cause death of 50% of an entire defined experimental animal population. It is
determined from the exposure to the substance by any route other than inhalation.
Usually expressed in mg/kg (milligrams per kilogram of body weight).
Nox: Nitrogen Oxide
OSHA: National Safety and Health Administration.
ppm: parts per million.
pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a material, liquid or solid. pH is
represented on a scale of 0 to 14 with 7 being a neutral state, 0 most acid, and 14
most alkaline.
PNEC (EU-TGD 2003): The concentration below which unacceptable effects on
organisms will most likely not occur. The PNEC can be derived from NOEC and/or
L(E)C50 values by applying an assessment factor. The magnitude of the assessment
factor depends on the amount of suitable toxicity data.
PEC: Potential Environmental Concentration. It is measured or estimated from
different fate and exposure models.
Phytotoxicity: Plant injury which can be caused by pesticides and other environment
chemicals.
Reactivity: An Environmental Protection Agency characteristic of hazardous waste
which identifies waste, that under routine management, presents a hazard due to
instability of extreme reactivity (e.g., the tendency to create vigorous reactions with
air or water, tendency to explode, to exhibit thermal instability with regard to shock,
ready reaction to generate toxic gases).
Respirable: Of a size enough to be inhaled deep into the lung.
RCRA: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. It defines hazardous waste and
regulates its disposal.
RQ: (Reportable Quantity) Under EPA regulations the amount of a given material
that should be reported if spilled.
SPCC: Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (Plan).
Spill: Any unplanned discharge or release of hazardous waste onto or into the land,
air or water.
TLV (Threshold Limit Value): A recommended upper limit or time weighted average
concentration of a substance to which most workers can be exposed without
adverse effect. May also be designed as Ceiling Limit (CL) or Time Weighted
Average (TWA).
Toxicity: The degree of danger posed by a substance to animal or plant life.
Toxic substances: A chemical or mixture that may present an unreasonable risk of
injury to health or the environment.
Volatile: Any substance that evaporates at a low temperature.
Volatility: The property of a substance or substances to convert into vapour or gas
without chemical change.
Water quality criteria: Levels of pollutants in bodies of water that are consistent with
various uses of water, i.e., drinking water, sport fishing, industrial use.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
ACGIH American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists

BCT Best Conventional pollutant control Technology (US EPA)
BCF Bio Concentration Factor
BEP Best Environmental Practice (UK)
CAA Clean Air Act
CASRN Chemical Abstract Service Registration Number
CBT Closed Bottle Test
CEFAS Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science
CEPA Canadian Environmental Protection Act
CHARM Chemical Hazard Assessment and Risk Management (OSPAR parlance)
CRI Cuttings Re-Injection (see also SFI)
CWA Clean Water Act
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
DOT Department Of Transportation
EEM Environmental Effects Monitoring
ELINCS European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
HOCNF Harmonised Offshore Chemical Notification Format
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
mg/m3 Approximated milligrams of substance per cubic meter of air (ACGIH)
mppcf Millions of particles per cubic foot of air, based on impinger samples counted
by light-field technics (OSHA)
MSDS Materials Safety Data Sheet
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
NOC Not Otherwise Classified
NPDES National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
NTP National Toxicology Program
OCNS Offshore Chemical Notification Scheme
OOC Oil On Cuttings
OSHA Occupational Safety Health Administration
OSPAR Oslo-Paris Convention For the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic
PEL Permissible Exposure Limit
ppb parts per billion
ppm Parts of vapour or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25
°C and 1 torr. (ACGIH)
RQ Reportable Quantity
SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986
SEBA OSPAR’s Working Group on Sea-based Activities
SFI Slurry Fracture Injection (of drilling wastes)
STEL Short Term Limit Value
TLV Threshold Limit Value
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
TWA Time Weighted Average
Table 14-1 – Standard Abbreviations Used in Environmental Texts
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
14.2 BRINE AND HSE

Brines, especially heavy brines, should be managed in a precaution manner from
health, safety and environment (HSE) points of view. The Table 14-2 show the
principal characteristics relative HSE aspects (toxicological information, using
precaution at rig site, disposal regulation, etc. of salts used in brines). The general
information in the table is very limited and should be deepened according to the
operational situation and zone. The data in the table include: toxicological/ecological
information, hazards and precaution for using, transport and disposal disposing of
the brine.
salt Toxicological information Ecological information Hazards / Precaution Disposal
KCl LD50 (oral):2600 mg/kg Salmo gairdneri: 96hrs LC50=2100 mg/l. Not regarded as a health hazard under
current legislation; Dust may irritate
respiratory or lungs.
NaCl LD50 (oral):3000 mg/kg Bluegill sunfish: 96hrs LC50>1000 mg/l; Not regarded as a health hazard under
Rainbow trout: 96hrs LC50>1000 mg/l. current legislation; Dust may irritate
respiratory or lungs.
ENI S.p.A.
CaCl2 LD50 (oral):1000 mg/kg Daphnia magna: 48 hrs LC50= 20-30 Hazards: Irritating to eyes, to skin and to Accordance
E & P Division
mg/l. respiratory system. Hazardous combustion with Local

S P E O
products: fire or high temperature may Authority

create toxic gases/vapours/fumes of requiremen
chlorine ts.
KBr LD50 (oral mouse): 3120 Fish: LC50>1000 mg/l Hazards: May cause eyes, skin and Must
mg/kg; LD50 (oral rat): respiratory tract irritation. May cause consult
3070 mg/kg; digestive tract irritation with nausea, state and
vomiting and diarrhea. Hygroscopic. May local
cause central nervous system depression. hazardous
wastes
regulations.
NaBr LD50 (oral):3500 mg/kg P. reticulata: 96hrs LC50=16000 mg/l; Not regards as a health hazard under Dispose of
STAP-P-1-M-20091
Daphnia magna: 48 hrs EC50=5800 current legislation. Dust may irritate on site
IDENTIFICATION CODE
mg/l. respiratory or lungs. landfill

area.
CaBr2 LD50 (oral):4100 mg/kg OSPAR list/ substance pose little or no Hazards: Irritating to eyes, to skin and to According
A
risk to the environment (PLONOR) respiratory system. to local or

national
legislation.
PAG
ZnBr2 LD50 (oral): 1000 mg/kg Skeletonema costatum: 48 hrs EC50=6,6 Hazards: Harmful if swallowed or
mg/l. inhalation. Cause severe irritation or burns
121
to every area of contact. Affect central

OF
nervous system, brain and eyes. No

REVISION
carcinogen under NTP.

167
K2CO3 LD50 (rat): 1870 mg/kg Hazards: Irritating to eyes, to skin and to
respiratory system. High pH value: 12.5;
salt Toxicological information Ecological information Hazards / Precaution Disposal
HCOONa LD50 (oral):3000 mg/kg (Rat); Fish: 96hrs LC50>1000 mg/l; Daphnia:
48 hrs EC0>1000 mg/l; Algae: 96 hrs
EC50=790 mg/l; Bacteria: 18 hrs
EC10=10600 mg/l.
86 % of biodegradability in 28 days,
OECD306.
ENI S.p.A.
HCOOK LD50 (oral, rat): 5500 mg/kg; LD50 Brown shrip: 96 hr LC50= 1300 mg/l; Hazards: Irritating to eyes to Accordance with
E & P Division
(oral mus): 11 200 mg/kg Skeletonema costatum: 72 hrs EC50= skin; Irritation to upper local or national
3700 mg/l in 75 % solution; Acartia legislation. The
S P E O
respiratory tract at high

tonsa: 48 hrs LC50= 300 mg/l in 75 % concentration of dust or materials may
solution; Aerobic Biodegradation: be mixed with a
mist. Large doses (>10g)
92% in 28 days in 75 % solution combustible
(biodegrades). may cause mouth and solvent and
esophageal irritation, burned in a
stomach pain, vomiting and chemical
collapse. Not as carcinogen incinerator with
under IARC, ACGIH, and provision for
NTP. effluent gases.
HCOOCs LD50 (rat): 1780 mg/kg. Ecotoxicity: in the majority of marine Hazards: Irritating to eyes;
LD50 (rabbit):>2000 mg/kg species, this material has not Absorb through skin and
demonstrated toxicity and has cause irritation, if contact;
STAP-P-1-M-20091
received a group “E” rating (highest Harmful if swallowed; Non

IDENTIFICATION CODE
approval rating) under PARCOM

inhalation risk due to its
“HOCNF-Harmonized Offshore and
Chemical Notification Format”. liquid state; Not as
Marine: Crassotrea gigas (pacific carcinogen under
A
oyster) 24 hr EC50 =1200 mg/l; Acartia IARC,OSHA or NTP.

tonsa 48hr EC50= 340 mg/l; Precaution: Gloves,
Skeletonema costatum 72 hr protective clothing, eye/face
PAG
EC50=1000 mg/l; Crangon crangon protection.

96hr LC50= 91 mg/l; Scopthalmus
122
maximus 96hr LC50= 260 mg/l.

Fresh water: Oncorhynchus mykiss
OF
Table 14-2 – Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) and HSE Considerations
REVISION
96hr LC50>1000 mg/l; Daphnia magna

48hr EC50= 35 mg/l; Scanedesmus
167
subspicatus 48hr EC50=1,8 mg/l;

Selanstrum capricornutum 48hr
EC50=3,8 mg/l.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
15. COMPLETION FLUID TRADEMARK COMPARISON

Comparison of similar products and functional performances is reported in this
section. Technical and/or economical analyses of all differing products should be
carried out with the concentrations required in similar operational conditions and
results.
Many products have different functions depending on their use. The codes of
product trademarks, shown in the following, are catalogued according to primary
function of each product.
Code Description AVA HALLIBURTON MI BAKER H I

Potassium acetate AVA K 142
Potassium formate AVA K 157 CLEAR-DRILL
K
Sodium formate CLEAR-DRILL
N
Caesium formate CLEAR-DRILL
C
Table 15-1 - Brine
Function Description AVA HALLIBURTON MI BAKER H I

Viscosity Hydroxyethyl- LIQUI-VIS EP, VIS-L, SAFE- W.O.TM 21L,
cellulose (HEC) LIQUI-VIS NT, VIS W.O.TM 21LE
suspension BARAVIS,
BROMI-VIS
Viscosity Hydroxyethyl- NATROSOL NASTROSOL NASTROL TETRAFLEX
cellulose (HEC) HEC SEAL,
W.O.TM 21
Viscosity Xanthan gum VISCO XCD, XC POLYMER, XC XANPLEX,
VISCO XC84 BARAZAN D POLYMER, XANPLEX D
PLUG, N-VIS P FLO-VIS,
DUO-VIS
Viscosity Scleroglucan VISCO ACT ACTIGUM W-306, W-
307,
W-308, W-
309
Viscosity Guar Gum
Vis./filtr. Polymer/carbonat POLY-BRINE W.O.20
e/pH buffer
Vis./filtr. CMC
Filtration Starch N-DRIL POLY-SAL,
FLO-TROL
Filtration Polyacrylamide
Vis./filtr. Polyanionic POLYPAC
cellulose
Table 15-2 - Viscosifiers/Filtration Control Agents
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

