180ies - 1-Communication Systems PDF

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COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Ashish Dixit Prashant Singh
M.Tech. (IIT Bombay)
M.Tech. (V.L.S.I. Design) C-DAC, Mohali
3-Times GATE Qualified
2-Times GATE Qualified & ISRO-2004 Qualified (Design Engineer
Assitant Professor (ECE Department) Taiwan Semiconductor
AMITY University, Lucknow Manufacuring Company)
Te
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CONTENT: COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
CHAPTER NAME / TOPIC NAME Page No.

CHAPTER -1 : FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION TO BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 1
FREQUENCY RANGES OF VARIOUS SPECTRUM 3
SOME MOST WIDELY SPECTRUM WITH THEIR FREQUENCY RANGE 4
FOURIER SERIES 4
COMPLEX EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES 5
FOURIER TRANSFORM 6
PALEY-WIENER CRITERION 6
GATE FUNCTION / RECTANGULAR PULSE 7
SAMPLING / INTERPOLATING / SINC FUNCTION 7
POWER SPECTRUM 8
CROSS-CORRELATIONS FUNCTION 9
AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION
PROBLEMS BASED ON GATE/IES/PSUs 10
CHAPTER -2 : RANDOM VARIABLES & RANDOM PROCESS

RANDOM SIGNALS 11
PROPERTIES OF RANDOM VARIABLE 12
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION 13
CUMMULATIVE DISTRIBUTIVE FUNCTION 13
PROPERTIES OF P.D.F. fX (x) 14
MARGINAL PROBABILITY FUNCTION 15
TWO-DIMENSIONAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION 16
EXPECTATION OF A RANDOM VARIABLE 16
COVARIANCE 17
SOME COMMONLY OCCURRING PDFS 18
MEAN AND VARIANCE OF THE SUM OF RANDOM VARIABLES 22
SOLVED EXAMPLES 23
SPECIAL RANDOM PROCESS 26
CLASSIFICATION OF RANDOM PROCESSES 28
CORRELATION 29
TRANSMISSION OF RANDOM PROCESS THROUGH LINEAR SYSTEMS 32
SOLVED EXAMPLES 33
CHAPTER -3 : MODULATION
NEED OF MODULATION 51
DISTORTIONLESS TRANSMISSION 53
TYPES OF DISTORTIONS 54
CONCEPT OF MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 56
GENERATION OF AM WAVE 57
DEMODULATION 58
CHAPTER - 4 : AMPLITUDE MODULATION
INTRODUCTION TO AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) 59
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE AMPLITUDE MODULATOR 60
POWER CALCULATION OF AM WAVE 62
AM DEMODULATION 64
GENERATION OF AM SIGNALS 68
ADVANTAGE OF A BALANCED MODULATOR OVER A SIMPLE NON- 69
LINEAR CIRCUIT
SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT POSSIBLE AMPLITUDE MODULATED SYSTEM 70
MIXER 71
DOUBLE-SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-SC) MODULATION 72
SINGLE-TONE MODULATION OF DSB-SC 72
GENERATION OF DSB-SC SIGNALS 73
DIODE-BRIDGE MODULATOR 74
RING MODULATOR OR CHOPPER TYPE BALANCED MODULATOR 75
SYNCHRONOUS OR COHERENT OR HOMODYNE DETECTION 77
EFFECT OF PHASE AND FREQUENCY ERRORS IN SYNCHRONOUS 78
DETECTION
SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) MODULATION 79
HILBERT TRANSFORM 80
PROPERTIES OF HILBERT TRANSFORM 82
CONCEPT OF PRE-ENVELOP OF ANALYTIC SIGNAL 83
GENERATION OF SSB SIGNALS 84
(I) Frequency Discrimination Method 84
(II) Phase Discrimination Method or Phasing Method 85
VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VEB) MODULATION SYSTEMS 86
Generation and Detection of VSB Signal 87
SUMMARY: modulators and demodulators used by various AM systems. 89
CHAPTER - 5 : AM TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS
INTRODUCTION TO AM TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS 105
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AM-TRANSMITTER USING LOW-LEVEL 105
MODULATION
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AM-TRANSMITTER USING HIGH-LEVEL 106
MODULATION
MASTER OSCILLATOR (MO) 106
SOME FACTS REGARDING TO THE STABILITY OF MASTER OSCILLATOR 107
FREQUENCY
AM RECEIVER 107
TYPE OF AM RECEIVER 107
TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVER (TRF) 108
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER 109
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF RF AMPLIFIER 109
FREQUENCY CONVERSION OR MIXING 110
SOME FACTS ABOUT CHOICE OF QUALITY FACTOR (Q) OF IF 112
AMPLIFIER
TRACKING OF A RECEIVER 112
TYPES OF AGC 114
CHAPTER - 6 : FREQUENCY MODULATION
INTRODUCTION TO ANGLE (FREQUENCY OR PHASE) MODULATION 117
IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AM AND FM/PM 117
SOLVED EXAMPLES 121
TYPES OF FM 125
INTERNATIONAL REGULATION FOR FREQUENCY MODULATION 126
Performance Comparison of FM and PM Systems 127
Performance Comparison of FM and AM System 128
FM GENERATION 129
PRACTICAL ARMSTRONG METHOD FOR FM GENERATION 131
CHARACTERISTICS OF A WBFM SIGNAL 134
SOLVED EXAMPLES 136
FOSTER-SEELEY (CENTRE-TUNED) DISCRIMINATOR 138
CONCEPT OF PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS 139
PRE-EMPHASIS 140
DE-EMPHASIS 140
CHAPTER - 7 : NOISE
INTRODUCTION TO NOISE 153
ERRACTIC NOISE 153
MAN MADE NOISE 153
POWER DENSITY SPECTRUM OF SHOT NOISE IN DIODE 155
WHITE NOISE 156
NOISE BANDWIDTH 158
NOISE-TEMPERATURE 161
NOISE-FIGURE 163
FIGURE OF MERIT 164
NOISE IN ANALOG MODULATION 165
NOISE IN FM 167
CHAPTER - 8 : SAMPLING THEOREM
SAMPLING THEOREM 173
SAMPLING OF BANDPASS SIGNALS 174
PROOF OF SAMPLING THEOREM 175
SOLVED EXAMPLES 178
RECONSTRUCTION FILTER (LOW-PASS FILTER) 182
CHAPTER - 9 : DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION OVER ANALOG 194
COMMUNICATION
PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) 195
QUANTIZER 196
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF QUANTIZER 197
BANDWIDTH OF THE PCM SYSTEM 200
DM (DELTA MODULATION) 201
COMPANDING 203
NOISE IN DM (DISADVANTAGES OF DM) 205
CONDITION TO AVOID SLOPE OVERLOAD NOISE 206
DIFFERENTIAL PULSE-CODE MODULATION (DPCM) 207
ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION (ADM) 210
S- ARY SYSTEM 212
SOLVED EXAMPLES 213
CHAPTER - 10 : DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
DIGITAL CARRIER MODULATION 227
PROBABILITY OF ERROR (PE) 217
CHAPTER - 11 : INFORMATION THEORY & CODING
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION 230
UNIT OF INFORMATION 230
ENTROPY H(X) 231
RATE OF INFORMATION OR INFORMATION RATE (R) 232
SHANNON - HARTLEY LAW 233
CODING 235
CODING EFFICIENCY 235
SHANNON-FANO CODING 236
HUFFMAN CODING 239
PROBLEMS BASED ON GATE / PSUS / IES 241
CLASSROOM PRACTICE SHEET
PROBLEMS BASED ON RANDOM VARIABLES 245
ANSWER KEY 246
PROBLEMS BASED ON RANDOM VARIABLES 247
ANSWER KEY 254
PROBLEMS BASED ON AMPLITUDE MODULATION 255
ANSWER KEY 267
PROBLEMS BASED ON FREQUENCY MODULATION 268
ANSWER KEY 282
PROBLEMS BASED ON QUANTIZATION , PCM, DPCM 283
ANSWER KEY 292
PROBLEMS BASED ON SAMPLING THEOREM, FILTERS, CHANNEL 293
CODING, PLL
ANSWER KEY 296
PROBLEMS BASED ON MATCHED FILTER RECIEVER, BANDWIDTH, 297
PROBABILITY OF ERROR, TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, GSM
ANSWER KEY 300
PROBLEMS BASED ON DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES 301
ANSWER KEY 305
PROBLEMS BASED ON INFORMATION THEORY & NOISE 306
ANSWER KEY 313
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CHAPTER-1 (BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.
CHAPTER-1 : INTRODUCTION TO BASICS OF PERSONAL REMARK : 
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
, Electronic communication involves the transmission of information
from one point to another point through a communication channel by
means of electronic signals.
, Block diagram of electrical communication signal is shown below.
(300-3.5 kHz)
Voice
physical signal) Trans- Recei- physical
message medium ver message
(20-20 kHz) mitter
(Audio signal)
Information Source  Kind of communications

Voice/Speech : Bulk of communication
 system which we want to
 design will depends upon
TV : Transmission of Pictures
 the type of information
 source which we want to
Data : Between Computers  transmit
, A communication system has three basic components namely