Non-ionic SAFE-SURF
surfactant OE
Freeing Unweighted AVATENSIO, BIO-
stuck pipe spotting fluid SPOT,BIO
SPOT II
Freeing Weighted spotting DE BLOCK S EASY SPOT, PRESANTIL MIL-SPOT 2,
stuck pipe fluid LT ENVIROSPOT, W
Oil base AVATENSIO OIL-FAZE BLACK-
concentrated LT MAGIC SFT
Cleanup HOGWASH CASING
WASH 100,
CASING
WASH 200,
MS-90
Spotting Oil base EZ-SPOT PIPE-LAX, BLACK
fluid ORO- MAGIC
NEGRO
Environm Non-hydrocarbon ENVIRO-SPOT, PIPE-LAX BLACK
ent DUAL PHASE, ENV MAGIC
spotting BARO SPOT CLEAN, BIO-
fluid SPOT,
Surfactant RINSE AID, FLOW-
to water- LIQUID SURF,
wet SCRAPER, FLOW-SURF
DIRT PLUG
MAGNET
Water Pipe dope & mud BARA-KLEAN SUPER DOPE-FREE
soluble remover PICKLE
surface
active
Surfactant Blend of water AVA WASH WELL WASH WELL WASH
to remove soluble surfactant WBM 100 100
WBM
Casing High flash AVA WASH WELL WASH WELL WASH
wash for naphtha distillate OBM 200 200
OBM
Displace Non-ionic AVA WASH WELL WASH WELL WASH
ment alkanolamide 500 500 500
spacer
Remover Surfactant blend WELL WASH WELL WASH
to 2000 2000, FLOW-
OBM/SB CLEAN,
M FLOW-
CLEAN R
Table 15-3 - Well Wash and Displacement Pill
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

Ground cellulose M-I-X II
LCM
Modified cellulosic N-DRIL-LO, N-
polymer VIS HI
Non-ionic starch N-DRIL-HT
Ground calcium INTASOL BARACARB SAFE-CARB MIL-CARB
carbonate C4000 F/M/C
Poly-saccharide BIO-PAQTM
For Polymer/bridging SAFE-LINK
saturate agent
d brines
Bridging/ Sized salt BARAPLUG SAFE-
plugging X/XC BLOCK
Table 15-4 – Bridging Agents

H2S Non zinc based AVA ZN 3000
scavenger
H2S Zinc carbonate ZINC NO-SULF, SULF-X II MIL-GARD
scavenger CARBONATE BARACOR 129
Iron oxide IRONITE IRONITE
SPONGE SPONGE
Zinc oxide/zinc BARACOR 44,
compounds NO-SULF
Table 15-5 – Scavengers for H2S / CO2
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

Scale Phosphonate- SURFLO H-35, ANTISCALE, SCALE-
inhibitor base BARACOR 120, AC/1, BANTM
BARABRINE SI SI-1000
Electrostatic AVASTAT
charge 350
inhibitor
Bactericides General INCORR CARBOSAN DEYOCIDE,
biocide EF MIL BIO
SEA 98, X-
CIDE 102,
X-CIDE 207
Biocide Liquid, X-CIDE 102 X-CIDE 102
aldehyde
biocide
Biocide Isothiazolin- ALDACIDE-G BACBAN III X-CIDE 207,
base DRYOCIDE
powdered
Defoamer Surfactant BARABRINE DEFOMEX TETRA
based DEFOAMER 620, MI DEFOAM
DEFOAMER
Defoamer Silicone DEFOMEX
based
pH buffer Magnesium MAGOX TBC
oxide
Table 15-6 - Special Chemicals (for Scale, Defoamer, Biocide and pH)
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

Oxygen Liquid DEOXI SS BARASCAV L LAMOX SC, NOXYGENTM
scavenger ammonium OS-1,
Thermal sulphite NO-OX Ca,
extender NO-OX Na
for
polymers
Oxygen Powdered DEOXY AB BARASCAV D
scavenger sodium sulphite
Thermal
extender
for
polymers
Corrosion Blend of BARACOR 700
inhibitors phosphonates
and alkyl
phosphates
Geothermal esters and UNISTEAM
polyamines 1
Corrosion Film-forming INCORR BARAFILM/ CONQOR BRINE-PAC
inhibitors amine OS BARACOR 100 101, 202, 1500, BRINE-
for solids 303A, PAC 2000,
free CONQOR BRINE-PAC
606 3N1, AMI-
TEC
Micro- Glutaraldehyde ALDACIDE G
biocide solution
Corrosion Cyanogen- BARACOR 450
inhibitors based inorganic
compound
Alkalinity Liquid amine BARACOR 95
control compound
agent
Solid-laden COAT-44, COAT- CONQOR MUD-PAC
packer fluid 45 303A
Table 15-7 - Corrosion Inhibitors

Quinoline quat. AI-350
Surfactant
Table 15-8 - Acid Corrosion Inhibitor
Data in tables from Table 15-1 to 15-8 have been extracted from catalogues of AVA, HALLIBURTON,
MI and BAKER HI and they may vary in future catalogues.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
APPENDIX - A. – EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF BRINES

A.1 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE BRINES
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
A.2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF KCL BRINES

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
A.3 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF CACL2 BRINES

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
A.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF CACL2/CABR2 BRINES

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
A.5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF CACL2/CABR2/ZNBR2 BRINES

ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
APPENDIX - B. TABLES FOR BRINE PREPARATION

B.1 SODIUM CHLORIDE
NaCl brine (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity = 100 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) NaCl (kg) NaCl (%) LCTD (°C)
1.007 0.998 11.4 1.13 - 0.5
1.019 0.993 25.7 2.52 - 1.6
1.031 0.986 45.6 4.43 - 2.8
1.042 0.981 62.8 6.02 - 3.3
1.054 0.976 79.9 7.57 - 4.4
1.066 0.969 99.9 9.36 - 5.5
1.078 0.962 117.0 10.84 - 7.2
1.090 0.955 134.1 12.29 - 8.3
1.102 0.948 154.1 13.97 - 10.0
1.114 0.940 174.0 15.61 - 11.7
1.126 0.933 194.0 17.22 - 12.8
1.138 0.926 211.1 18.54 - 14.4
1.150 0.919 231.1 20.09 - 16.1
1.162 0.910 251.1 21.60 - 18.3
1.174 0.902 271.0 23.08 - 20.6
1.186 0.895 291.0 24.53 - 15.0
1.198 0.888 311.0 25.95 - 3.9
LCTD – Last Crystal To Dissolve
B.2 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE

KCl brine (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity = 100 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) KCl (kg) KCl (%) LCTD (°C)
1.007 0.995 11.4 1.13 - 0.5
1.019 0.986 33.1 3.24 - 1.7
1.031 0.976 53.9 5.23 - 2.2
1.042 0.969 74.5 7.14 - 3.3
1.054 0.960 95.3 9.04 - 3.9
1.066 0.950 116.1 10.88 - 5.0
1.078 0.943 136.7 12.67 - 5.6
1.090 0.933 157.5 14.44 - 6.7
1.102 0.924 178.0 16.15 - 7.8
1.114 0.917 198.9 17.85 - 8.9
1.126 0.907 219.4 19.47 - 10.0
1.138 0.898 240.2 21.10 - 7.8
1.150 0.890 261.1 20.69 4.4
1.162 0.881 281.6 24.23 15.6
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.3 SODIUM BROMIDE

NaBr brine (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity = 95 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) NaBr (kg) NaBr (%) LCTD (°C)
1.007 0.999 6.0 0.56 -0.5
1.019 0.996 21.7 2.02 -1.1
1.031 0.992 39.1 3.60 -1.6
1.042 0.989 54.8 4.99 -1.8
1.054 0.984 71.3 6.42 -2.2
1.066 0.979 88.4 7.88 -3.3
1.078 0.975 104.7 9.22 -3.9
1.090 0.970 121.5 10.58 -4.4
1.102 0.966 137.8 11.87 -5.0
1.114 0.961 154.6 13.18 -5.6
1.126 0.956 171.8 14.48 -6.1
1.138 0.950 189.4 15.81 -6.7
1.150 0.946 205.4 16.96 -7.2
1.162 0.941 222.3 18.16 -7.8
1.174 0.937 238.5 19.29 -8.9
1.186 0.933 254.5 20.38 -9.4
1.198 0.927 272.2 21.57 -10.0
1.210 0.923 288.4 22.64 -11.1
1.222 0.918 305.6 23.75 -11.7
1.234 0.914 321.3 24.72 -12.2
1.246 0.910 337.2 25.70 -13.3
1.258 0.910 354.1 26.73 -14.4
1.270 0.900 371.5 27.78 -15.0
1.282 0.895 388.0 28.75 -15.7
1.294 0.891 404.3 29.67 -16.7
1.306 0.886 421.1 30.63 -17.8
1.318 0.881 437.4 31.52 -18.9
1.330 0.877 454.2 32.44 -19.4
1.342 0.872 471.0 33.34 -20.6
1.354 0.867 488.2 34.25 -21.7
1.366 0.862 505.0 35.12 -22.8
1.378 0.857 522.1 35.99 -23.9
1.390 0.853 538.1 36.77 -25.6
1.402 0.847 555.8 37.66 -26.7
1.414 0.844 571.2 38.38 -28.3
1.426 0.839 587.7 39.15 -23.3
1.438 0.834 604.9 39.96 -14.4
1.450 0.831 620.0 40.62 -10.0
1.462 0.825 637.9 41.45 -2.8
1.474 0.823 651.9 42.02 1.1
1.486 0.816 670.8 42.88 6.1
1.498 0.812 686.7 43.55 10.0
1.510 0.807 703.9 44.29 13.9
1.522 0.804 719.0 44.88 17.2
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.4 POTASSIUM BROMIDE

KBr brine (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity = 98 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) KBr (kg) KBr (%) LCTD (°C)
1.031 0.985 43.1 4.10 -1.0
1.042 0.980 62.5 5.87 -1.3
1.054 0.974 80.2 7.45 -1.7
1.066 0.967 99.3 9.12 -2.2
1.078 0.962 116.4 10.58 -2.7
1.090 0.956 134.1 12.05 -2.8
1.102 0.954 150.1 13.34 -3.2
1.114 0.947 167.2 14.70 -3.6
1.126 0.942 184.6 16.06 -3.9
1.138 0.937 201.4 17.34 -4.4
1.150 0.932 218.5 18.62 -5.0
1.162 0.928 234.8 19.80 -5.4
1.174 0.922 252.7 21.07 -5.9
1.186 0.916 270.5 22.34 -6.1
1.198 0.911 287.6 23.52 -7.2
1.210 0.905 305.0 24.69 -7.8
1.222 0.901 321.5 25.78 -8.3
1.234 0.895 339.5 26.96 -8.9
1.246 0.888 357.8 28.13 -9.4
1.258 0.883 374.9 29.20 -10.0
1.270 0.878 392.6 30.29 -11.1
1.282 0.872 410.3 31.36 -10.6
1.294 0.865 429.7 32.54 -6.7
1.306 0.858 447.9 33.61 -2.8
1.318 0.854 463.9 34.49 0.6
1.330 0.847 482.7 35.57 5.0
1.342 0.842 500.7 36.56 9.4
1.354 0.835 518.7 37.54 13.9
1.366 0.829 536.9 38.52 18.9
1.378 0.824 554.1 39.40 23.9
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.5 CALCIUM CHLORIDE

CaCl2 brine (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity = 94 - 97 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) CaCl2 (kg) CaCl2 (%) LCTD (°C)
1.007 0.999 8.3 0.78 - 0.6
1.019 0.997 23.4 2.18 - 1.1
1.031 0.994 38.2 3.52 - 1.7
1.042 0.991 53.4 4.86 - 2.8
1.054 0.987 69.0 6.22 - 3.9
1.066 0.984 83.9 7.47 - 4.4
1.078 0.980 100.1 8.82 - 5.6
1.090 0.977 115.5 10.07 - 6.7
1.102 0.972 131.8 11.36 - 7.8
1.114 0.968 148.4 12.64 - 9.4
1.126 0.963 164.9 13.91 - 10.6
1.138 0.959 180.9 15.09 - 12.2
1.150 0.954 197.7 16.33 - 13.9
1.162 0.949 215.1 17.58 - 15.6
1.174 0.944 232.5 18.81 - 17.8
1.186 0.939 249.4 19.97 - 20.0
1.198 0.934 265.9 21.08 - 22.8
1.210 0.929 283.3 22.24 - 25.0
1.222 0.923 300.7 23.37 - 27.8
1.234 0.918 317.5 24.44 - 30.6
1.246 0.912 335.5 25.56 - 33.9
1.258 0.908 352.4 26.60 - 37.8
1.270 0.902 370.3 27.70 - 41.7
1.282 0.895 388.9 28.81 - 46.1
1.294 0.891 405.1 29.74 - 49.4
1.306 0.885 423.1 30.77 - 37.2
1.318 0.878 442.2 31.87 - 28.3
1.330 0.872 460.2 32.87 - 21.1
1.342 0.866 478.2 33.85 - 13.9
1.354 0.859 496.7 34.85 - 7.8
1.366 0.853 514.7 35.79 - 2.8
1.378 0.846 533.2 36.76 2.2
1.390 0.840 551.2 37.67 6.7
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.6 POTASSIUM CARBONATE

K2CO3 brine (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity = 98 - 100 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) K2CO3 (kg) K2CO3 (%) LCTD (°C)
1.076 0.978 97.8 8.82 n.d.
1.151 0.959 191.9 16.17 n.d.
1.212 0.932 279.8 22.38 n.d.
1.282 0.915 366.3 27.71 n.d.
1.325 0.883 441.6 32.33 n.d.
1.376 0.860 516.3 36.37 n.d.
1.426 0.838 587.2 39.94 n.d.
1.472 0.818 654.6 43.11 n.d.
1.505 0.792 713.1 45.95 n.d.
1.536 0.768 768.0 48.50 n.d.
1.564 0.745 819.6 50.81 n.d.
1.580 0.741 838.2 51.46 n.d.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.7 CALCIUM BROMIDE

CaBr2 brine (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity = 91.5 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) CaBr2 (kg) CaBr2 (%) LCTD (°C)
1.318 0.856 463.7 32.19 - 18.9
1.330 0.855 476.7 32.79 - 20.0
1.342 0.850 494.2 33.70 - 21.1
1.354 0.842 513.5 34.70 - 22.8
1.366 0.835 533.1 35.71 - 23.9
1.378 0.830 549.9 36.51 - 25.6
1.390 0.826 565.4 37.22 - 26.7
1.402 0.818 585.7 38.22 - 28.3
1.414 0.814 601.5 38.93 - 30.6
1.426 0.807 620.8 39.83 - 31.7
1.438 0.800 640.2 40.74 - 33.3
1.450 0.795 656.7 41.44 - 34.4
1.462 0.789 675.0 42.25 - 36.7
1.474 0.785 690.2 42.85 - 37.8
1.486 0.777 710.6 43.75 - 40.0
1.498 0.769 731.1 44.66 - 42.2
1.510 0.765 746.9 45.26 - 43.9
1.522 0.757 766.2 46.07 - 46.7
1.534 0.751 784.1 46.77 - 48.3
1.546 0.742 803.8 47.58 - 51.7
1.558 0.738 822.0 48.28 - 52.8
1.570 0.735 836.9 48.78 - 54.4
1.582 0.724 859.0 49.69 - 57.2
1.594 0.719 876.0 50.29 - 60.0
1.606 0.712 895.0 51.00 - 61.7
1.618 0.705 914.1 51.70 - 62.7
1.630 0.700 931.6 52.31 - 62.8
1.642 0.690 952.9 53.11 - 62.9
1.654 0.683 972.6 53.82 - 62.8
1.666 0.677 990.6 54.42 - 62.2
1.678 0.667 1012.5 55.22 - 45.6
1.690 0.660 1030.9 55.83 - 40.0
1.702 0.654 1049.4 56.43 - 28.9
1.714 0.647 1068.1 57.03 - 12.2
1.726 0.636 1090.7 57.84 - 5.0
1.737 0.626 1113.6 58.64 1.7
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.8 SODIUM CHLORIDE / CALCIUM CHLORIDE

NaCl / CaCl2 brine blend (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity NaCl = 100 %; Salt purity CaCl2 = 94 - 97 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) NaCl (kg) CaCl2 (kg) NaCl (%) CaCl2 (%) LCTD (°C)
1.210 0.887 251.1 82.7 20.8 6.5 - 20.0
1.222 0.875 199.7 148.4 16.3 11.5 - 23.3
1.234 0.875 154.1 205.4 12.5 15.8 - 26.1
1.246 0.876 117.0 253.9 9.4 19.4 - 29.4
1.258 0.871 91.3 296.7 7.3 22.4 - 32.2
1.270 0.868 71.3 331.0 5.6 24.7 - 35.6
1.282 0.866 57.1 359.5 4.4 26.6 - 38.9
1.294 0.864 45.6 385.2 3.5 28.3 - 41.1
1.306 0.862 37.1 410.8 2.8 29.9 - 31.1
1.318 0.859 28.5 430.8 2.2 31.0 - 24.4
1.330 0.854 22.8 453.6 1.7 32.4 - 17.8
B.9 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE / POTASSIUM BROMIDE

KCl / KBr brine blend (1 m3) preparation
KCl = 1.17 kg/l; KBr = 1.31 kg/l
sg (kg/l) KCl (m3) KBr (m3) KCl (%) KBr (%) LCTD (°C)
1.174 1.000 0.000 25.8 0.0 21.1
1.186 0.909 0.091 23.2 3.4 16.7
1.198 0.818 0.182 20.7 6.7 11.7
1.210 0.727 0.273 18.2 9.9 7.2
1.222 0.636 0.364 15.8 13.1 2.2
1.234 0.546 0.454 13.4 16.2 0.6
1.246 0.454 0.546 11.0 19.2 -2.8
1.258 0.364 0.636 8.7 22.2 -5.0
1.270 0.273 0.727 6.5 25.1 -3.3
1.282 0.182 0.818 4.3 28.0 -2.2
1.294 0.091 0.909 2.1 30.8 0.0
1.306 0.000 1.000 0.0 33.6 1.7
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.10 SODIUM CHLORIDE / SODIUM BROMIDE

NaCl / NaBr brine blend (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity NaCl = 100 %; Salt purity NaBr = 95 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) NaCl (kg) NaBr (kg) NaCl (%) NaBr (%) LCTD (°C)
1.198 0.886 313.8 0.0 26.2 0.0 -1.1
1.210 0.883 302.4 26.5 25.0 2.1 -1.1
1.222 0.880 291.0 53.1 23.8 4.1 -1.1
1.234 0.877 297.0 79.6 22.6 6.1 -1.1
1.246 0.874 267.3 105.8 21.5 8.1 -1.1
1.258 0.871 255.6 132.4 20.3 10.0 -1.1
1.270 0.868 244.2 158.9 19.2 11.9 -1.1
1.282 0.865 232.5 185.4 18.1 13.7 -1.1
1.294 0.862 220.8 212.0 17.1 15.6 -1.1
1.306 0.859 209.4 238.5 16.0 17.4 -1.1
1.318 0.856 197.7 264.8 15.0 19.1 -1.1
1.330 0.853 186.0 291.0 14.0 20.8 -1.1
1.342 0.850 174.6 316.7 13.0 22.4 -1.1
1.354 0.847 162.9 345.2 12.0 24.2 -1.1
1.366 0.844 150.9 370.9 11.0 25.8 -1.1
1.378 0.841 139.2 396.6 10.1 27.3 -1.1
1.390 0.838 127.8 425.1 9.2 29.0 -1.1
1.402 0.835 116.1 450.8 8.3 30.6 -1.1
1.414 0.832 104.4 476.5 7.4 32.0 -1.1
1.426 0.829 93.0 505.0 6.5 33.6 -1.1
1.438 0.826 81.3 530.7 5.6 35.0 2.8
1.450 0.823 69.6 556.3 4.8 36.4 5.0
1.462 0.820 58.2 582.0 4.0 37.8 8.3
1.474 0.818 46.5 610.6 3.2 39.3 9.4
1.486 0.815 34.8 636.2 2.3 40.7 11.7
1.498 0.812 23.1 661.9 1.5 42.0 13.3
1.510 0.809 11.7 690.4 0.8 43.4 15.6
1.522 0.806 0.0 716.1 0.0 44.7 17.2
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.11 SODIUM CHLORIDE / POTASSIUM CHLORIDE

NaCl / KCl brine blend (1 m3) preparation
Salt purity NaCl = 100 %; Salt purity KCl = 100 %
(Solution with low content of KCl)
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) NaCl (kg) KCl (kg) NaCl (%) KCl (%) LCTD (°C)
1.007 0.993 8.6 2.9 0.9 0.3 -0.6
1.019 0.985 17.1 8.6 1.7 0.8 -1.1
1.031 0.978 31.4 14.3 3.0 1.4 -2.8
1.042 0.972 45.6 20.0 4.4 1.9 -3.9
1.054 0.966 57.1 22.8 5.4 2.1 -4.4
1.066 0.962 71.3 25.7 6.7 2.4 -5.6
1.078 0.954 88.4 28.5 8.2 2.7 -6.1
1.090 0.948 102.7 34.2 9.4 3.1 -7.8
1.102 0.939 119.8 39.9 10.9 3.6 -9.4
1.114 0.931 136.9 45.6 12.3 4.1 10.6
1.126 0.921 154.1 51.4 13.7 4.6 -12.2
1.138 0.913 168.3 57.1 14.8 5.0 -13.9
1.150 0.904 185.4 62.8 16.1 5.5 -16.1
1.162 0.897 196.9 68.5 16.9 5.9 -17.8
1.174 0.888 214.0 74.2 18.2 6.3 -19.4
1.186 0.882 231.1 79.9 19.5 6.7 -21.7
1.198 0.875 245.4 85.6 20.5 7.7 -5.6
NaCl / KCl brine blend (1 m3) preparation