(i) Transmitter
(ii) Transmission media, and
(iii) Receiver
, The function of a transmitter is to process the electrical signal from
different aspects. For example in radio broadcasting the electrical
signal obtained from sound signal is processed to restrict its range of
audio frequencies (20 Hz – 20 kHz)
, However in the long distance radio communication or broadcasting
signal amplification is necessary before modulation.
, Inside a transmitter, signal processing such as
 Restriction of range of audio frequencies
 Restriction of range of video frequencies
 Amplification
 Modulation etc. are achieved.
, Transmission media or communication channel means the medium
through which message travels from transmitter to receiver.
, The main function of receiver is to reproduce the message signal in
electrical form, from the distorted received signal.
, The reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process
known as the demodulation or detection.
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, Normally used transmission media of communication channels are PERSONAL REMARK : 
twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable and free space.
, Depending on the transmission media, communication is
divided into two groups
(i) Line communication or Wireline Communication
(ii) Radio communication or Wireless Communication
 Line communication uses a pair of conductors called
transmission line. Each transmission line can normally convey
only one message at a time.
 In radio communication a wireless message is transmitted through
open space by electro-magnetic waves called radiowave, and
communication is referred as radio communication.
, The two primary communication resources are transmitted
power and channel bandwidth.
 The transmitted power is the average power of the transmitted
signal while the channel bandwidth is defined as the band of
frequencies allocated for the transmission of the message signal.
 The most important system design objectives is to use these
two resources as efficiently as possible. In most
communication channels one resource may be considered more
important than other. Because of this, we may classify
communication channels as power limited or band limited.
, There are many reasons for distortion in the received signal.
The signal may be distorted mainly due to following reasons-
(i) Insufficient channel bandwidth.
(ii) Random variations in the channel characteristics,
(ii) External interference, and
(iv) Noise.
, Communication systems, as a subject, covers the study of all
aspects of message transmission with particular emphasis on
the following -
(1) Reliability of the system
(2) Accurary (i.e. least error)
(3) Speed of Transmission
(4) Bandwidth requirement
(5) Power requirement
(6) Circuit complexity
(7) Cost
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, When the spectrum of a message signal extends down to zero or PERSONAL REMARK : 
low frequencies, we define the bandwidth of the signal as that upper
frequency above which the spectrum content of the signal is negligible
and therefore, unnecessary for transmitting information. The important
point is unavoidable presence of noise in a communication system.
, Noise refers to unwanted waves that tend to disturb the transmission
and processing of message signals in a communication system. The
source of noise may be internal or external to the system.
, A quantitative way to account for the effect of noise is to introduce
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) as a system parameter. We may define
the SNR at the receiver input as the ratio of the average signal
power to the average noise power, both being measured at the
same point.
S 
Therefore, SNR = S/N. In dB, SNR = 10 log10  0 
 N0 
Where, S = signal power, N = noise power
, Table given below shows frequency ranges of various spectrum
S.No. Frequency Range Band Designation
1. 3 Hz - 30 Hz Ultra Low Frequency (ULF)
2. 30 Hz - 300 Hz Extra Low Frequency (ELF)
3. 300 Hz - 3000 Hz Voice Frequency (VF)
4. 3 kHz - 30 kHz Very Low Frequency (VLF)
5. 30 kHz - 300 kHz Low Frequency (LF)
6. 300 kHz - 3000 kHz Medium Frequency (MF)
7. 3 MHz - 30 MHz High Frequency (HF)
8. 30 MHz - 300 MHz Very High Frequency (VHF)
9. 300 MHz -3000 MHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
10. 3 GHz - 30 GHz Super High Frequency (SHF)
11. 30 GHz - 300 GHz Extreme High Frequency (EHF)
12. 300 GHz - 900 THz Infra Red Frequencies
Visible Spectrum
 Red  Orange
 Yellow  Green
 Blue  Indigo
 Violet
13. 900 THz-30000 THz Ultraviolet
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, Table given below shows some most widely spectrum with PERSONAL REMARK : 
their frequency range
S. No. Spectrum Frequency Range
1. Voice frequency 300 Hz to 3.5 kHz
2. Audio spectrum 20 Hz to 20 kHz
3. Radio spectrum 20 kHz to 20 MHz
4. Video spectrum 0Hz to 6.5 MHz
5. Long wave 150 kHz to 285 kHz
6. Medium wave 350 kHz to 1500 kHz
7. Short wave 6 MHz to 25 MHz
8. AM Bandwidth 1100 kHz
9. FM Bandwidth 20 MHz
10. Bandwidth of 3 kHz
telephone channel
11. Frequency band for 8 GHz to 16 GHz
Mobile communication
12. Frequency band 800 MHz to 1800 MHz
for WLL
13. Optical fiber 1012 Hz to 1016 Hz
communication
FOURIER SERIES
, The analysis of signal and linear systems in frequency domain is

based on representation of signals in frequency variable and is done
through employing fourier series and fourier transform.
, Fourier series is applied to periodic signals whereas the fourier

transform can be applied to periodic and non periodic signals.
, Let the signal x(t) be a periodic signal with period T. If the following
contitions (Known as Dirichlet Conditions) are satisfied.
1. x(t) is absolutely integrable over its period i.e.
 | x(t) | dt  
0
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2. The number of maxima and minima of x(t) in each period is finite. PERSONAL REMARK : 
3. The number of discountinuities of x(t) in each period is finite.
Then x(t) can be expanded into terms of various possible fourier
series
n 
, Fourier series of x(t) = a 0   (a n cosn 0 t  b n sinn 0 t)
n
t0  T t0  T
 1 2
where , T =

, a0 =
T
 x(t) dt , an 
T
 x(t) cos ω 0 t dt
t0 t0
t0  T

& bn =
T  x(t) sin n ω 0 t dt
t0
, Trigonometric fourier series may also be represented by


f(t) = C0 +  C n cos (n ω0 t  n )
n 1
–1  b 
Where, C0 = a0 and Cn = a 2n  b 2n and  n  tan  n 
 an 
The coefficient Cn are called spectral Amplitudes i.e. Cn is the
amplitudes of spectral components Cn cos (n 0t – n) having a
frequency n f0 whereas n specifies the phase information of the
spectral components n f0.
COMPLEX EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES

As the exponential form of fourier series is simpler and more compact
it has extensive application in communication theory.
 t0  T
jn 0 t 1 – jn  0 t
f(t) =  Fn e where, Fn =
T0  f(t) e dt
n  – t0
Note : The trigonometric series and the complex exponential series

are two ways of representing the same series and one series can be
derived from the other.
 The complex function e jn 0 t can be seen as a vector of unit length

and angle n t.
 Similarly e – jn  0t can be viewed as a vector of unit length and
angle –n0t i.e. e –jn  0 t = cosn 0t – j sin n 0t and
e jn 0t = cosn 0t + j sin n 0t
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FOURIER TRANSFORM PERSONAL REMARK : 
, Fourier transform is the extension of the fourier series to the general

–i2 f t
class of signals (periodic and non peroidic) X (f) =  x(t)e

dt
CONVOLUTION
, Convolution is a mathematical operation and is useful for describing
the input/output relationship in a LTI system.
, The convolution of two time functions f1(t) and f2(t) is defined by the

following integral. f(t) = f1(t)  f2(t) =  f1(  ) f2(t –  ) d 
–
SPECTRAL ESTIMATION : INTRODUCTION

, The signal processing methods which characterise the frequency
content of a signal corresponds to spectral analysis is called spectral
estimation.
, Spectral analysis is useful in variety of disciplines like astronomy,
communication engineeering etc.
, In communication engineering, spectral estimation is helpful in
detecting the signal component (carrier) which has the noise
component in it.
PALEY-WIENER CRITERION
, The necessary and sufficient condition for the amplitude response

n | H() |
|H()| be realizable is
 1  2
d  
–
, If H() does not satisfy this condition, it is unrealizable.

IMPULSE SIGNAL (DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION)
(t)
1
  at t  0
(t) = 
0 other wise
  t  0
unit impulse signal (t) = 
o other were
Properties of Impulse function

x(t) (t) = x (0) (t) } Product property
x(t) (t – ) = x() (t – )

 x(t) (t) dt  x(0) –   t   Shifting Property

–
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 PERSONAL REMARK : 
 x(t) (t – ) dt  x()
–



 (t) dt   and  (dt) =
||
(t) }scaling property
–

3t
Ex.1  (t) cos
2
dt is [GATE-EC-2001]
–

(a) 1 (b) –1 (c) 0 (d)

Sol. 1
Ex.2 Convolution of x (t + 5) with  (t – 7) is equal to
(a) x(t – 12) (b) x (t + 12) (c) x (t – 2) (d) x (t + 2)
Sol. x (t + 5) ×  (t – 7) [GATE-EC-2002]
from convolution property we get (t) = x (t + 5 – 12) = x (t – 7)
GATE FUNCTION / RECTANGULAR PULSE
, Let us consider a rectangular pulse as shown in figure
x(t)
 –T T
A A for t
x(t)   2 2
 0 otherwise
T/2 0 +T/2
 t –T T
A rect   for t
=  T 2 2
 0 otherwise

SAMPLING / INTERPOLATING / SINC FUNCTION
sin x
, The function is the "sine over argument" function and it is
x
denoted by "sinc(x). It is also known as "filtering function"
Sinc (x)
or
1 sa(x)
–3 –2 – 0  2 3 x
, Fourier transform of rectangular pulse
 –T T
A for  t 
F. T. of x(t) =  2 2
 0 other were
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 T/2 PERSONAL REMARK : 
– j t – j t
i.e. X() =  x(t) e dt   Ae dt
– – T/2
 e j T/2 – e –j T/2  2A

or X() =
jω
e 
– A – j t

T/2
– T/2 =
2A
ω

2j

 ωT 
sin  
  ω  2 
 ωT 
or X() = AT sinc  
 2 
|X()|
AT
–2 2 4
– 6 – 4 T T 6
T T
T T
Energy Spectrum (for Non periodic signal) / Parseval's

theorem for Energy Signals
   
1 2 2
Ex =  | X (ω)|2 dω =  |X (f)| df = 2  |X (f)| df = 2
 | x (t) | dt
2π – – 0 –
, This theorem states that energy of a signal x(t) may be obtained

with the help of its fourier transform i.e. without knowing its time
domain form.
, x(t) is an energy signal if 0 < E <  and P = 0
, "Energy Spectral Density" or "Energy Density Spectrum" is the
energy contribution per unit Bandwidth of a signal. It is denoted by
ESD = () = |X ()|2
, So, the total energy of signal may be obtained by integrating 
over bandwidth of a signal i.e.
 
1 1
ESDT =  | X (ω)|2 dω =  ψ (ω) dω
2π – 2π –
POWER SPECTRUM (for Periodic Signal)
, x(t) is a "power signal" if 0 < P <  and E = 
Note: Almost all the practical periodic signals are power signals.
, The power of a periodic signal spectrum x(t) in time domain is defined
T/2 
1
as , P = 
2
|x (t)| dt where , x(t) =  Cn e jn t 
T –T/2 n –
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, Parseval's theorem for Power signals PERSONAL REMARK : 
T/2 n
1
T  |x (t)|2 dt  
n – 
|Cn |2
–T/2
, Power Spectral Density (PSD) may be treated as average power

d p ()
per unit Bandwidth. It is generally denoted by S() i.e. S() =
d
CROSS-CORRELATIONS FUNCTION
, The cross-correlation between two different waveforms or two signals
may be defined as the measure of match or similarity between one
signal and time delayed version of another signal.
, This means that cross-correlation between two signals explains how
much one signal is related to the time delayed version of another
signal.
, Cross correlation between two signals x1(t) and x2(t) is defined as
T/2
1
R12 ()  Lim
T T 
–T/2
x1(t) x2 (t – τ) dτ
, From the above expression it is clear that cross-correlation represent

the over lapping area between the two signals.
AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION
, Autocorrelation function gives the measure of similarity, match or
coherence between a signal and its delayed replica. This means that
autocorrelation function is a special form of crosscorrelation function.
T/2
1
R (  Lim
T  T  x(t) x (t – ) d
– T/2
, The autocorrelation function is defined separately for energy signals

and for the power signals.
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PROBLEMS BASED ON GATE/IES/PSUs PERSONAL REMARK : 
1. Let x(t) be a real signal with the Fourier transform X(f). Let X*(f)
denote the complex conjugate of X(f). Then (IES-EE-2002)
(a) X(–f) = X*(f) (b) X(–f) = X(f)
(c) X(–f) = –X(f) (d) X(–f) = –X*(f)
Sol.(a)
2. Let the transfer function of a network be H(f) =|H(f)|ej(f)=2e–j4f. If

a signal x(t) is applied to sush a network, the output Y(t) is given by
(IES-EE-2002)
(a) 2x(t) (b) x(t–2) (c) 2x(t – 2) (d) 2x (t – 4)
Sol.(c)
3. Power spectral density of a signal is (IES-EE-2003)