Salt purity NaCl = 100 %; Salt purity KCl = 100 %
(Solution with high content of KCl)
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) NaCl (kg) KCl (kg) NaCl (%) KCl (%) LCTD (°C)
1.007 0.993 5.7 5.7 0.6 0.6 0.0
1.019 0.986 14.3 14.3 1.4 1.4 -1.1
1.031 0.977 25.7 22.8 2.5 2.2 -2.2
1.042 0.971 34.2 34.2 3.3 3.3 -3.3
1.054 0.963 42.8 42.8 4.1 4.0 -4.4
1.066 0.959 54.2 48.5 5.1 4.6 -5.0
1.078 0.952 62.8 59.9 5.8 5.6 -6.1
1.090 0.943 71.3 71.3 6.5 6.5 -7.8
1.102 0.934 85.6 85.6 7.8 7.8 -9.4
1.114 0.928 94.2 94.2 8.4 8.4 -10.6
1.126 0.919 105.6 105.6 9.4 9.4 -11.7
1.138 0.910 117.0 114.1 10.3 10.3 -13.3
1.150 0.901 128.4 125.5 11.1 10.9 -15.0
1.162 0.892 136.9 134.1 11.8 11.5 -15.6
1.174 0.885 148.4 145.5 12.6 12.4 -0.6
1.186 0.878 156.9 154.1 13.2 13.0 3.9
1.198 0.868 168.3 165.5 14.1 13.8 12.8
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.12 SODIUM CHLORIDE / SODIUM BROMIDE

NaCl / NaBr brine blend (1 m3) preparation
NaCl = 1.19 kg/l; NaBr = 1.48 kg/l
sg (kg/l) NaCl (m3) NaBr (m3) NaCl (%) NaBr (%) LCTD (°C)
1.198 1.000 0.000 26.0 0.0 -1.1
1.210 0.958 0.042 24.6 2.2 -1.1
1.222 0.917 0.083 23.3 4.3 -1.1
1.234 0.875 0.125 22.0 6.5 -1.1
1.246 0.833 0.167 20.8 8.5 -1.1
1.258 0.792 0.208 19.6 10.6 -1.1
1.270 0.750 0.250 18.4 12.5 -1.1
1.282 0.708 0.292 17.2 14.5 -1.1
1.294 0.667 0.333 16.0 16.4 -1.1
1.306 0.625 0.375 14.9 18.3 -1.1
1.318 0.583 0.417 13.8 20.1 -1.1
1.330 0.542 0.458 12.7 22.0 -1.1
1.342 0.500 0.500 11.6 23.7 -1.1
1.354 0.458 0.542 10.5 25.5 -1.1
1.366 0.417 0.583 9.5 27.2 -1.1
1.378 0.375 0.625 8.5 28.9 -1.1
1.390 0.333 0.667 7.5 30.6 -1.1
1.402 0.292 0.708 6.5 32.2 -1.1
1.414 0.250 0.750 5.5 33.8 -1.1
1.426 0.208 0.712 4.5 35.4 -5.0
1.438 0.167 0.833 3.6 36.9 -2.2
1.450 0.125 0.875 2.7 38.5 0.0
1.462 0.083 0.917 1.8 40.0 2.2
1.474 0.042 0.958 0.9 41.4 3.9
1.486 0.000 1.000 0.0 42.9 7.8
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.13 CALCIUM CHLORIDE / CALCIUM BROMIDE

CaCl2 / CaBr2 brine blend (1 m3) preparation
CaCl2 = 1.30 kg/l; CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l
sg (kg/l) CaCl2 (m3) CaBr2 (m3) CaCl2 (%) CaBr2 (%) LCTD (°C)
1.306 1.000 0.000 30.8 0.0 - 34.4
1.318 0.970 0.030 29.6 2.52 - 27.8
1.330 0.939 0.061 28.4 4.4 - 24.4
1.342 0.909 0.091 27.2 6.5 - 23.9
1.354 0.879 0.121 26.1 8.6 - 23.9
1.366 0.848 0.152 25.0 10.6 - 23.9
1.378 0.818 0.182 23.9 12.7 - 23.9
1.390 0.788 0.212 22.8 14.7 - 23.9
1.402 0.758 0.242 21.7 16.6 - 24.4
1.414 0.727 0.273 20.7 18.5 - 24.4
1.426 0.697 0.303 19.6 20.4 - 24.4
1.438 0.667 0.333 18.6 22.3 - 24.4
1.450 0.636 0.364 17.6 24.1 - 24.4
1.462 0.606 0.394 16.7 25.9 - 24.4
1.474 0.576 0.424 15.7 27.6 - 24.4
1.486 0.546 0.454 14.8 29.4 - 25.0
1.498 0.515 0.485 13.8 31.1 - 25.0
1.510 0.485 0.515 12.9 32.8 - 25.6
1.522 0.454 0.546 12.0 34.4 - 26.1
1.534 0.424 0.576 11.1 36.0 - 26.7
1.546 0.394 0.606 10.2 37.6 - 27.2
1.558 0.364 0.636 9.4 39.2 - 27.8
1.570 0.333 0.667 8.5 40.8 - 28.3
1.582 0.303 0.697 7.7 42.3 - 30.0
1.594 0.273 0.727 6.9 43.8 - 28.9
1.606 0.242 0.758 6.1 45.3 - 28.3
1.618 0.212 0.788 5.3 46.8 - 27.8
1.630 0.182 0.818 4.5 48.2 - 27.2
1.642 0.151 0.849 3.7 49.6 - 26.1
1.654 0.121 0.879 2.9 51.0 - 24.4
1.666 0.091 0.909 2.2 52.4 - 22.8
1.678 0.061 0.939 1.5 53.8 - 19.4
1.690 0.030 0.970 0.7 55.1 - 18.9
1.702 0.000 1.000 0.0 56.4 - 9.4
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

CaCl2 = 1.32 kg/l; CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l
1.318 1.000 0.000 31.9 0.0 -27.2
1.330 0.969 0.031 30.6 2.3 -23.9
1.342 0.937 0.063 29.3 4.5 -20.6
1.354 0.906 0.094 28.1 6.6 -18.3
1.366 0.875 0.125 26.9 8.8 -17.2
1.378 0.844 0.156 25.7 10.9 -17.2
1.390 0.813 0.187 24.6 13.0 -17.2
1.402 0.781 0.219 23.4 15.0 -17.8
1.414 0.750 0.250 22.3 17.0 -17.8
1.426 0.719 0.281 21.2 18.9 -18.3
1.438 0.687 0.313 20.1 20.9 -18.9
1.450 0.656 0.344 19.0 22.8 -19.4
1.462 0.625 0.375 18.0 24.6 -19.4
1.474 0.594 0.406 16.9 26.5 -20.0
1.486 0.563 0.437 15.9 28.3 -21.1
1.498 0.531 0.469 14.9 30.0 -22.2
1.510 0.500 0.500 13.9 31.8 -23.3
1.522 0.469 0.531 12.9 33.5 -24.4
1.534 0.437 0.563 12.0 35.2 -25.0
1.546 0.406 0.594 11.0 36.9 -26.1
1.558 0.375 0.625 10.1 38.5 -26.7
1.570 0.344 0.656 9.2 40.1 -27.2
1.582 0.313 0.687 8.3 41.7 -27.8
1.594 0.281 0.719 7.4 43.3 -27.8
1.606 0.250 0.750 6.5 44.8 -27.2
1.618 0.219 0.781 5.7 46.4 -26.7
1.630 0.187 0.813 4.8 47.9 -25.6
1.642 0.156 0.844 4.0 49.3 -24.4
1.654 0.125 0.875 3.2 50.8 -23.3
1.666 0.094 0.906 2.4 52.2 -21.7
1.678 0.063 0.937 1.6 53.7 -20.6
1.690 0.031 0.968 0.8 55.1 - 18.9
1.702 0.000 1.000 0.0 56.4 - 9.4
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

CaCl2 = 1.34 kg/l; CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l
1.342 1.000 0.000 33.8 0.0 -14.4
1.354 0.967 0.033 32.4 2.4 -13.9
1.366 0.933 0.067 31.0 4.7 -13.3
1.378 0.900 0.100 29.7 7.0 -12.8
1.390 0.867 0.133 28.3 9.2 -12.8
1.402 0.833 0.167 27.0 11.4 -12.2
1.414 0.800 0.200 25.7 13.6 -11.7
1.426 0.767 0.233 24.4 15.7 -11.7
1.438 0.733 0.267 23.2 17.8 -11.1
1.450 0.700 0.300 21.9 19.9 -11.1
1.462 0.667 0.333 20.7 21.9 -11.1
1.474 0.633 0.367 19.5 23.9 -12.2
1.486 0.600 0.400 18.3 25.8 -13.3
1.498 0.567 0.433 17.2 27.8 -13.9
1.510 0.533 0.467 16.0 29.7 -15.0
1.522 0.500 0.500 14.9 31.5 -16.1
1.534 0.467 0.533 13.8 33.4 -17.2
1.546 0.433 0.567 12.7 35.2 -18.3
1.558 0.400 0.600 11.7 37.0 -19.4
1.570 0.367 0.633 10.6 38.7 -21.1
1.582 0.333 0.667 9.6 40.5 -22.2
1.594 0.300 0.700 8.6 42.2 -23.3
1.606 0.267 0.733 7.5 43.9 -23.3
1.618 0.233 0.767 6.6 45.5 -23.9
1.630 0.200 0.800 5.6 47.1 -23.9
1.642 0.167 0.833 4.6 48.7 -23.3
1.654 0.133 0.867 3.7 50.3 -22.2
1.666 0.100 0.900 2.7 51.9 -21.1
1.678 0.067 0.933 1.8 53.4 -19.4
1.690 0.033 0.967 0.9 54.9 -16.7
1.702 0.000 1.000 0.0 56.4 - 9.4
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

CaCl2 = 1.35 kg/l; CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l
1.354 1.000 0.000 34.9 0.0 - 6.7
1.366 0.966 0.034 33.4 2.4 - 7.2
1.378 0.931 0.069 31.9 4.8 - 8.3
1.390 0.897 0.103 30.4 7.1 - 8.3
1.402 0.862 0.138 29.0 9.4 - 9.4
1.414 0.828 0.172 27.6 11.7 - 10.6
1.426 0.793 0.207 26.2 13.9 - 10.6
1.438 0.759 0.241 24.9 16.1 - 11.1
1.450 0.724 0.276 23.6 18.3 - 11.7
1.462 0.690 0.310 22.3 20.4 - 11.7
1.474 0.655 0.345 21.0 22.5 - 12.2
1.486 0.621 0.379 19.7 24.5 - 12.2
1.498 0.586 0.414 18.5 26.5 - 12.2
1.510 0.552 0.448 17.2 28.5 - 12.8
1.522 0.517 0.483 16.0 30.5 - 13.3
1.534 0.483 0.517 14.9 32.4 - 13.3
1.546 0.448 0.552 13.7 34.3 - 13.9
1.558 0.541 0.586 12.5 36.1 - 13.9
1.570 0.379 0.621 11.4 38.0 - 13.9
1.582 0.345 0.655 10.3 39.8 - 15.0
1.594 0.310 0.690 9.2 41.6 - 16.1
1.606 0.276 0.724 8.1 43.3 - 18.3
1.618 0.241 0.759 7.0 45.0 - 18.9
1.630 0.207 0.793 6.0 46.7 - 18.9
1.642 0.172 0.828 5.0 48.4 - 17.8
1.654 0.138 0.862 3.9 50.1 - 16.7
1.666 0.103 0.897 2.9 51.7 - 15.6
1.678 0.069 0.931 1.9 53.3 - 14.4
1.690 0.034 0.966 1.0 54.9 - 12.2
1.702 0.000 1.000 0.0 56.4 - 9.4
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

CaCl2 = 1.36 kg/l; CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l
1.366 1.000 0.000 35.8 0.0 0.0
1.378 0.964 0.036 34.2 2.5 -0.6
1.390 0.929 0.071 32.7 4.9 -1.1
1.402 0.893 0.107 31.1 7.3 -1.1
1.414 0.857 0.143 29.6 9.7 -1.7
1.426 0.821 0.179 28.2 12.0 -2.2
1.438 0.786 0.214 26.7 14.3 -2.8
1.450 0.750 0.250 25.3 16.6 -3.3
1.462 0.714 0.286 23.9 18.8 -3.9
1.474 0.679 0.321 22.5 20.9 -5.0
1.486 0.643 0.357 21.2 23.1 -5.6
1.498 0.607 0.393 19.8 25.2 -6.1
1.510 0.571 0.429 18.5 27.3 -7.2
1.522 0.536 0.464 17.2 29.3 -8.3
1.534 0.500 0.500 15.9 31.3 -8.9
1.546 0.464 0.536 14.7 33.3 -10.0
1.558 0.429 0.571 13.5 35.2 -11.1
1.570 0.393 0.607 12.2 37.1 -12.8
1.582 0.357 0.643 11.0 39.0 -14.4
1.594 0.321 0.679 9.9 40.9 -16.1
1.606 0.286 0.714 8.7 42.7 -17.2
1.618 0.250 0.750 7.6 44.5 -17.8
1.630 0.214 0.786 6.4 46.3 -19.4
1.642 0.179 0.821 5.3 48.0 -20.6
1.654 0.143 0.857 4.2 49.8 -17.2
1.666 0.107 0.893 3.1 51.5 -15.6
1.678 0.071 0.929 2.1 53.1 -13.9
1.690 0.036 0.964 1.0 54.8 - 12.2
1.702 0.000 1.000 0.0 56.4 - 9.4
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

CaCl2 = 1.37 kg/l; CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l
1.378 1.000 0.000 36.8 0.0 5.0
1.390 0.963 0.037 35.1 2.6 4.4
1.402 0.926 0.074 33.5 5.1 4.4
1.414 0.889 0.111 31.8 7.5 3.9
1.426 0.852 0.148 30.3 10.0 3.3
1.438 0.815 0.185 28.7 12.4 2.8
1.450 0.778 0.222 27.2 14.7 2.2
1.462 0.741 0.259 25.7 17.0 1.1
1.474 0.704 0.296 24.2 19.3 0.0
1.486 0.667 0.333 22.7 21.5 -1.1
1.498 0.630 0.370 21.3 23.7 -1.7
1.510 0.593 0.407 19.9 25.9 -2.2
1.522 0.556 0.444 18.5 28.0 -3.3
1.534 0.519 0.481 17.1 30.1 -4.4
1.546 0.482 0.518 15.8 32.2 -6.1
1.558 0.444 0.556 14.5 34.2 -7.2
1.570 0.407 0.593 13.1 36.2 -7.8
1.582 0.370 0.630 11.9 38.2 -8.9
1.594 0.333 0.667 10.6 40.2 -11.7
1.606 0.296 0.704 9.3 42.1 -13.9
1.618 0.259 0.741 8.1 44.0 -15.6
1.630 0.222 0.778 6.9 45.8 -17.2
1.642 0.185 0.815 5.7 47.7 -16.1
1.654 0.148 0.852 4.5 49.5 -15.0
1.666 0.111 0.889 3.4 51.2 -15.0
1.678 0.074 0.926 2.2 53.0 -13.9
1.690 0.037 0.963 1.1 54.7 -11.7
1.702 0.000 1.000 0.0 56.4 - 9.4
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

CaCl2 = 1.39 kg/l; CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l
1.390 1.000 0.000 37.7 0.0 10.0
1.402 0.962 0.038 35.9 2.6 9.4
1.414 0.923 0.077 34.2 5.2 9.4
1.426 0.885 0.115 32.5 7.8 8.9
1.438 0.846 0.154 30.8 10.3 8.3
1.450 0.808 0.192 29.2 12.7 7.2
1.462 0.769 0.231 27.6 15.2 6.7
1.474 0.731 0.269 26.0 17.5 5.6
1.486 0.692 0.308 24.4 19.9 4.4
1.498 0.654 0.346 22.9 22.2 3.3
1.510 0.615 0.385 21.3 24.5 2.8
1.522 0.577 0.423 19.9 26.7 1.7
1.534 0.539 0.461 18.4 28.9 0.0
1.546 0.500 0.500 16.9 31.1 -1.1
1.558 0.461 0.539 15.5 33.2 -3.3
1.570 0.422 0.577 14.1 35.3 -5.6
1.582 0.385 0.615 12.7 37.4 -6.7
1.594 0.346 0.654 11.4 39.4 -8.3
1.606 0.308 0.692 10.0 41.4 -10.0
1.618 0.269 0.731 8.7 43.4 -11.1
1.630 0.231 0.769 7.4 45.3 -13.3
1.642 0.192 0.808 6.1 47.2 -15.6
1.654 0.154 0.846 4.9 49.1 -15.6
1.666 0.115 0.885 3.6 51.0 -14.4
1.678 0.077 0.923 2.4 52.8 -13.3
1.690 0.039 0.961 1.2 54.6 -11.1
1.702 0.000 1.000 0.0 56.4 - 9.4
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

CaCl2 = 1.40 kg/l; CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l
1.402 1.000 0.000 38.7 0.0 12.8
1.414 0.960 0.040 36.8 2.7 12.2
1.426 0.920 0.080 35.0 5.4 11.1
1.438 0.880 0.120 33.2 8.0 10.0
1.450 0.840 0.160 31.4 10.6 8.9
1.462 0.800 0.200 29.7 13.1 7.8
1.474 0.760 0.240 28.0 15.6 7.2
1.486 0.720 0.280 26.3 18.1 6.1
1.498 0.680 0.320 24.6 20.5 6.1
1.510 0.640 0.360 23.0 22.9 4.4
1.522 0.600 0.400 21.4 25.2 3.3
1.534 0.560 0.440 19.8 27.5 2.2
1.546 0.520 0.480 18.3 29.8 1.1
1.558 0.480 0.520 16.7 32.1 0.0
1.570 0.440 0.560 15.2 34.3 - 2.2
1.582 0.400 0.600 13.7 36.4 - 5.0
1.594 0.360 0.640 12.3 38.6 - 7.2
1.606 0.320 0.680 10.8 40.7 - 8.3
1.618 0.280 0.720 9.4 42.7 - 10.0
1.630 0.240 0.760 8.0 44.8 - 11.7
1.642 0.200 0.800 6.6 46.8 - 13.3
1.654 0.160 0.840 5.2 48.8 - 13.9
1.666 0.120 0.880 3.9 50.7 - 13.3
1.678 0.080 0.920 2.6 52.7 - 12.2
1.690 0.040 0.960 1.3 54.6 - 11.1
1.702 0.000 1.000 0.0 56.4 - 9.4
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A

Salt purity CaCl2 = 94-97 %; Salt purity CaBr2 = 91.5 %
sg (kg/l) Water (m3) CaCl2 (kg) CaBr2 (kg) CaCl2 (%) CaBr2 (%) LCTD (°C)
1.402 0.849 557.5 17.8 38.0 1.2 7.2
1.414 0.842 550.9 42.8 37.2 2.8 10.6
1.426 0.835 544.4 67.6 36.5 4.3 11.1
1.438 0.828 537.8 92.4 35.7 5.9 12.2
1.450 0.820 531.0 117.3 35.0 7.4 12.8
1.462 0.813 524.7 142.1 34.3 8.9 12.8
1.474 0.806 518.1 167.2 33.6 10.4 13.3
1.486 0.799 511.6 192.0 32.9 11.8 13.3
1.498 0.792 505.0 216.8 32.2 13.3 13.9
1.510 0.785 498.4 241.7 31.5 14.7 13.9
1.522 0.777 491.9 266.5 30.9 16.0 14.4
1.534 0.770 485.3 291.6 30.2 17.4 14.4
1.546 0.763 478.7 316.4 29.6 18.7 15.0
1.558 0.756 472.2 341.2 28.9 20.0 15.0
1.570 0.749 465.6 366.0 28.3 21.3 15.6
1.582 0.742 459.1 390.9 27.7 22.6 15.6
1.594 0.734 452.5 416.0 27.1 23.9 15.6
1.606 0.727 445.9 440.8 26.5 25.1 16.1
1.618 0.720 439.4 465.6 25.9 26.3 16.1
1.630 0.713 432.8 490.4 25.4 27.5 16.7
1.642 0.706 426.2 515.3 24.8 28.7 16.7
1.654 0.698 419.7 540.4 24.2 29.9 17.2
1.666 0.691 413.1 565.2 23.7 31.0 17.2
1.678 0.684 406.6 590.0 23.1 32.2 17.8
1.690 0.677 400.0 614.8 22.6 33.3 17.8
1.702 0.670 393.4 639.8 22.1 34.4 17.8
1.714 0.662 386.9 664.8 21.6 35.5 18.3
1.726 0.655 380.3 689.6 21.1 36.6 18.3
1.737 0.648 373.8 714.4 20.5 37.6 18.3
1.749 0.641 367.2 739.2 20.0 38.7 18.9
1.761 0.634 360.6 764.2 19.6 39.7 18.9
1.773 0.626 354.1 789.2 19.1 40.7 19.4
1.785 0.619 347.5 814.0 18.6 41.7 19.4
1.797 0.612 340.9 838.8 18.1 42.7 19.4
1.809 0.605 334.4 863.6 17.7 43.7 20.0
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.14 CALCIUM BROMIDE / ZINC BROMIDE