(a) Complex, even and nonegative(b) Real, even and non negative
(c) Real, even and negative (d) Complex, odd and negative
Sol.(b)
4. Match List I (Signal) with List II (Spectrum) and seletct the correct
answer using the code given below the lists: (IES-EE-2005)
List I List II
A. t 1 . f
f=0
B. t 2. f
f=0
C. Speech Signal 3. f
f=0
D. t 4. f
f=0
Codes.
A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 2 4 1 3
(c) 2 3 1 4 (d) 1 4 2 3
Sol.(c)
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10
CHAPTER-2:RANDOM VARIABLES & RANDOM PROCESS PERSONAL REMARK : 
RANDOM SIGNALS
 Conditional Probability
P(B/A) denotes the Probability of event B when it is known that
event A has already occurred.
i.e. P(A  B) .... (I)

P(A/B) = and
P(B)
P(A B)
and P(B/ A)  .... (II)
P(A)
 Bayes Rule
By using Bayes rule one conditional probability can be expressed in
terms of the reversed conditional probability.
P (A ) 
P (A / B)  . P (B / A ) 
P (B ) 


 Bayes, theorem

P (B )
and P (A / B)  . P ( A / B ) 
P (A ) 

 Independent Events
If one coin is tossed and one dice is thrown, then these two events are
called independent events.
Two events are said to be independent when
conditional probability i.e.
P(A/B) = P (A) or P(B/A) = P (B)
Thus for two independent events, A and B
P(A  B)  P(A).P(B)
 For two marginal probability, P(A/B) = P(B/A) = 1
 An experiment whose outcome cannot be predicted exactly, is called a
random experiment (e.g. tossing of a coin, drawing of a card from a
deck of playing cards).
 The collective outcomes of a random experiment form a sample space.
A particular outcome is called a sample point or sample collection
of outcomes is called an event.
 A random variable is a real valued function defined over the sample
space of random experiment is known as stochastic variable or
random function.
RANDOM VARIABLE
From random variable we mean, a real number connected with the
outcome of random experiment.
Let W be the outcome of random experiment then X() is a real number
associated with the event W.
Let w be the event of tossing two coins. X() is the number of heads.
Outcome HH HT TH TT
Random
2 1 1 0
Variable
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11
A random variable is a function X() with domain s and range (, ) PERSONAL REMARK : 
such that for every real number a, the event  w : X()  a  B
S : Sample space
B : event of sample space
Properties of Random Variable
 A function x(w) from S to R (, ) is a random variable if and only

if for real a, w : x ( w )  a B
 If X1 and X2 are random variable and c is a constant then c x1, x1 + x2,
x1x2 are also random variable
 If x is a random variable then
1 1
 , Where  (w )   , if X() = 0
x x
 X + (ω) = maximum 0, X(ω) ,
 X ()   min imum 0, X()
 X  random variable
 If X1 and X2 are random variable then max [x1, x2] and min [x1, x2] are
also random variable.
 If X is a random variable and f ( X ) is a continous or/and increasing
function, then f(x) is a random variable.
Discrete Random Variable

A real valued function defined on a discrete sample space is called a
discrete random variable. Examples are marks obtained in a test,
telephone calls per unit time, number of successes in n trials.
Probability Mass Function

If X is a discrete random variable with distinct values x1, x2...xn... then
the function p(x) defined as:
p(x xi ) if x xi 

px (x)  
 0 if x  xi ;i 1, 2..
is called the probability mass function.

The set of ordered pairs x i , p( x i ) ; i 1, 2, 3,...n... or
x1 , p1 , x 2 , p 2 ,.....x n , p n ..... , specifies the probability distribution
of the random variable X.
Discrete Distribution Function


 pi  0 ,  p , such that
i
i F( x )  p
i:x  x1
i
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12
 px1   px  x i   Fx1   Fx i 1  , where F is the distribution function PERSONAL REMARK : 
of X
 Cummulative Distributive Function (cdf) for a discrete random
variable X can be defined as
Fx ( x )  P ( X  x )   f (u ) ,
ux
 x
If X can take on the values x1, x2, x3, ...... xn then the
distribution function is given by
0    x  x1

f (x1)  x1  x  x 2
Fx ( x )  
f
 1 (x )  f (x 2 )  x 2  x  x3
f (x )  f (x )  f (x )  .....f (x ) x  x  
 1 2 3 n n
Domain of Fx(x) is  ,   and its range is [0,1].

Properties of F(x)
 Fx ( x )  0
 Fx ()  1
 Fx (  )  0
FX(x) is a non-decreasing function, i.e.,
monotonically increasing function
FX ( x1 )  FX ( x 2 ) for x1  x 2
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION
fx (x)dx
x x+dx X
Consider the small interval (x, x + dx) of length dx around the point x.
Let fx (x) be any continous function of x so that f(x) dx represents the
probability that X falls in the infinitesimal interval (x, x + dx).
Px  x  x  dx   f x x dx
Px  x  x  dx 
or f x x   lim
x 0 x
The curve f(x) is called the probability density function for continous
distribution function
 P a  x  b   P a  x  b   P a  x  b   P a  x  b 
 P x  c   0 c . which is not possible in discrete case.
LUCKNOW
13
 Probability Density Function (PDF) for a continuous random variable PERSONAL REMARK : 
is defined as
Ex. A probability density function
d is of the form p(x) = Ke-a|x|,
f X ( x)  FX ( x )
dx x (–).The value of K is
The pdf [i.e. fX (x)] is the first derivative of the probability distribution (a) 0.5 (b) 1
function FX(x). The first derivative of probability distribution may not (c) 0.5  (d) 
exist at all points because the probability distribution function may be  DRDO-EC-2008)
discontinous function for discrete random variables. Here we assume
that FX(x) is a continuous function
x
FX ( x )  P X  x   f X ( x ) dx


However, P  X  x    fX (x)dx
x
x2
f
x1
x ( x ) dx  Fx ( x 2 )  Fx ( x1 )  P ( x1  X  x 2 )
 Properties of P.D.F. fX (x)

 PDF is non-negative function
 Area under the pdf curve is unity



f X ( x ) dx  1
 The probability of X lying between a and b is given by

b
P (a  x  b ) 
f
a
X (x) dx ....(A)
 For a continuous case, the probability of x being equal to any

particular value is zero. Hence equation (A) can be written as
P( a  x  b ) P( a  x  b ) P( a  x  b ) P( a  x  b )
Let fx(x) or f(x) be the pdf of a random variable X, where X is defined
from a to b. Then
b
Arithmetic Mean =  x f (x ) dx
a
b
1
Harmonic Mean =  x f (x ) dx
a
Geometric Mean =  log x f (x) dx

a
LUCKNOW
14
b
r
PERSONAL REMARK : 
 r (about origin ) = x
a
f ( x ) dx
b
r
 r (about the point x  A)   x  A  f (x) dx
a
b
r
 r (about mean )   x  mean  f ( x ) dx
a
Median : It is the point which divide the entire distribution into two
equal parts.
M b
1
 f x dx  f x dx 

a M
2
Mean deviation
Mean deviation about mean
b
M.D = x  mean f x dx


a
Mean deviation about any point A

b
M.D about ‘A’  x  A f x dx 

a
1 Q
i
Quartilies : 1  f  x dx  , i 1, 2, 3, 4
Q 
a
4
Di
i

Deciles : D i  f ( x ) dx 
a
10
, i  1, 2..., 8, 9
Mode: It is the value of x for which f(x) is maximum.

Two-Dimensional Random Variables
Let X and Y be two random variables defined on the same sample
space then the function (x, y) that assigns a point in R 2  R  R  is
called two dimensional random variable.
MARGINAL PROBABILITY FUNCTION

m
p x x    p x , y 
x, y i i
j1
n
p x y    p x , y 
x, y i i
j1
LUCKNOW
15
Two-dimensional distribution function PERSONAL REMARK : 
Fxy  x,y  P X  x, Y  y
Marginal Distribution Function

Fx  x  P X  x, Y    Fxy  x,  (in discrete case)
x 
  dx fXY x, y dy (in continous case)

 
FY y  P  X  , Y  y  Fxy , y
y 
  dy fXY  x, y dx
 
Marginal Density Function
fx  x  p x, y for
XY discrete case
y

f (X) 
x

 f xy
XY dy(for continous case)

fy (y)  p XY (xy)   fXY  x, ydx

x 
Condition for independence

Two random variables are independent if and only if
fXY x, yfX xfY y
FXY x, y FX xFY y
 Two statistical averages that are most commonly used for characterizing
a random variable, X are its mean (  x ) and variance  2x .
Expectation of a Random Variable
It is the average value of a random phenemenon.For random variable
X, expectation is defined as
EX    x f (x) (for discrete random variable)

x

EX   x f (x ) dx (for continous random variable)


Expectation value of a random variable g(x) is defined as
LUCKNOW
16
Eg x   g x f x  PERSONAL REMARK : 
x

Eg x  g ( x ) f ( x ) dx


Properties of Expectation
 E (X + Y) = E(X) + E(Y)
 E (X Y) = E(X) E(Y) [when X and Y are independent ]
 E(a X + b) = a E (X) + b
 
 


E (b)  b f ( x ) dx  b f ( x ) dx  b

 If g(x) is non-linear
 
E 1  1 E ( x ),
x 
1
 
1
E  X 2   E ( x ) 2 

 Elog x  log E( x ),   

E X 2  E(x ) 2 
 If X and Y are independent random variables, then
E h x . k Y  E h x E k Y 
Variance: Variance of a random variable X with mean  x is defined


as E X   x 2  E X 2   x 2  2 x X 
 
or E X 2   x 2  2  x 2  E X 2   2x  
Properties of Variance
V aX  b   a 2 Vx 
If b = 0, then V(ax) = a2V(x)

 Variance depends on change of scale
If a = 0, then V (b) = 0
 Variance of a constant is zero
If a = 1, then V (X + b) = V (X)
 Variance is independent of change of origin.
V X1  X 2   V X1   V X 2   2 Cov X1 , X 2 
If X1 and X 2 are independent
V X1  X 2   V X1   V X 2 
Covariance
Covariance between random variable X and Y is defined as
Cov (X, Y)  EX  EX Y  EY 
Cov(X, Y)  EX, Y  EX EY

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17
For independent random variable. X and Y, E(X, Y) = E(X) E(Y) PERSONAL REMARK : 
Cov (X, Y) = 0
Important Points Regarding Covariance
 Cov (aX, bY) = ab Cov(X, Y)
 Cov (X + a, Y + b) = Cov (X, Y)
 XX YY 
Cov  ,   1 Cov X, Y 
  x  y   x  y

 Cov (X + Y, Z) = Cov (X, Z) + Cov (Y, Z)
 The positive root of variance is called standard deviation ( x ) .

 The variance or a standard deviation is a measure of the ‘spread’ of
the value of random variable, X, from its mean ( x ) .
Some Commonly Occurring PDFS

1
(i) Uniform pdf : fX ( x )  b  a , x  (a, b )
f x(x)
1
(b  a )
a b t
(ii) Gaussian or Normal pdf : A random variable X is called normal

or Gaussian pdf if its form like.
fx(x)
1
2x
x x
  x  x 2
1 22 x
f X x   ,e ,  x 
2 . x
where,  x  mean of random variable.
 2x  variance of random variable.

(iii) Rayleigh pdf : Used for describing the peak values of random
process.
1 x 2
  
x 2   x 
fX ( x )  e ; x0
x
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18
 Gaussian or normal pdf occurs in so many application because of PERSONAL REMARK : 
remarkable phenomenon called CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM.
 As we know that electrical noise in communication systems is often
due to cumulative effects of a large number of randomly moving charged
particles and hence the instantaneous value of noise will have a
Gaussian distribution.
 In our studies on the effect of Gaussian noise on digital signal
transmission, we shall often be interested in probabilities such as
  ( x   x )2
1 2  2x  x  x 
 Q
FX (x)  P(x  a)   2  x
e dx
 x 

a
a  ( x   x )2
 x  x  1 2  2x
or FX (x)  P(x  a)  1  Q 
 x  
  
2  x
.e .dx
x  ( x  x ) 2
1 1 2  2x
or FX ( x )  P ( X  x)  
2  2  x e
o
. dx
If we assume Z be the standarized random variable corresponding to

x  x
X. Thus if Z  . Then mean of Z is zero and its variance is 1.
x
 z2
1
Hence, f Z ( z)  . e 2
2
LUCKNOW
19
CHAPTER-2 (RANDOM VARIABLES & RANDOM PROCESS) : COMMUNICATION
1. The PDF of a Gaussian random variable X is given by
(x 4)2
1
Px (x)  e 18 .The probability of the event { X = 4} is
3 2π
(GATE-EC-2001)
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) 0 (d)
2 3 2π 4
Sol.(c) pdf of the gaussian distribution function is given by
2
( x  4)
1 
Px(x) = e 18
3 2
Probability of the event at X = 4
P(X = 4) = P (X  4)  P (X< 4)
or P (X = 4) = 1  P (X > 4)  P (X< 4)
or P (X = 4) = 1  (P(X> 4) +P (X < 4))
or P (X = 4) = 1  1 = 0
2. If the variance  2 x of d(n) = x(n)–x(n–1) is one-tenth the variance
σ 2x of a stationary zero-mean discrete-time signal x(n), then the

normalized autocorrelation function R xx (k) |  2 x at k  1 is
(GATE-EC-2002)
` (a) 0.95 (b) 0.90 (c) 0.10 (d) 0.05
Sol.(a) 2d =E[x2 (n)]=E[x[n]  x(n  1)]2
 2 d =E[x 2 (n)]+E[x 2 (n  1)]  2E[x(n)x(n  1)]
 2x
 2 d = 2 x + 2 x  2R xx (1) or =2 2 x  2R xx (1)
10
19 2 x R xx (1) 19
or 2Rxx(1) = or = =0.952
10 2 x 20
Common Data for Questions 3 and 4.

Let X be the Gaussian random variable obtained by sampling the
y2
 1
α)   
process at t = ti and let Q() e 2 dy .Autocorelation
α 2π
function R xx (τ)  4 e 
0.2 τ
1 and mean = 0
3. The probability that x  1 is :
  (GATE-EC-2003)
 1   1 
(a) 1 – Q (0.5) (b) Q(0.5) (c) Q  (d) 1 – Q 
2 2 2 2
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20
Sol.(d) The pdf for Gaussian random variable is PERSONAL REMARK : 
1 2 2
p x (x)= e  (x x ) / 2 x
 x 2
1 2
/ 2  x2
For zero mean, p x ( x )  ex
x 2
 2 x  R xx (0)  8 or  x  2 2 or P[x  1]  1  P(x  1)

 
1 2
/ 2 2x
P[x  1]  1   p x (x)dx or P[x  1]  1  e x
1
 1  x 2
dx

1  x 2 /16 x dx
2 
or P[x  1]  1  e dx , Put  y or  dy
2 2 1 2 2 2 2

1 2  1 
or P[x  1]  1   e  y / 2 dy or P[x  1]  1  Q 
2 1  2 2 
2 2
4. Let Y and Z be the random variables obtained by sampling X(t) at

t = 2 and t = 4 respectively. Let W = Y – Z. The variance of W is
(GATE-EC-2003)
(a) 13.36 (b) 9.36 (c) 2.64 (d) 8.00
Sol.(c)  2 W  E[W 2 ]  E[Y  Z]2 or  2 W  E[Y 2 ]  E[Z2 ]  2E[YZ]
 2 W   2 Y   2 z  2R YZ ( )
Here, t = 2, since Y sampled
at t = 2 and Z sampled at t = 4
 2 W  8  8  2  4(e 0.4  1) or  2 W  2.64
LUCK NOW
21
Mean and Variance of the Sum of Random Variables PERSONAL REMARK : 
 Let X and Y be two random variables with means  x and  y .
Let Z = X + Y with mean  Z given as
 
2
z    ( x  y)
 
f ( x , y) dx. dy
z  x  y i.e., equal to the sum of the means.

Note : This result holds whether the variables X and Y are
independent or not.
 Variance (or the second moment) of Z = X + Y is given as

 
 2z  ( x  y) 2    (x  y)
2
f(x, y) dx dy
 
   
  x 2 f ( x ) dx .  f ( y )dy   y 2 f ( y )dy  f ( x )dx
   
 
2  x f ( x ) dx  y. f ( y ) dy
 
 
or  2z 2 2
x  y  2 x y (


f ( x ) dx 
 f( y) dy  1)

or  2z   2x   2y  2 x y
Special Case : If either x or y or both are zero, then resultant
variance becomes ,  2z   2x   2y
 Probability density of Z = X + Y (i.e., sum of random variables)

Here we want to calculate the probability density f Z
(Z) of Z = X + Y in terms of joint density f (x, y). Assume an arbitrary
value of Z and call it z. Then the region Y  Z  X is shown as shaded
region.
Hence the probability that Z  z is the same as the Probability that
y  Z  X independently of the value of X i.e. for    x  . This
probability is FZ ( z)  P ( Z  z )  P X  , Y  z  X 
Region Y=Z– X
where
Y  Z–X
LUCKNOW
22
 zx PERSONAL REMARK : 
or FZ ( z )    dx f x, y  dy .....(A)
 
and the probability density function of Z is given as


d .....(B)
FZ (z)  FZ (z)   f (x, z  x).dx
dz 
When X and Y are independent, f ( x, y )  fx . fy and equation (B) may be


written FZ ( z ) 

 f (x ). f ( z  x ) dx
Theorem Based on Transformation of Random Variables
 Theorem 1 :Let X and Y be continuous random variables whose joint

pdf fXY (x, y) is given, and given Z = g (X,Y) and W = h (X, Y). Then
fZ W (z,w) can be determined as,
n
FZ, W ( z, w )  F
i1
xy ( xi, yi ) | Ji |
where, Ji is the Jacobian of the transformation defined as.

xi xi
z w
Ji =
Ji  yi yi
z w
 Theorem 2 :To Determine fY (y) when f X ( x ) is given.Solve the

equation y = g ( x ), and find its real roots say x1, x2..... xk. we have
Y  g(x1)  g(x 2 )  ...........  g(xk )
k
fX ( xk )
Then f Y ( y )  
k 1
| g' ( x k ) |
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1 : Given Y = 2 X + 3. If random variable X is uniformly

distributed over [– 1, 2] find fY( y ).
fX(x)
1/3
–1 2 x
1
  1 x  2
f
Solution : We have x x   3
 0 otherwise
y  g ( x )  2x  3 ....(1) and g' ( x )  2

The range of y is
LUCKNOW
23
y1 = 2 x (–1) + 3 = 1 to y2 = 2 x 2 + 3 = 7. PERSONAL REMARK : 
y3
Equation (1) has a single solution i.e. x1 
2
1
f ( x ) 1/ 3 1  y7
So f Y ( y )  X 1   or fY (y)   6
| g' ( x 1 ) | 2 6
0 otherwise
Example 2 : Let Y = sin x, where X is uniformly distributed with

 1
 0  x  2 , find fY (y)
fX (x) =  2 
 0 otherwise

Solution : y  g(x)  sin x ....(A)
From equation (A) it is clear that for | y |  1, the equation, y  sin x has
no solution. Hence f Y ( y )  0. If | y |  1 . Then y = sin x, has two solution
in the interval 0  x  2 .
y=sin x
 2
–1 x1 x2 x
i.e., x1  sin 1 y and x2    x1    sin1 y

g' ( x1)  cos x1  cos ( sin1 y )  1  y 2
g' ( x 2 )  cos x 2  cos (   x1 )  cos x1   1  y 2
fx(xK) f (x) f (x )
fY(y) = = x 1 + x 2 +.......
| g' (xK) | | g' (x1 ) | | g'(x2) |
1
2π 1/ 2π 1
or f Y (y)  + = , | y | <1
1 y 2
 1 y2 π 1 y2
Example 3 : Given, Y = X2, find fY (y) for x = N (0 : 1)

Solution : Y = g ( x ) = X2 ....(A)
form equation (A) we conclude that if y < 0, then the equation Y = X2
has no real solution, hence fY (y) = 0. However if y > 0, then equation
y = x2 has two solution i.e. x   y or x1   y , x 2   y
Since, X = N ( 0 : 1 ) given means 0 mean and 1- variance.
 x2
1 2 i.e., f X ( x ) is an even function.
fX ( x )  e
2
f x (x k ) f (x ) f (x )
Now f Y (y)= = x 1 + x 2
g'(x k ) | g'(x1 ) | | g'(x 2 ) |
or fY ( y ) =
fx  y  + f  y  x
y>0
2 y 2 y
LUCKNOW
24
 1 y y
 1  
 e 2 e 2
 
or f Y ( y )   2 
2
 u ( y)
 2 y 2 y 
 
 
1 y / 2
or fY ( y )  .e .u ( y )
2y
Example 4 : Consider X has a uniform probability density function

given
 1
 0  x  2
fX (x) =  2 
0 otherwise

Determine x, E [ X2 ], x
 2 2
1 1  x2  1 4 2
Solution : x 


x.fX (x)dx 

0
x.
2 
.dx   
2   2 
0
 .
2 2

 2 2
2 2 2 1 1  x3  4 2
E [x ] 
 x .f (x) dx  

X
0
x .
2 
.dx   
2   3 
0

3

4 2 2 
 x  E [ x 2 ]   2x    (  )2   Ans.
3 3 3
Example 5 : Given a random process X ( t ) = A cos
( t –  ) where  is a random variable, and A and  are deterministic.
1
Assume a uniform distribution f () = 2   [0,2], find  x and  2x .
 