CaBr2 / CaBr2 -ZnBr2 (2.30 sg) brine blend (1 m3) preparation
CaBr2 = 1.70 kg/l; CaBr2 -ZnBr2 = 2.30 kg/l
sg (kg/l) CaBr2 CaBr2 ZnBr2 LCTD (°C)
3 3
1.70 sg (m ) 2.30 sg (m )
1.801 0.84 0.16 -29
1.813 0.82 0.18
1.825 0.80 0.20
1.837 0.78 0.22 -31
1.849 0.76 0.24
1.861 0.74 0.26
1.873 0.72 0.28 -33
1.885 0.70 0.30
1.897 0.68 0.32
1.909 0.66 0.34 -36
1.921 0.64 0.36
1.933 0.62 0.38
1.945 0.60 0.40 -32
1.957 0.58 0.42
1.969 0.56 0.44
1.981 0.54 0.46 - 26
1.993 0.52 0.48
2.005 0.50 0.50
2.017 0.48 0.52 -21
2.029 0.46 0.54
2.041 0.44 0.56
2.053 0.42 0.58 -14
2.065 0.40 0.60
2.077 0.38 0.62
2.089 0.36 0.64 -21
2.101 0.34 0.66
2.113 0.32 0.68
2.125 0.30 0.70 -12
2.137 0.28 0.72
2.149 0.26 0.74
2.161 0.24 0.76 -9
2.173 0.22 0.78
2.185 0.20 0.80
2.197 0.18 0.82 -8
2.209 0.16 0.84
2.221 0.14 0.86
2.233 0.12 0.88 -6
2.245 0.10 0.90
2.257 0.08 0.92
2.269 0.06 0.94 -5
2.281 0.04 0.96
2.293 0.02 0.98
2.305 0.00 1.00 -7
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.15 ZINC BROMIDE / SODIUM BROMIDE / POTASSIUM BROMIDE

ZnBr2 / NaBr / KBr Fluid
Density, Specific Gravity and Weight Percent
sg at 70°F, lb/gal sg at 21°C, kg/l ZnBr2 KBr NaBr
Wt.% Wt.% Wt.%
13.0 1.56 7.1 2.2 40.0
13.5 1.62 13.6 4.2 34.7
14.0 1.68 19.7 6.0 29.7
14.5 1.74 25.3 7.8 25.1
15.0 1.80 30.6 9.4 20.8
15.5 1.86 35.5 10.9 16.8
16.0 1.92 40.1 12.3 13.0
16.5 1.98 44.4 13.6 9.5
17.0 2.04 48.5 14.9 6.1
17.5 2.10 52.4 16.1 3.0
18.0 2.16 56.0 17.2 0.0
The solutions of the present table may be prepared by mixing a Zinc/Bromide/alkali metal
Bromide base fluid with one or more monovalent alkali metal Bromide solutions.
B.16 ZINC BROMIDE / POTASSIUM BROMIDE

ZnBr2 / KBr Fluid
sg at 70°F, lb/gal sg at 21°C, kg/l ZnBr2 KBr
Wt.% Wt.%
11.5 1.381 3.0 37.0
12.0 1.441 10.0 33.5
12.5 1.501 16.5 30.3
13.0 1.561 22.5 27.3
13.5 1.621 28.0 24.3
14.0 1.681 33.1 21.9
14.5 1.741 37.9 19.5
15.0 1.801 42.3 17.3
15.5 1.861 42.5 20.0
16.0 1.921 42.7 22.5
16.5 1.981 42.9 24.9
17.0 2.041 43.1 27.1
17.5 2.101 43.3 29.3
18.0 2.161 43.4 31.2
18.5 2.221 43.6 33.1
19.0 2.281 43.7 34.9
19.2 2.305 43.8 35.6
Bromide base fluid with one or more monovalent alkali metal Bromide solutions.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.17 ZINC BROMIDE / SODIUM BROMIDE

ZnBr2 / NaBr Fluid
sg at 70°F, lb/gal sg at 21°C, kg/l ZnBr2 NaBr
Wt.% Wt.%
13.0 1.561 7.7 41.4
13.5 1.621 14.9 37.1
14.0 1.681 21.5 33.2
14.5 1.74 27.7 29.5
15.0 1.801 33.5 26.0
15.5 1.861 35.1 27.3
16.0 1.921 36.5 28.5
16.5 1.981 37.9 29.6
17.0 2.041 39.2 30.7
17.5 2.101 40.4 31.7
18.0 2.161 41.5 32.6
18.5 2.221 42.6 33.5
19.0 2.281 43.6 34.4
19.2 2.305 44.0 34.7
Bromide base fluid with one or more monovalent alkali metal Bromide solutions. The Zinc
Bromide/alkali metal Bromide base fluids may be prepared by combining solid Zinc Bromide and
water with a solid alkali metal Bromide or an aqueous solution thereof. The Zinc Bromide/alkali metal
bromide base fluids may also be prepared by dissolving dry alkali metal Bromide(s) in aqueous Zinc
Bromide solutions. For example, a 17.5 lb/gal. ZnBr2 / NaBr base fluid is prepared by adding 14.8 g
water to 60.8 g 77 wt% ZnBr2 solution and then dissolving 24.4 g 97% NaBr in the resulting solution to
prepare 100 g fluid. Different ZnBr2 / NaBr blends in the density range of 13.0-17.5 lb/gal. may be
prepared by mixing appropriate volumes of 17.5 lb/gal. ZnBr2 / NaBr base fluid with 12.5 lb/gal. NaBr
(46.0 wt.% NaBr in water).
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
Blending Procedure-ZnBr2 / NaBr Fluid

Using 17.5 lb/gal ZnBr2/NaBr (= 2.10 kg/l) and 12.5 lb/gal NaBr (= 1.50 kg/l)
sg at 70°F, lb/gal sg at 21°C, ZnBr2 - NaBr NaBr 1.50 sg TCT (°C)
kg/l 3 3
2.10 sg (m ) (m )
12.5 1.501 0.00 1.00 -6
13.0 1.561 0.10 0.90 -8
13.5 1.621 0.20 0.80 -9
14.0 1.681 0.30 0.70 -12
14.5 1.74 0.40 0.60 -17
15.0 1.801 0.50 0.50 -27
15.5 1.861 0.60 0.40 -19
16.0 1.921 0.70 0.30 -13
16.5 1.981 0.80 0.20 -5
17.0 2.041 0.90 0.10 3
17.5 2.101 1.00 0.00 8
A NaBr solution having a density of 12.5 lb/gal. was prepared by mixing 46.0 wt. % solid NaBr
and 54.0 wt. % water. A ZnBr2 / NaBr base fluid having a density of 17.5 lb/gal. was prepared by
combining 46.8 wt. % solid ZnBr2, 23.7 wt % solid NaBr and 29.5 wt. % water. Varying amounts of
ZnBr2 / NaBr base fluid (density = 17.5 lb/gal.) were then mixed with different amounts of NaBr
solution (density = 12.5 lb/gal.) in order to prepare different completion fluids in the density range of
13.0 to 17.5 lb/gal. The volumes of the base fluid and NaBr solution required to formulate these
different completion fluids, along with the respective densities and TCT of the completion fluids, are
given in the Table above.
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.18 SODIUM FORMATE / POTASSIUM FORMATE

HCOONa (NF) / HCOOK (KF) brine blend (1 m3) preparation
Sodium formate (NF) = 96.3 %; Potassium formate (KF) = 1.57 kg/l
sg NF KF Water NF KF
(kg/l) (kg) (m3) (m3) (% w/w) (% w/w)
1.188 357.196 0.000 0.830 29.0 0.0
1.200 333.516 0.016 0.840 26.8 1.6
1.212 300.421 0.067 0.806 23.9 6.5
1.224 272.747 0.113 0.773 21.5 10.9
1.236 251.064 0.156 0.739 19.6 14.9
1.248 231.664 0.195 0.710 17.9 18.4
1.261 216.828 0.231 0.680 16.6 21.6
1.273 205.701 0.262 0.654 15.6 24.3
1.285 198.283 0.292 0.627 14.9 26.8
1.297 193.433 0.317 0.603 14.4 28.9
1.309 191.151 0.341 0.579 14.1 30.8
1.319 187.442 0.366 0.557 13.7 32.7
1.331 186.586 0.390 0.533 13.5 34.5
1.343 186.871 0.411 0.510 13.4 36.1
1.355 192.578 0.430 0.487 13.7 37.4
1.367 198.568 0.446 0.467 14.0 38.5
1.379 205.986 0.461 0.449 14.4 39.4
1.391 215.116 0.475 0.429 14.9 40.3
1.403 224.245 0.490 0.409 15.4 41.2
1.415 233.375 0.504 0.390 15.9 42.0
1.427 241.364 0.519 0.370 16.3 42.9
1.439 246.499 0.536 0.351 16.5 43.9
1.451 251.349 0.555 0.328 16.7 45.1
1.463 251.919 0.576 0.306 16.6 46.4
1.475 249.352 0.601 0.282 16.3 48.0
1.487 242.219 0.628 0.258 15.7 49.8
1.499 230.237 0.662 0.228 14.8 52.1
1.511 211.692 0.701 0.198 13.5 54.7
1.523 186.586 0.745 0.166 11.8 57.7
1.535 154.632 0.797 0.129 9.7 61.2
1.547 113.834 0.855 0.089 7.1 65.2
1.559 63.051 0.923 0.046 3.9 69.8
1.571 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.0 75.0
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.19 CAESIUM FORMATE / POTASSIUM FORMATE

HCOOCs / HCOOK brine blend (1 m3) preparation
Potassium formate (KF) = 1.57 kg/l; Caesium formate (CF) = 2.40 kg/l
sg CF KF Water
(kg/l) (m3) (m3) (m3)
1.56 0.294 0.300 0.406
1.58 0.309 0.300 0.391
1.60 0.322 0.300 0.378
1.62 0.337 0.300 0.363
1.64 0.352 0.300 0.348
1.66 0.365 0.300 0.335
1.68 0.380 0.300 0.320
1.70 0.395 0.300 0.305
1.72 0.408 0.300 0.292
1.74 0.423 0.300 0.277
1.76 0.437 0.300 0.263
1.78 0.451 0.300 0.249
1.80 0.466 0.300 0.234
1.82 0.480 0.300 0.220
1.84 0.495 0.300 0.205
1.86 0.509 0.300 0.191
1.88 0.523 0.300 0.177
1.90 0.538 0.300 0.162
1.92 0.552 0.300 0.148
1.94 0.566 0.300 0.134
1.96 0.581 0.300 0.119
1.98 0.594 0.300 0.106
2.00 0.609 0.300 0.091
2.02 0.624 0.300 0.076
2.04 0.637 0.300 0.063
2.06 0.652 0.300 0.048
2.08 0.667 0.300 0.033
2.10 0.681 0.300 0.019
2.12 0.695 0.300 0.005
2.14 0.715 0.285
2.16 0.737 0.263
2.18 0.759 0.241
2.20 0.781 0.219
2.22 0.804 0.196
2.24 0.825 0.175
2.26 0.848 0.152
2.28 0.871 0.129
2.30 0.892 0.108
2.32 0.915 0.085
2.34 0.937 0.063
2.36 0.960 0.040
2.38 0.981 0.019
2.40 1.000 0.000
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
B.20 COMPATIBILITY AMONG THE DIFFERENT SALTS