Solution:  x  E[X(t)]  

x(t)fX (x)dx 
 A cos ( t   ) . f (  ) d 

2
A

2  cos ( t   ) d 
0
with  as a random variable
2
A  sin (t    A
    sin (  t )  02
2  1 0 2 
A
 sin ( 2  t )  sin ( 0  t )   A  sin t  sin t   0
2 2

2x  E [X (t) x ]2 E [X2] 2x  [ A cos (t  ) ]2 f (  ) d  0.2
 
2
A2 2 2
  cos
2
( t   ) d  A . 2  A
2 0 2 2 2
LUCKNOW
25
RANDOM PROCESS PERSONAL REMARK : 
A probalistic description of a collection of function of time is called
random process.
Consider a random experiment having sample space S and
outcomes  for each outcome  S we assign a real valued
function of time X(t,  ). This real valued function of time is called
Random Process.
For fixed  say  1 , we have a function of time X(t,  i )  x i (t)
called sample function.
Set of sample function is called ensemble
For fixed t say t j , X(t j ,  )  X j called a number
x1(t)
x1(t1) x1(t2)
t1 t2 t 3 x1(t3) t
1
x2 (t)
2
n 2 1 2 2 2 3
outcomes t1 t 2 t
t3
t1 t2 t3
t
n 1 n 3
x1(t), x2(t) .........xn(t) are the sample function.
SPECIAL RANDOM PROCESS
A. Gaussian Random Process

 A gaussian process X(t) is completely specified by the set of
means i  E[X(t i )] i = 1, .........n
& the set of autocorrelations
R xx  (t i , t j )  E[X(t i )X(t j )] i, j = 1 ......n
 If the set of random variables X(ti) i = 1 , .....n is unocorrelated

i.e. Cij = 0 then X(ti) are independent.
 If a gaussian process X(t) is WSS then X(t) is SSS.
LUCKNOW
26
 If a gaussian process X(t) of a linear system is gaussian then the PERSONAL REMARK : 
output process Y(t) is also gaussian.
B. White Noise S  XX

S xx (  ) 
2
 2
R xx () (t) 
2
Mean of white noise is zero.
C. Band-limited white noise

 |  |  B
Sxx ( )   2
 0 |  |  B

1 B  j  B sin  B 
R XX ( )  
2   B 2
e d 
2  B 
Sxx ()
RXX 
n
2
 
– B B 0
 
–
B B
Figure : Band Limited white noise

D. Narrowband Random Process
A WSS process x(t) with zero mean & its PSD Sxx() is non - zero
only in some narrow frequency if bandwidth 2W that is very small
compared to a center frequency c, as shown in fig. The process
X(t) is narrowband random process.
X(t)=V(t)cos[ct +(t)]
S XX
–
– c 0 +c 
V(t) = envelop function , (t) = Phase function

x(t)  V(t)cos (t) cos  c t  V(t)sin (t)sin  c t
= X c (t) cos  c t  X s (t) sin  c t
Xc (t)  V(t)cos (t) (in-phase component)
X s (t)  V(t)sin (t) (quadrature component)
 X (t) 
V(t)  X 2c (t)  X 2s (t), (t)  tan 1  s 
 Xc (t) 
LUCKNOW
27
CHAPTER-2 (RANDOM VARIABLES ) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.
CLASSIFICATION OF RANDOM PROCESSES PERSONAL REMARK : 
 A random process X(t, S) represents an ensemble or a set of family of
time functions where t and s are variables. In place of x(t, s) and X(t, s)
the short notations x(t) and X(t) are often used.
 Figure shows the classification of random process.
Random variable
wide sense stationary (WSS)
Strict Sense Stationary (SSS)
Ergodic
Fig. : Classification of random process.
 The mean value of X(t) = E[X(t)] is known as ensemble average.

 However if sample function say x(t) over the entire time scale, then
T
1
 x( t )   Lim
T  2T 
T
x ( t ) dt  E [  x ( t )  ]
called time average, which is expected value of all mean values.
 Ergodic Process
‘’Ensemble averages is equal to time average’’ i.e. when all statistical
ensemble properties are equal to statistical time properties, then the
process is known as ergodic process.
i.e. X(t)   x(t) 

 
T/2
1
E  x(t) = Lim
T  T 
T / 2
x(t)dt   x
Note : An ergodic processes is necessary stationary processes, but

the reverse is not true.
 Stationary or Strict Sense Stationary (SSS) Process

If all the statistical properties of a random process are independent of
time, then it is stationary processes or S.S.S. process.
i.e. E X ( t1)  E X ( t 2 )  .......  E X( t ) 
which indicates that if X(t) is S.S.S. process, the joint density of random
variable X(t) and X(t +  ) is independent of actual time t1 and t2 and
LUCKNOW
28
depends upon the time difference i.e.  ( t 2  t1 ) only PERSONAL REMARK : 
i.e.  x (t)   x  Constant
2x (t)  2x  Constant
 Wide Sense Stationary (WSS) Process

A random process will be WSS if
(i) Its mean is constant i.e. E  X(t)   x  Constant , and
(ii) Its autocorrelation depends only on the time difference, 
i.e. E  X (t) . X (t )   Rxx () ....(A)
Special Case
(i) By setting   0, equation (A) becomes E[X2(t)] , thus the average
power of a WSS prosess is independent of time and equals to
Rxx(0).
(ii) Two process X(t) and Y(t) are called joint WSS if each is WSS
and their cross-correlation depends only on the time difference,  .
i.e., RXY t,t  )  E  X(t)Y(t  )  RXY ()
AUTO-CORRELATION
 The correlation is similarity between one waveform and time delayed
version of the other waveform. An analogy case may be stated as
“comparison of your present photograph and the photograph
taken 10 years back.’’
 Autocorrelation function is given as
T/2
1
R xx ( )  E X ( t ) , X ( t  )   Lim  x ( t ). x ( t  ) dt
T  T
T / 2
Properties of R xx ()
 R xx ( )  R xx ( ) for real signal

 RXX(t ) = R*XX(-t ) for complex signal
 | R xx ( )  R xx (0) i.e.Rxx(0) is the maximum value of R xx ( ) and
occurs at the origin.
 R xx (0)  E [ X2 ( t ) ]
AUTO-CORRELATION
For real signa (or non-periodic signal)Cross correlation function is given
as , RXY (τ) = E  X(t), Y(t + τ) 
+T / 2
1
= Lim
T  T  x(t) * y(t  τ) dt
T /2
Note : The conjugate symbol * is removed if the functions are real.
LUCKNOW
29
 If the correlation is defined for energy signal, then
 
RXY()  

x(t).y(t )d  

x(t ).y*(t)d
Properties of R xy ( )
 RXY () RXX()
 | RXY ()|  RXX(0). RYY(0)
1
 | RXY ()| 
2
R XX (0)  RYY(0) 
 Autocovariance, CXX ()  RXX()  2X
 Cross covariance, CXY () R XY() X Y
 Two process, X (t)and Y (t) are called orthogonal or incoherent

if, R xy ( )  0
 Two process, X (t)and Y (t) are uncorrelated if, CXY ()  0
i.e., RXY() X Y i.e., cross correlation functions RXY () are
equal to the multiplication of mean values.
 Power spectral density of a random process X(t) is a Fourier transform

of autocorrelation function for a periodic or aperiodic signal i.e.,

 j
S xx ( )  R

xx ( ) . e d
R xx (  ) from the given signal can be calculated as
T 2
1
R xx    Lim x t .x t   .dt

T  T
T 2

1
and R xx ( )  S xx (). e j . d
2

Properties of S xx ()
 SXX () is real i.e. SXX ()  0 for all  .
 SXX ()  SXX () i.e. Power spectral density of a random

process X(t) is an even function of frequency .
 SXY ()  SYX()  S*YX ()
LUCKNOW
30
 Relation between input and output spectral densities
2
SYY () |H () | . SXX()
 Energy Spectral Density

 X () is a measure of density of the energy contained in random
process X (t) in joules per hertz.
Since the amplitude spectrum of a real-valued random process X(t) is
an even function of  , the energy spectral density of such a system is
symmetrical about the vertical axis passing through the origin.
Total energy of the random process X(t) is defined as

1
E  X().d
2 
Note: Autocorrelation function of a pulse type signal (i.e. energy signal)
gives energy density spectrum
X  i.e. F RXX   X 
 Power of correlated function
Let us consider a function f1(t) with power P1and another function f2(t)
with power P2. The normalized power (r.m.s. value). P1,2 of the
combined function is given by.
T 2
1 2
P1, 2  f1 t  f 2 t   dt
T T 2
T2 T2 T 2
1 2 1 2 2
  f1 t dt   f 2 t  dt   f t .f t  dt
1 2
T T 2 T T 2 T T 2
or P1, 2  P1  P2  2R 1, 2   ....(A)
Following conclusion are drawn from equation (A)
 The power of two correlated function is equal to the sum of

powers of each individual function plus twice the cross-
correlation between them.
 If the functions f1 (t) and f2 (t) are uncorrelated, i.e.,

R1, 2 (  ) = 0, then the powers of the combined functions is equal
to the sum of the powers of each individual function, and
 Functions correlated by dc components are considered as

uncorrelated.
Note : R XX ( ) some times can be written as RX (t )
LUCKNOW
31
Transmission of Random Process through Linear Systems PERSONAL REMARK : 
A. System Response : In the given figure X(t) is the input random
process and Y(t) is the output random process of a system having
impulse response h(t) X(t) Y(t)
LTI
 System
Y(t) = X(t) * h(t) = h(t) *X(t) =  h()X(t  )d

B. Mean and Autocorrelation of Output
  
E[Y(t)]  E[h(t) * X(t)]  E   h()X(t  )d 
  
 


h()E[X(t  )]d   h( )

X (t  )d  h(t) *  x (t)
For wide sense stationary random process, E[X(t   )] x
 
E[Y(t)]   h() d    h()d   H(0)


x x

x
Thus for WSS, Y(t) is constant H(0) is the frequency response of

filter at  = 0
RYY(t1,t2) = E[Y(t1)Y(t2)]
   