NH4Cl brine compatibility with other brines
NH4Cl (v/v) 10% of 20%of 30%of 40%of 50% 60%of 70% 80% 90%
NH4Cl NH4Cl NH4Cl NH4Cl of NH4Cl of of of
NH4Cl NH4Cl NH4Cl NH4Cl
sg=1.070
NaCl solids no no no no no no no no no
solids solids solids solids solids solids solids solids solids
sg=1.184 density 1.174 1.162 1.151 1.140 1.128 1.117 1.105 1.094 1.080
pH 6.41 6.24 6.17 6.12 6.03 6.01 5.98 5.94 5.93
KCl solids no no no no no no no no no
sg=1.161 density 1.153 1.144 1.134 1.125 1.116 1.107 1.098 1.088 1.079
pH 6.22 5.98 5.82 5.74 5.67 5.63 5.61 5.56 5.52
CaCl2 solids no no no no no no no no no
sg=1.342 density 1.319 1.292 1.266 1.238 1.210 1.181 1.154 1.127 1.098
pH 5.98 5.99 6.06 6.12 6.16 6.20 6.23 6.24 6.26
NaBr solids no no no no no no no no no
sg=1.532 density 1.487 1.440 1.393 1.347 1.301 1.256 1.208 1.162 1.116
pH 6.30 6.01 5.88 5.76 5.67 5.60 5.54 5.47 5.39
KBr solids no no no no no no no no no
sg=1.337 density 1.310 1.283 1.256 1.229 1.202 1.176 1.149 1.123 1.096
pH 6.31 5.92 5.74 5.62 5.53 5.49 5.40 5.36 5.31
CaBr2 solids no no ppt ppt no no no no no
solids solids solids solids solids solids solids
sg=1.784 density 1.722 1.652 1.578 1.507 1.431 1.360 1.285 1.216 1.143
pH 6.13 5.93 5.85 5.85 5.88 5.93 5.97 5.96 5.86
K2CO3 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
sg=1.569 density 1.516 1.400 1.286 1.192 1.111
pH 13.07 12.08 11.20 10.31 9.26
ppt = precipitate tr = traces of precipitate
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
NaCl brine compatibility with other brines

NaCl (v/v) 10% 20%of 30%of 40%of 50% 60%of 70% 80% 90%
of NaCl NaCl NaCl of NaCl of of of
NaCl NaCl NaCl NaCl NaCl
sg=1.1835
NH4Cl solids no no no no no no no no no
sg=1.070 density 1.080 1.094 1.105 1.117 1.128 1.140 1.151 1.162 1.174
pH 5.93 5.94 5.98 6.01 6.03 6.12 6.17 6.24 6.41
sg=1.161 density 1.165 1.167 1.169 1.172 1.171 1.175 1.179 1.180 1.183
pH 7.62 7.92 7.44 7.53 7.42 7.27 7.64 7.53 7.57
CaCl2 solids tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no no
solids solids
sg=1.342 density 1.327 1.304 1.285 1.264 1.251 1.239 1.229 1.215 1.199
pH 6.85 7.21 7.38 7.54 7.66 7.90 8.06 8.13 8.31
sg=1.532 density 1.497 1.462 1.427 1.392 1.350 1.323 1.288 1.254 1.213
pH 6.86 6.80 7.00 7.02 7.04 7.12 7.01 6.90 6.85
sg=1.337 density 1.321 1.305 1.291 1.276 1.260 1.245 1.230 1.215 1.199
pH 6.62 6.63 6.61 6.66 6.43 6.58 6.50 6.66 6.66
CaBr2 solids no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no no
solids solids solids
sg=1.784 density 1.733 1.672 1.610 1.548 1.486 1.427 1.367 1.306 1.247
pH 7.38 7.80 8.06 8.35 8.60 8.81 9.05 9.10 8.65
K2CO3 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no no
solids solids
sg=1.569 density 1.532 1.489 1.445 1.402 1.362 1.326 1.294 1.266 1.226
pH 13.99 13.74 13.45 13.18 12.89 12.60 12.32 12.01 11.63
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
NaBr brine compatibility with other brines

NaBr (v/v) 10% 20%of 30%of 40%of 50% 60%of 70% 80% 90%
of NaBr NaBr NaBr of NaBr of of of
NaBr NaBr NaBr NaBr NaBr
sg=1.532
sg=1.184 density 1.213 1.254 1.288 1.323 1.350 1.392 1.427 1.462 1.497
pH 6.85 6.90 7.01 7.12 7.04 7.02 7.00 6.80 6.86
sg=1.070 density 1.116 1.162 1.208 1.256 1.301 1.347 1.393 1.440 1.487
pH 5.39 5.47 5.54 5.60 5.67 5.76 5.88 6.01 6.30
sg=1.161 density 1.199 1.236 1.271 1.308 1.345 1.382 1.420 1.458 1.495
pH 6.95 6.84 6.72 6.92 6.76 6.80 7.21 6.90 6.87
CaCl2 solids tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no
solids
sg=1.342 density 1.355 1.363 1.372 1.389 1.408 1.432 1.458 1.489 1.515
pH 6.04 6.18 6.29 6.39 6.51 6.56 6.56 6.62 6.65
sg=1.337 density 1.357 1.377 1.395 1.416 1.436 1.456 1.474 1.494 1.513
pH 7.18 6.81 6.52 6.66 6.34 6.38 6.26 6.12 6.01
CaBr2 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr
sg=1.784 density 1.756 1.717 1.691 1.653 1.620 1.593 1.573 1.556 1.544
pH 7.06 7.24 7.30 7.43 7.52 7.71 7.68 7.41 6.70
K2CO3 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt no
solids
sg=1.569 density 1.544 1.510 1.480 1.456 1.441 1.440 1.458 1.490 1.535
pH 13.86 13.61 13.29 12.97 12.61 12.27 11.89 11.52 11.13
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
KCl brine compatibility with other brines

KCl (v/v) 10% 20%of 30%of 40%of 50% 60%of 70% 80% 90%
of KCl KCl KCl of KCl of of of
KCl KCl KCl KCl KCl
sg=1.161
sg=1.184 density 1.183 1.180 1.179 1.175 1.171 1.172 1.169 1.167 1.165
pH 7.57 7.53 7.64 7.27 7.42 7.53 7.44 7.92 7.62
sg=1.070 density 1.079 1.088 1.098 1.107 1.116 1.125 1.134 1.144 1.153
pH 5.52 5.56 5.61 5.63 5.67 5.74 5.82 5.98 6.22
CaCl2 solids no no ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no
sg=1.342 density 1.328 1.312 1.288 1.266 1.241 1.227 1.204 1.196 1.182
pH 6.46 6.85 7.12 7.35 7.57 7.84 8.12 8.33 8.43
sg=1.532 density 1.495 1.458 1.420 1.382 1.345 1.308 1.271 1.236 1.199
pH 6.87 6.90 7.21 6.80 6.76 6.92 6.72 6.84 6.95
sg=1.337 density 1.319 1.302 1.284 1.266 1.249 1.232 1.215 1.197 1.180
pH 6.48 6.25 6.30 6.37 6.37 6.38 6.38 6.26 6.28
CaBr2 solids tr ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no no no
sg=1.784 density 1.729 1.653 1.580 1.511 1.453 1.405 1.351 1.287 1.225
pH 7.39 7.78 8.12 8.23 8.39 8.54 8.36 8.41 8.32
K2CO3 solids tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no
solids
sg=1.569 density 1.532 1.493 1.451 1.409 1.364 1.326 1.287 1.246 1.208
pH 13.97 13.80 13.59 13.37 13.16 12.95 12.74 12.52 12.23
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
KBr brine compatibility with other brines

KBr (v/v) 10% 20%of 30%of 40%of 50% 60%of 70% 80% 90%
of KBr KBr KBr of KBr of of of
KBr KBr KBr KBr KBr
sg=1.337
sg=1.184 density 1.199 1.215 1.230 1.245 1.260 1.276 1.291 1.305 1.321
pH 6.66 6.66 6.50 6.58 6.43 6.66 6.61 6.63 6.62
sg=1.070 density 1.096 1.123 1.149 1.176 1.202 1.229 1.256 1.283 1.310
pH 5.31 5.36 5.40 5.49 5.53 5.62 5.74 5.92 6.31
sg=1.161 density 1.180 1.197 1.215 1.232 1.249 1.266 1.284 1.302 1.319
pH 6.28 6.26 6.38 6.38 6.37 6.37 6.30 6.25 6.48
CaCl2 solids no no ppt ppt ppt tr no no no
solids solids solids solids solids
sg=1.342 density 1.346 1.347 1.342 1.336 1.337 1.343 1.344 1.342 1.340
pH 6.10 6.29 6.51 6.72 6.96 7.26 7.59 7.85 8.13
sg=1.532 density 1.513 1.494 1.474 1.456 1.436 1.416 1.395 1.377 1.357
pH 6.01 6.12 6.26 6.38 6.34 6.66 6.52 6.81 7.18
CaBr2 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt no
solids
sg=1.784 density 1.744 1.683 1.622 1.564 1.512 1.471 1.435 1.409 1.384
pH 7.15 7.51 7.76 7.84 7.90 8.01 8.13 8.02 7.83
K2CO3 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no
solids
sg=1.569 density 1.544 1.512 1.482 1.456 1.427 1.416 1.401 1.390 1.365
pH 13.85 13.71 13.52 13.30 13.10 12.88 12.66 12.41 12.08
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
CaCl2 brine compatibility with other brines

CaCl2 (v/v) 10% 20% 30%of 40%of 50%of 60%of 70% 80%of 90%of
of of CaCl2 CaCl2 CaCl2 CaCl2 of CaCl2 CaCl2
CaCl2 CaCl2 CaCl2
sg=1.342
NaCl solids no no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr
solids solids
sg=1.184 density 1.199 1.215 1.229 1.239 1.251 1.264 1.285 1.304 1.327
pH 8.31 8.13 8.06 7.90 7.66 7.54 7.38 7.21 6.85
sg=1.070 density 1.098 1.127 1.154 1.181 1.210 1.238 1.266 1.292 1.319
pH 6.06 6.24 6.23 6.20 6.16 6.12 6.06 5.99 5.98
KCl solids no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt no no
sg=1.161 density 1.182 1.196 1.204 1.227 1.241 1.266 1.288 1.312 1.328
pH 8.43 8.33 8.12 7.84 7.57 7.35 7.12 6.85 6.46
NaBr solids no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr
solids
sg=1.532 density 1.515 1.489 1.458 1.432 1.408 1.389 1.372 1.363 1.355
pH 6.65 6.62 6.56 6.56 6.51 6.39 6.29 6.18 6.04
KBr solids no no no tr ppt ppt ppt no no
solids solids solids solids solids
sg=1.337 density 1.340 1.342 1.344 1.343 1.337 1.336 1.342 1.347 1.346
pH 8.13 7.85 7.59 7.26 6.96 6.72 6.51 6.29 6.10
CaBr2 solids no no no no no no no no no
sg=1.784 density 1.743 1.698 1.652 1.607 1.564 1.518 1.475 1.430 1.388
pH 6.90 7.07 7.02 7.03 6.89 6.83 6.70 6.55 6.37
K2CO3 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
sg=1.569 density n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
pH n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. = not determinable caused by excessive presence of solids
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
CaBr2 brine compatibility with other brines

CaBr2 (v/v) 10% 20% 30%of 40%of 50%of 60%of 70%of 80%of 90%of
of of CaBr2 CaBr2 CaBr2 CaBr2 CaBr2 CaBr2 CaBr2
CaBr2 CaBr2
sg=1.784
NaCl solids no no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt tr no
sg=1.184 density 1.247 1.306 1.367 1.427 1.486 1.548 1.610 1.672 1.732
pH 8.65 9.10 9.05 8.81 8.60 8.35 8.05 7.80 7.38
NH4Cl solids no no no no no ppt ppt no no
solids solids solids solids solids solids solids
sg=1.070 density 1.143 1.216 1.285 1.360 1.431 1.507 1.578 1.652 1.722
pH 5.86 5.96 5.97 5.93 5.88 5.85 5.85 5.93 6.13
KCl solids no no no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt tr
sg=1.161 density 1.225 1.287 1.351 1.405 1.453 1.511 1.580 1.653 1.729
pH 8.32 8.41 8.36 8.54 8.39 8.23 8.12 7.78 7.39
CaCl2 solids no no no no no no no no no
sg=1.342 density 1.388 1.430 1.475 1.518 1.564 1.607 1.652 1.698 1.743
pH 6.37 6.55 6.70 6.83 6.89 7.03 7.02 7.07 6.90
NaBr solids tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
sg=1.532 density 1.544 1.556 1.573 1.593 1.620 1.653 1.691 1.717 1.756
pH 6.70 7.41 7.68 7.71 7.52 7.43 7.30 7.24 7.06
KBr solids no ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
solids
sg=1.337 density 1.384 1.409 1.435 1.471 1.512 1.564 1.622 1.683 1.743
pH 7.83 8.02 8.13 8.01 7.90 7.84 7.76 7.51 7.15
K2CO3 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
K2CO3 brine compatibility with other brines

K2CO3 (v/v) 10% 20% 30%of 40%of 50%of 60%of 70%of 80%of 90%of
of of K2CO3 K2CO3 K2CO3 K2CO3 K2CO3 K2CO3 K2CO3
K2CO3 K2CO3
sg=1.569
NaCl solids no no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
solids solids
sg=1.184 density 1.226 1.266 1.294 1.326 1.362 1.402 1.445 1.489 1.532
pH 11.63 12.01 12.32 12.60 12.89 13.18 13.45 13.74 13.99
NH4Cl solids no ppt ppt ppt ppt
solids
sg=1.070 density 1.111 1.192 1.286 1.400 1.516
pH 9.26 10.31 11.20 12.08 13.07
KCl solids no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt tr
solids
sg=1.161 density 1.208 1.246 1.287 1.326 1.364 1.409 1.451 1.493 1.532
pH 12.23 12.52 12.74 12.95 13.16 13.37 13.59 13.80 13.97
CaCl2 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
NaBr solids no ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
solids
sg=1.532 density 1.535 1.490 1.458 1.440 1.441 1.456 1.480 1.510 1.544
pH 11.13 11.52 11.89 12.27 12.61 12.97 13.29 13.61 13.86
KBr solids no tr ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
solids
sg=1.337 density 1.365 1.390 1.401 1.416 1.427 1.456 1.482 1.512 1.544
pH 12.08 12.41 12.66 12.88 13.10 13.30 13.52 13.71 13.85
CaBr2 solids ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt ppt
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
APPENDIX - C. ABBREVIATIONS
BHT - Bottom Hole Temperature
CaBr2 - Calcium Bromide
CaCl2 - Calcium Chloride
CF - Caesium Formate
CF - Contact Factor
CMC - Carbossil Methyl Cellulose
DE - Diatomaceous Earth
DIF - Drill-in-Fluids
EPDM - Ethylene/Propylene Diene Elastomer
EU - Polyether Urethane Elastomer or Urethane
FCTA - First Crystal To Appear
FEPM - Tetrafluoroethylene Propylene Elastomer or Aflas™ or Fluoraz™
FFKM - Perfluorocarbon Elastomer or Kalrez™ or Chemraz™
FKM - Fluorocarbon Elastomer or Viton™ or Fluorel™
HCOOCs - Caesium Formate
HCOONa - Sodium Formate
HCOOK - Potassium Formate
HEC - Hydroxyethylcellulose
HEMC - Hydroxyethylmethylcellulose
HNBR - Hydrogenated Nitrile Elastomer
HSE - Health Safety Environment
HSN - Hydrogenated Nitrile Elastomer
KBr - Potassium Bromide
KCl - Potassium Chloride
KF - Potassium Formate
K2CO3 - Potassium Carbonate
LCTD - Last Crystal To Disappear (or Last Crystal To Dissolve)
MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet
NaBr - Sodium Bromide
NaCl - Sodium Chloride
NACE - National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NBR - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Rubber or Nitrile or Buna-N
NF - Sodium Formate
NH4Cl - Ammonium Chloride
NTU - Nephelometric Turbidity Units
OBM - Oil-Based Muds
OSR - Oil Soluble Resins
PAA - Polyacrilamides
PAC - Poly Anionic Cellulose
PEEK - Polytheretherketone Elastomer
PPS - Polyphenylene Sulphide Elastomer or Ryton™
PTFE - Polytetrafluoroethylene Elastomer or Teflon™
SBHT - Static Bottom Hole Temperature
SRB - Sulphate Reducing Bacteria
SSC - Sulphide Stress Cracking
sg - specific gravity
TCT - True Crystallization Temperature
WBM - Water-Based Muds
WHT - Well Head Temperature
XC - Xanthan Gum
ZnBr2 - Zinc Bromide
ENI S.p.A.
STAP-P-1-M-20091 A
APPENDIX - D. REFERENCES
i
E. Pitoni, “Nota sui fluidi di completamento”, Agosto 1995
ii
Baker Hughes – ElecTech - 2003
iii
United States Patent – Patent Number 4,941,982 – Jul. 17, 1990
iv
NACE Corrosion 02, paper 02067
v
NACE Corrosion 92, paper 46
vi
NACE Corrosion 99, paper n. 592
vii
Ray, T.W., Irby, R.I., “Elastomeric Material Considerations when Using Oil-base Drilling Fluids in
High Pressure / High Temperature (HP/HT) Environments.” Oilfield Engineering with Polymers
2001, London, UK. November 2001.
viii
ISO 3601-5:2002
ix
Halliburton – Seal Technology 101, 1st Edition

Completion Fluids Operations Manuals STAP P 1 M 20091

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S P E O IDENTIFICATION CODE PAG 2 OF 167

3. GENERALITIES AND PROPERTIES OF COMPLETION FLUIDS ..........................10

5. FILTRATION OF SOLIDS-FREE COMPLETION FLUIDS .......................................23

6. COMPATIBILITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS WITH ROCKS AND CONNATE

6.3.1 EFFECT OF WATER ....................................................................................................... 36

7. CARRYING CAPACITY OF COMPLETION FLUIDS ...............................................52

8. CHOICE OF THE BRINE ..........................................................................................68

9. INTERACTIONS OF COMPLETION FLUIDS AND PACKER FLUIDS WITH

9.1.2 CLEAR BRINE CORROSION.......................................................................................... 78

10. PREPARATION OF SALT SOLUTIONS ..................................................................91

12. FLUID LOSS CONTROL ..........................................................................................104

12.4 POLYMERS FOR SOLID PLUGGING MATERIALS IN SUSPENSION ..................... 108

13. QUALITY AND COSTS OF THE BRINES................................................................113

14. ENVIRONMENTAL ...................................................................................................115

15. COMPLETION FLUID TRADEMARK COMPARISON .............................................123

APPENDIX - A.– EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF BRINES ...................128

APPENDIX - B.-TABLES FOR BRINE PREPARATION ..................................................133

B.18 SODIUM FORMATE / POTASSIUM FORMATE ......................................................... 156

APPENDIX - C. - ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................166

APPENDIX - D. - REFERENCES ......................................................................................167

1.1 PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL

1.3 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL & DEROGATION

2.1 COMPLETION FLUID

2.2 PACKER FLUID

2.3 NATURE OF COMPLETION FLUIDS AND PACKER FLUIDS

2.5 PURPOSE OF THE COMPLETION FLUID

2.6 PURPOSE OF THE PACKER FLUID

3. GENERALITIES AND PROPERTIES OF COMPLETION FLUIDS

9) Not contain substances damaging or incompatible to the treatment and

Figure 3-1 - Fluid Properties Chart

3.1 GUIDELINES FOR COMPLETION FLUIDS SELECTION

3.1.1 SOLIDS-LADEN COMPLETION FLUIDS

3.1.2 SOLIDS-FREE COMPLETION FLUIDS

3.1.3 GUIDE CHART FOR SELECTING COMPLETION FLUIDS

Fluid Type Wt. in kg/l Usable Temp Cost Range Ability to

Fluids Containing Solids

Table 3-2 - Chart for Selecting Completion Fluids

4.1 DENSITY OF REFERENCE

sg = pressure needed at well bottom / (depth in m/10)

Figure 4-1 – Calculation of the Density of the Completion Fluid

As highlighted in Figure 4-1, the calculation of brine density is influenced by the

with reference to an average room temperature of (21° C, 70°F): in practice,

4.2 THERMAL EXPANSION OF AQUEOUS COMPLETION FLUIDS

COMPLETION FLUID G (Kg/lx°C

4.3 THERMAL EXPANSION OF OIL BASED COMPLETION FLUIDS

from sg to sg average sg G=∆d/∆T (Kg/l°C)

Table 4-2 – Coefficient of Oil Thermal Expansion as Function of Density

Figure 4-2 – Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of the Oils

4.4 THERMAL EXPANSION OF EMULSIONS

sg = sg0 + 0.5 G (WHT + BHT – 2 T0)

head temperature should be assumed to be higher than the anticipated temperature

sg=1.301+0.5⋅1.55⋅10-4⋅(30+65-2⋅21)= 1.305 Kg/l @21°C

4.5 CONTROL OF THE DENSITY OF THE COMPLETION FLUID

5. FILTRATION OF SOLIDS-FREE COMPLETION FLUIDS

5.1 TYPES OF SOLIDS

5.2 FILTRATION OF COMPLETION FLUIDS

Figure 5-1 – Filtration Mechanism

Filters can be subdivided into:

Figure 5-2 – Filtration Systems Schematic

Figure 5-3 – Low Pressure Filter Unit

Figure 5-4 - Diatomaceous Earth Material Filtration Unitii

Figure 5-5 - Cartridge Filtration Unit

d pore = 1.77 ( K / Φ )1/ 2

Kbrine dporo ( µ m) Livello filtrazione Livello filtrazione