 E    h()X(t 1 )h()X(t 2  )dd 
   
 
   h()h()E[X(t
 
1 )X(t 2  )]d d
 
   h()h()R
 
XX (t1 , t 2  )dd
For WSS
 
R YY ( )    h( )h()R
 
XX (t 2 t1    )dd
C. Power spectral Density of the output

SYY () | H() |2 SXX ()

1 2 j
R YY ( )   | H() | SXX ()e d
2  

1
E[Y 2 (t)]  R YY (0)  2
 | H() | SXX ()d
2 
LUCKNOW
32
SOLVED EXAMPLES PERSONAL REMARK : 
Ex.1 X(t) = Acos(t + ), where A &are constants & is a uniform
random variable over [  ] show that X(t) is WSS.
 1
 ,    ,  
f  ()   2
 0 otherwise
Sol. WSS expectation is constant

E[X(t)] =  A cos(t  )f


 ()d

A A 

2 
Acos(t  )f  ()d 
2
sin(t  )  
A A

2
 sin(t  )  sin(t  )  [sin(t)  sin t]  0
2

R XX ( )  E[X(t)X(t   )]   A cos(t  )Acos(t    )f


 ()d

A2
  cos(t    )cos(t  )d
2 
 
A2  
   cos(2t  2  )d   cos d
4     
A2 A2
 | sin(2t  2   |  cos  2  cos 
4 2
Ex.2 Consider a random process X(t) = Acos(t + ) where  &  are

constants & A is a random variable. Determine whether X(t) is WSS.
Sol. E[X(t)]  E[A cos(t  )]  cos(t  )E[A]
 A cos(t  ) = constant
R XX ( )  E[A 2 cos(t  )cos(t    )]
A2 
 E cos(2  t     2  )  cos   
 2 
1

2
cos(2t    2)  cos cos   E[A2 ]
Comment : X(t) is not WSS.
Ex.3 X(t)  A cos t  Bsin t ,where  is constant & A & B are random
variables.
(a) Show that the condition E[A] = E[B] = 0 is necessary for X(t) to
be stationary.
LUCKNOW
33
(b) Show that X(t) is WSS if the random variables A&B are uncorrelated PERSONAL REMARK : 
with equal variable i.e.
Sol. (a) X(t) to be stationary
E[X(t)] = constant
E[Acost + B sint] = constant
cos t E[A] + sin t E[B] = constant
For E[A] = E[B] = 0, E[X(t)] = 0 = constant
(b) R XX (t1 , t 2 )  E[X(t1 )X(t 2 )]
= [(Acost1+Bsint1)(Acost2+Bsint2)]
=E[A cost1cost2+ABcost1sint2+ABsint1cost2+B2sint1sint2]
2
= cost1cost2E[A2]+cost1sint2E[AB] + sint1cost2 E[AB] + sint1

sint2E[B2 ]
If E[AB] = 0 and E[A2] = E[B2] = 2
RXX (t1,t2) = 2cost1cost2 +2sint1sint2
RXX(t1, t2) = 2 cos(t1  t2)
RXX(t1, t2) = 2cos = RXX()
Ex.4 A random process X(t) is said to be covariance stationary if the covariance

of X(t) depends only on the time difference Z = t1  t2 i.e.
CXX(t. t + ) = CXX()
For X(t) = (A+1)cost + Bsint, show that X(t) is not WSS but is covariance
stationary where A & B are independent random variables for which
E[X(t)] = E [(A+1)cost + B sint]
E[A] = E[B] = 0 & E [A2] = E [B2] = 1
Sol. E[X(t)] = costE [A + 1] + sin t E[B]
= cos t which is not constant
CXX(t, t + ) = E[X(t) X(t +)]  E [X(t)] E[X(t + )]
= E[{(A+1)cost + B sint}{(A+1) cos(t + )+ B sin (t +)]  E[(A + 1)
cost + B sint]E[(A+1)cos(t+) + B sin (t + )]
= E [(A+1)2 cos t cos (t +) + (A +1) B cost sin(t + ) + (A +1) B sin
t cos (t + ) + B2 sin (t +) sin t]  cost cos (t + )
= cos t cos(t + )E[A2 +2A +1] + E (AB + B)cos t sin(t +  +
E[AB+B]sin t cos(t ++ sin (t + ) sin t E [B2]  cost cos (t + )
= 2 costcos(t +) + sin (t +) sint  cos t cos (t + )
= cos (t + )cost + sin (t +) sin t = cos (t +   t) = cos
Ex.5 Show that X(t) = Acos (t +) is ergodic in both the mean &
the autocorrelation
T/2
1
T  T/ 2
Sol. < X(t)  Tlim

A cos(t  )dt
LUCKNOW
34
A sin(t  )
T/2 PERSONAL REMARK : 
 lim
T  T  T / 2
  T   T 
sin     sin     
A   2   2 
 lim  
T  T
  
 
A  sin(   )  sin(   ) 
 lim
T  T   
A   sin   sin  
 lim   0
T  T  
T /2
1
< X(t) X(t +)>  Tlim  A 2 cos(t    )cos(t  )dt
 T T / 2
 A2 T / 2 A2
T /2

 lim 
T  2T 
 T / 2
cos(2t  2   )dt  
2T T / 2
cos dt

A2
= cos
2
We have proved already E[X(t)] = 0
A2
RXX ()  cos
2
Ex.6 If X(t) is WSS then

E[{ X(t + )]  X(t)2}] = 2[RXX(0)  RXX()]
where RXX() is the autocorrelation of X(t)
Sol. E[X{(t + )  X(t)}2] = E[X2(t + )  2 X(t +)X(t) + X2(t)]
= E[X2 (t + )]  2 E[X(t + )X(t)] + E[X2(t)]
= RXX (0)  2 RXX() + RXX(0)
= 2 [RXX(0)  RXX ()]
Ex.7 For WSS |RXX ()| < RXX (0)

E [{X(t) + X(t + )2] > 0
Sol. E[X2 (t)] + 2E [X(t) X(t + )]+ E[X2(t + )] > 0
RXX(0) + 2 RXX () + RXX (0) > 0
2 RXX () + 2RXX () > 0
RXX () + RXX () > 0
RXX(0) > |RXX()|
LUCKNOW
35
Ex.8 Show that power spectrum of a real random process x(t) is real PERSONAL REMARK : 
SXX(-) = SXX ()

Sol. SXX() = R XX ( )e  j dt



or SXX() 

R XX (  )(cos   jsin  )d
 
or SXX ( )  

R XX ( ) cos d  j  R XX ( )sin d

 
and SXX ( )  


R XX ( ) cos d  j  R XX ( )sin d

or real random process


SXX ( )  R

XX ( ) cos d  SXX ( )
Ex. 9 A class of modulated random signal Y(t) is defined by

Y(t) = AX(t) cos (ct + ) where X(t) is the random message signal
& A cos (ct + ) is the carrier. The random message signal X(t) is a
zero mean stationary random process with autocorelation RXX() &
power spectrum SXX(). The carrier amplitude A & frequency c are
constants & phase is a random variable uniformly dirtributed over [0,
2]. Assuming X(t) &  are independent , find mean, autocorelation
&power spectrum of Y(t).
Sol. E[Y(t)] = E[AX(t) cos( ct +)]
= AE [X(t)]E[cos(ct + )]
E[X(t)] = 0, E [Y(t)] = 0
RYY (t1, t2) = E [Y(t1)Y(t2)]
= E[AX(t1)cos(ct1+) AX (t2) cos (ct2 +)]
= A2 E[X(t1)X(t2)cos(ct1+)cos (ct2 +)]
A2
 E[X(t1 )X(t 2 )]E[cos{ c (t1  t 2 )  2}cos  c (t 1  t 2 )]
2
A2
 E[X(t1 )X(t 2 )]{E[cos{ c (t1  t 2 )  2}]  E[cos  c  ]}
2
A2
 R XX ( ) cos  c 
2
2
1
2 0
E[cos c {(t1  t 2 )  2}]  cos{ c (t1  t 2 )  2}d
LUCKNOW
36
1 sin  c (t1  t 2 )  2
2 PERSONAL REMARK : 
 0
2 2 0
F.T.
SYY  RYY ()

A2  j A2
SYY   2 XX

R ( )cos c e d 
2
F{R XX ( ) cos  c  )
A2 A2
or SYY  F{R XX ( )e  j }  F{R XX ( )e c  }
22 22
A2
or SYY  [SXX (   c )  SXX (   c )
4
Ex.10Let X(t) & Y(t) be both zero-mean & WSS random process consider
the random process Z(t) defined by Z(t) = X(t) + Y(t)
(a) Determine autocorrelation & power spectrum of Z(t) if X(t) &
Y(t) are joint WSS.
(b) Repeat part (a) if X(t) & Y(t) are orthogonal.
(c) Show that if X(t) & Y(t) are orthogonal, then the mean square of
Z(t) is equal to the sum of the mean squares of X(t) & Y(t).
Sol. RZZ (t, t + ) = E [Z(t) Z(t + )]
= E [{X(t) + Y(t)}{X(t + ) + Y (t + )}]
= E [X(t)X(t + )] +E[X(t)Y(t + )] + E[Y(t)X(t +)] +E[Y(t)Y(t+)]
RZZ() = RXX () + RXY() + RYX () + RYY()
SZZ() = SXX() + SXY() + SYX() + SYY()
(b) If X(t) & Y(t) are orthogonal
E[X(t) Y (t + )] = E [Y(t)X(t + )] = 0
RZZ () = RXX () + RYY()
(c) E[Z2(t)] = E[X2(t) + 2X(t)Y(t) + Y2(t)]
= E[X2(t)] + 2E [X(t)Y(t)] + E[Y2(t)]
= E[X2(t)] + E [Y2(t)]
Ex.11Two random processes X(t) & Y(t) are given by

X(t) = A cos (t +), Y(t) = A sin (t + ) where A & are constants
& is a uniform random variable over [0, 2]. Find the cross-correlation
of X(t) & Y(t).
Sol. RXY(t1, t2) = E[X(t1) Y(t2)] = E[Acos(t1 + )] A sin (t2 + )]
= A2 E[cos (t1+)sin (t2 + )]
A2
 E[sin(t1  t 2  2)  sin(t 1  t 2 )]
2
LUCKNOW
37
A2 A2 A2 PERSONAL REMARK : 
 E[sin(t1  t 2  2)  E[sin  ]  sin 
2 2 2
Ex.12: Let X(t) = A cos t + Bsin t and Y(t) = B cost  A sin t ,where
 is constant & A & B are independent random variable both having
zero mean & variance 2.Find the crosscorrelation of X(t) & Y(t)
Sol. RXY (t, t + ) = E [X(t)Y (t + ]
= E[Acost + B sint) (Bcos (t +)  A sin(t + )]
= E [AB cos tcos(t + )  A2 costsin (t + ) + B2 sint cos
(t + )  AB sin tsin(t +)]
= cos t cos(t + ) E[AB]  cos t sin (t + ) E[A2] + sin cos (t
+ ) E[B2]  sin t (t + ) E[AB]
sin t cos(t + )  cost sin (t +) =  sin 
Ex.13: A WSS random process X(t) is applied to the input of an LTI system
with impulse response h(t) = 3e  2tu(t).
Find the mean value of the output Y(t) of the system if E[X(t)] = 2
  
Sol. E[Y(t)]  E[X(t) * h(t)]  E  h(  )X(t   )d  

  
   
2 
 h()E[X(t  )]d  2  3e u()d = 6 e2  d  6 e2


3
0 0
Ex.14Let X(t) & Y(t) be the WSS random input process & random output
process respectively of a quadrature phase - shifting filter.Show that
RXX() = RYY(), RXY() = RXX()
Sol. For Hilbert-transform, h(t) 

1
, H( j)   jsgn()
t
 H ( )  1
SYY () | H( ) |2 SXX ()  SXX ()
so, R YY ()  R XX ()

RXY() = h()* RXX() = RXX()
Ex.15A WSS random process X(t) with autocorrelation RXX() = Ae-a|| where
A & a are real positive constants is applied to an input of an LTI system
with impulse response h(t) = e-btu(t), where b is a positive constant.
Find the autocorrection of the output Y(t) of the system.
LUCKNOW
38
F.T. A2a 2 1 1
2 PERSONAL REMARK : 
Sol. SXX ()  RXX ()  and | H() |   2
2  a 2 j  b   b2
2aA 1  2aA a 2 bA 
SYY ( )  2 2 2 2
 2 2  2 2
 2 2 
(  a )(  b ) b a  (   a ) (  b ) 
A  |a| ae |b| 
R YY ()  e   u(t)
(b 2 a 2 )  b 
Ex.16 Consider a WSS process X(t) with autocorrelation RXX() and power
R XX ()
spectrum SXX(). Let X’(t) = dx(t)/dt. Show that R XX' ()  d
d
2 R XX ()
and R X'X' ()  d
dt 2
Sol. X(t) Y(t)=dX(t) = X'(T)

Differentiation
j dt
SXX () | H() | SXX ()   jSXX ()
R XX ()
R XX' ()  d
d
similarly, SX'X' (ω) =| H(jω)|2 SXX (ω) =ω2SXX(ω) =-(jω)2SXX (ω)
RXX ()
so, RX'X' ()  d2
dt 2
LUCKNOW
39
1. In a communcation system, a process for which statistical averages
and time averages are equal, is called. (IES-EE-2003)
(a) Stationary (b) Ergodic (c) Gaussian (d) BIBO stable
Sol.(b)
2. Consider the following statements : (IES-EE-2009)

The thermal noise power generated by a resistor is proportional to
1. The value of the resistor
2. The absolute temperature
3. The bandwidth over which it is measured
4. The Boltzmann’s constant.
Which of the above statements is / are correct?
(a) 1,2 & 3 (b) 2 only (c) 2 & 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 & 4
Sol.(d)
3. A random process obeys Poisson’s distribution. It is given that the

mean of the process is 5. Then the variance of the process is :
(IES-EC-2003)
(a) 5 (b) 0.5 (c) 25 (d) 0
Sol.(a) The mean and variance of Poisson’s distribution is same.
4. Match List-I (Type of Random Process) with List-II (Property of

the Random Process) and select the correct answer using the code
given below the lists: (IES-EC-2005)
List-I
A. Stationary process B. Ergodic process
C. Wide sense stationary process D. Cyclostationary process
List-II
1. Statistical averages are periodic in time
2. Statistical averages are independent of time
3. Mean and autocorrelation are independent of time
4. Time averages equal corresponding ensemble average
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 2 1 3 4
Sol.(b)Stationary process - statistical averages are independent of time.
Ergodic process - Time averages equal corresponding ensemble
average.
Wide sense stationary process - mean and autocorrelation are
independent of time.
Cyclostationary process - statistical averages are periodic in time.
5. Match the List-I(Type) with List-II (Application) and select the

correct answer using the codes given below the lists: (IES-EC-2006)
List-I
A. Speech signal B. Non-stationary
C. Random signal D. Chaotic signal
LUCKNOW
40
List-II PERSONAL REMARK : 
1. The received signal of a radar system monitoring variation in
prevalent weather condition
2. One dimensional signal where amplitude varies with time
3. Signals of coupled system of non-linear difference
4. Ensemble of unpredictable waveforms
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 1 2 3
Sol.(c)
6. Source S1 produces 4 discrete symbols with equal probability.

Source S2 produces 6 discrete symbols with equal probability.
It H1 and H2 are the entropies of sources S1 and S2 respectively, then
which one of the following is correct? (IES-EC-2008)
(a) H1 is always less than H2 (b) H1 is always greater than H2
(c) H1 is always equal to H2 (d) H2 is 1.5 times H1 only
Sol.(a) Entropy of a source S is given by H = log2n
where n = number of equiprobable symbols.
H1 = log2 4 = 2 and H2 = log26 = 2.59
7. The outputs of two noise sources each producing uniformly distributed

noise over the range -a to +a are added. What is the p.d.f. of the
added noise? (IES-EC-2008)
(a) Uniformly distributed over the range -2a to +2a
(b) Triangular over the range -2a to +2a
(c) Gaussian over the range  to 
(d) None of the above
Sol.(b) The random variable Z which is expressed as
Z = X + Y has pdf which is convolution of pdfs of individual random
variable X and Y. So, fz(z) = fx(x) * fY(y)
8. Let X and Y be two statistically independent random variables

uniformly distributed in the ranges (–1,1) and (–2,1) respectively.
Let Z = X + Y. Then the pobability that (z  – 2) is
(GATE-EC-2003)
1 1 1
(a) zero (b) (c) (d)
6 3 12
Sol.(d) The pdf of random variable X and Y are
1 1
fx(x) = ,  1< x < 1 and fY(y) = , 2 < y < 1
2 3
P(z  2)=P(X+Y  2)
The shaded region satisfies the condition,
x  y  2, 1  x  1 and  2  y  1
0 2  x
1 1 1
P(z  2)=P(X+Y  --2)=    dxdy or P(z  2)=
-1 2
2 3 12
LUCKNOW
41
9. The distribution function Fx(x) of a random variable X is shown in PERSONAL REMARK : 
the figure. The probability that X = 1 is (GATE-EC-2004)
(a) zero
(b) 0.25 1.0
(c) 0.55 0.55
(d) 0.30
0.25
Sol.(d)From the given figure, the
probability at X = 1 is given by
–2 0 1 3
Fx (x)  F x (x) = 0.55  0.25 = 0.30
10. A random variable X with uniform density in the interval 0 to 1 is

quantized as follows: (GATE-EC-2004)
If 0  X  0.3 xq = 0
If 0.3  X  1 xq= 0.7
where Xq is quantized value of X.
The root mean square value of the quantization noise is
(a) 0.573 (b) 0.198 (c) 2.205 (d) 0.266

2
Sol.(b) Noise - power  2
x  E[(x  x q ) ] or  x 
2
 (x  x q ) 2 p x (x)dx

The variable is distributed uniformly for interval 0 to 1

0.3 1
2 2 2
 p x (x)  1, 0  x  1 and  x   x dx 
0
 (x  0.7)
0.3
dx
0.3 1 1 1
  x 2 dx  2
 x dx   0.49dx  1.4  xdx
0 0.3 0.3 0.3
1
 +0.343  0.567=0.39
3
RMS value of noise -power  x  0.39=0.198
11. An output of a communication channel is a random variable V with

the probability density function as shown in the figure. The mean
square value of V is: p(v) (GATE-EC-2005)
(a) 4 p(V)
(b) 6
k
(c) 8
(d) 9
0 4 v

1 0
Sol.(c)From given figure,  p(v)dv  1 and
2
 4 k = 1

1 k
or k= and p(v) = mv (m = slope =
2 4
k 1
or p(v) = .v p(v) = v
4 8
4
1  v4 

v 2 4 2
Now, mean square value =  v p(v)dv = 0 v dv =    8
 8 8  4 0
LUCKNOW
42
Common Data for Questions 12 and 13 PERSONAL REMARK : 
Asymmetric three-level midtread quantizer is to be designed assuming
equiprobable occurence of all quantization levels.
12. If the probability density function is divided into three regions as shown
in the figure, the value of a in the figure is: (GATE-EC-2005)
1
4
Region 1
1
8
Region 2 Region 3
X
–3 –1 –a +a +1 +3
(a) 1/3 (b) 2/3 (c) 1/2 (d) 1/4

p(x)

 f (x)dx  1 1
Sol.(b) We know that

x
-3 -1-a +a+1 +3
Since given that the three regions are divided into equiprobable region
a 1 a 1 1
Therefore,  f (x)dx  3
a
or a
4
dx 
3
1 1 2
or 2a = or a =
4 3 3
13. The quantization noise power for the quantization region between -a
and + a in the figure is (GATE-EC-2005)
(a) 4/81 (b) 1/9 (c) 5/81 (d) 2/81
Sol.(a)Quantization noise power is given as
a 1 x 3  a
a
2 2
=  a f (x).x dx =  a x dx =  
4  3   a
3
1 2a 3 a3 1 a  4
=  = 
=   =
4 3 6 6  6  81
14. A zero-mean white Gaussian noise is passed through an ideal lowpass

filter of bandwidth 10kHz. The output is the uniformly sampled with
sampling period ts = 0.03m sec. The samples so obtained would be.
(GATE-EC-2006)
(a) correlated (b) statistically independent
(c) uncorrelated (d) orthogonal
Sol.(a) Since sampling frequency fs > 2fm
The samples obtained will be look alike so, samples are correlated
LUCKNOW
43
15. A uniformly distributed random variable X with probability density PERSONAL REMARK : 
function
1
FX ( x )  (u ( x 5)  u ( x 5))
2
where u(.) is the unit step function is passed through a transformation
given in the figure below. The probability density function of the
transformed random variable Y would be (GATE-EC-2006)
1
(a) FY ( y )  (u ( y 2.5)  u ( y 2.5))
5
(b) FY ( y )  0.5  ( y )  0.5  ( y 1)
(c) FY ( y )0.25 ( y 2.5)0.5 ( y2.5)5 ( y )
1
FY ( y )  0.25  ( y  2.5)  0.25  ( y 2.5) 
(d) 10
(u ( y  2.5)  u ( y  2.5))
Sol.(a)
16. If E denotes expectation, the variance of a random variable X is

given by (GATE-EC-2007)
(a) E[X2] – E2[X] (b) E[X2] + E2[X]
(c) E[X2 ] (d) E2[X]
Sol.(a) Variance of a random variable X is given by
E[(X  )2] = E[X2  2X + 2] = E[X2]  E[2X]+E []
E[(X  )2] = E[X2]  2E[X] + 2
E[(X  )2] = E[X2]  22 + 2
= E[X2]  2 = E[X2]  {E[X]}2
17. If R (  ) is the autocorrelation function of a real, wide-sense stationary

random process, then which of the following is NOT true?
(a) R(  ) = R (   ) (b) R( )  R(0) (GATE-EC-2007)
(c) R(  ) =  R(   ) (d)
The mean square value of the
process is R (0)
Sol.(c)For real function f(t) autocorrelation is given by
1 T/ 2 1 T/ 2
R() =   T/ 2
f (t )f (t)dt and R(  ) =  T/ 2 f (t )f (t)dt
T T
Let t  = p or dt = dp
which gives
R (  ) = R() i.e. even function.
From this result, we conclude that option (c) is wrong.
18. If S(0) is the power spectral density of a real, wide sense stationary
random process, then which of the following is ALWAYS true?
(GATE-EC-2007)

(a) S(0) >S(f) (b) S(f)  0 (c) S(  f) =  S(f) (d)  S(f )df  0

LUCKNOW
44
| X( j) |2 PERSONAL REMARK : 

Sol.(b) Power spectral density, S() = lim
 
Therefore, for wide-sense stationary random process, power
spectral density is greater than or equal to zero, i.e. S(f)  0.
19. Consider two independent random variables X and Y with identical

distributions. The variables X and Y take values 0,1 and 2 with
1 1 1
probabilities , and respectively. What is the conditional
2 4 4
probability P(X + Y = 2 | X–Y = 0)? (GATE-EC-2009)
1 1
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d) 1
16 6
Sol.(c) P(X  Y  2 | X  Y  0)  P[X  Y  2]  (X  Y  0)]

P(X  Y  0)
P(1,1)
 Since, X & Y are independent
P(0, 0)  P(1,1)  P(2, 2)
P(1)P(1)
Required Probability 
P(0)P(0)  P(1)P(1)  P(2)P(2)
1/ 4  1/ 4
 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 6
2 2 4 4 4 4
20. A discrete random variable X takes values from 1 to 5 with probabilities

as shown in the table. A student calculates the mean X as 3.5 and
her teacher calculates the variance of X as 1.5. Which of the
following statements is true? (GATE-EC-2009)
K 1 2 3
P(X=k) 0.1 0.2 0.4
(a) Both the student and the teacher are right
(b) Both the student and the teacher are wrong
(c) The student is wrong but the teacher is right
(d) The student is right but the teacher is wrong
Sol.(b)Also product of eigen values = det A.
LUCKNOW
45
s = Mean calculated by student = 3.5 PERSONAL REMARK : 
2
 T = Variance calculated by teacher = 1.5
5
Now, mean = P
k 1
K k  0.1 0.4 1.2  0.8  0.5 = 3
5
Variance = P K k 2 2
k 1
2
2 = (0.1 + 0.8 + 3.6 + 3.2 + 2.5)  (3) = 10.2  9 = 1.2
Both students and teacher are wrong.
21. X(t) is a stationary process with the power spectral density Sx(f) > 0
for all f. The process is passed through a system shown below-
X(t) d
dt Y(t)
Delay = 0.5 ms
Let SY(f) be the power spectral density of Y(t). Which one of the
following statements is correct? (GATE-EC-2010)
(a) SY(f) > 0 for all f
(b) SY(f) = 0 for |f| > 1 kHz
(c) SY(f) = 0 for f =n f0, f0 = 2 kHz, n any integer
(d) SY(f) = 0 for (2n + 1) f0, f0 = 1 kHz, n any integer
Sol.(d)Given PSD input Sx(f)>0  f or  = 0.5 ms
m(t) = x(t) +x(t  ) or M(s) = X(s) [1 +e-s] or Y(s) = sM(s)
Y( j)
= j[1 + e-] or H(j) = j[1+cos   jsin ]
X( j)
SY(f) = |H(j)|2 Sx(f) and at f = 0 H(f) = 0
Hence SY(f)  0 for all f
at f | > 1 kHz|H(f)|> 0 and SX(f) > 0
Hence SY(f)  0
SY(f) = 2f |[1+cos 2f  sin 2f]|
f = nf0 f0 = 2  103 kHz
SY(f) = 2n 2 103
1 1
| [1 + cos 2 n  2  j sin 2 2n ]|
2 2
SY(f) = 4n103|[1 + cos2n  jsin2n]|
for n - integer cos2 n= 1 sin2n= 0
and hence SY(f)  0. and SY(f) = 2(2n +1) f0
1 1
|[1+cos 2(2n + 1) - j sin 2(2n+1) ]|
2 2
for every n cos(2n+1) = - sin2(2n+1) = 0.
Hence Sy(f) = 0 for every f.
LUCKNOW
46
22. The power spectral density of a real process X(t) for positive frequencies PERSONAL REMARK : 
2
is shown below. The values of E[X (t)] and | E[X(t)]| , respectively,,
are Sx () 4
400 ( -10 )
(a) 6000/, 0 (GATE-EC-2012)
(b) 6400/, 0 6
(c) 6400/, 20/(  2 )
(d) 6000/, 20/(  2 ) 3

0 9 10 11 (10 rad/s)
Sol.(b) Power spectral density is the Fourier Transform of autocorelation
function.
1 
R xx (  ) 
F
 S xx (  ) or R xx (  )   Sxx ()e j d
2  
Also, Rxx(t ) = E [X(t)X (t + t )] or Rxx (0) = E [X2(t)]

1
  Sxx ()d
2 
For real two-sided random process
1  1
R xx (0)  
2  
Sxx ( )d  Sxx ( )d
 0

S xx ( )d is the area under the psd for positive frequency so,
0

1
S xx ( )d = 2 6 103 + 400 = 6400
2  
0
6400
R xx (0) 

For most random process R xx ( )  2 where  is the mean or E
[x(t)] and  0 if the psd contain impulse at   0
23. Two independent random variables X and Y are uniformly distributed

in the interval [  1, 1]. The probability that max[X,Y] is less than 1/
2 is (GATE-EC-2012)
(a) 3/4 (b) 9/16 (c) 1/4 (d) 2/3
Sol.(b) The region of the xy plane such that max (x,y)  z is the set of
points such that x  z and y  z.
y
z
x
z
LUCKNOW
47
1 , 1<x<1
2
The pdf of X and Y is px(x) =
0 , otherwise
1 , 1<y<1
2
pY(y) =
0 , otherwise
so, required probability
1 1
2 2
P[max(X, Y)  1 ]   p (x)p Y (y)dxdy
2 x
 
1 1
2 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
1 1 1 1 3 3 9
 1 1 2  2 dxdy  4 
1
dx  dy 
1
  
4 2 2 16
24. F (s) = (1 – e–sT)/s is the laplace transform of (GATE-IN-1997)

(a) a pulse of width T (b) a square wave of period T
(c) a unit step delayed by T (d) a ramp delayed by T
1  e  sT 
Sol.(a) L1 
   4(t) or L1    4(t  T)
s  s 
 1 e  sT 
1
L     4(t)  4(t  T)
s s 
 sT
1 1  e 
or,  L    4(t)  4(t  T)
 s 
Now,
u(t) u(t T)
1
1
 4(t)  4(t  T) represented by a pulse of width T as shown.
u(t T)
0 T
LUCKNOW
48
25. The discrete LTI system with the follwing impulse response is non- PERSONAL REMARK : 
causal. (GATE-IN-2001)
n
(a) a u (n – 2) (b) a u (n) (c) a u (n) (d) an u ( n + 2)
n–2 n+2
Sol.(d) Advance sequence always results in non-causal system.

Hence option (d) is correct choice.
26. A real function f(t) has a Fourier transform F(). The Fourier trans-
form of [f(t) – f(–t)] is (GATE-IN-2003)
(a) zero (b) real (c) real and odd (d) imaginary
F
Sol.(d) The fourier transform of, f (t)  F( ) ..........(i)
F F
f *( t)  F*( ) or f ( t)  F* ( )
( f * (  t)  f (  t) .....(ii)
Add (i) and (ii) we get,
F
f (t)  f (  t)  F( )  F* ( )
when F* ( ) is conjugate of F( )
So, that F( )  F* ( ) is must an imaginary..

sin  c n
27. Given x[n] =
n
, the energy of the signal given by  | x[n] |
n– 
2
is
(GATE-IN-2003)
c
(a) (b) c (c) Infinite (d) 2c

Sol.(a)The fourier transform of sinc function is a gate signal as shown
below :
X()
1

c c

 1 c
1 2   1.d  1 .  c
Energy 

2  
| X(  ) | d  2  c 2  c
1 2 c  c
 . c  (  c )   
2 2 
c
Energy 

LUCKNOW
49
28. If the Fourier transform of x[n] is X(ej), then the Fourier transform PERSONAL REMARK : 
n
of (–1) x[n] is (GATE-IN-2004)
d
(a) (–j) X (ej) (b) (–1) X (ej) (c) X(ej(–)) (d) (X(ej)
d
Sol.(c) x[n]  X(e j ) or ( 1) n x[n]  (e j ) n x[n] ( e j  1)
e jn x[n]  X[e j(  ) ] [shifting in frequency domain]
by using the property, e jn 0 x[n]  X[e j( 0 ) ]
1
29. The continuous-time signal x(t) = has the Fourier transform
a  t2
2

exp [–a||]. The signal x(t) cos bt has the Fourier transform
a

(a)
2a
 exp(–a |  – b |)  exp(–a |   b |) (GATE-IN-2005)

(b)
2a
 exp(–a |  |)  exp(–a |  |)

(c)
a
 exp(–a |  |) cos b 

(d)
2a
exp(–a |   b |) – exp(a |   b |)
e jbt  e jbt
Sol.(a) As cos bt 
2
1
then, x(t)  cos bt   x(t).e jbt  x(t)e  jbt 
2

X( )  exp(  a |  |) By frequency shift property
a
using x(t).e j 0 t  X(   0 )
1  
  .exp( a |   b |  exp( a(  b))) 
2 a 


2a
exp(a |   b |  exp(a(  b)))
LUCKNOW
50
CHAPTER-3 (MODULATION) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.
CHAPTER-3 : MODULATION PERSONAL REMARK : 
, Modulation is defined as the process of varying the characteristics
of high frequency carrier wave in accordance to the message
signal or modulating signal, m(t).
, In frequency domain, modulation is defined as “the process of

translating the spectrum of a signal from low frequency region to
high frequency region”. Thus, we can say that modulation is
frequency translation (i.e. shifting).
, Modulator Converts
(i) Low frequency signal to a high frequency signal.
(ii) A wideband signal into narrow-band signal.
(iii) A baseband signal into bandpass signal.
, NEED OF MODULATION
 To avoid the mixing of signals (i.e. interference)
 To increase the range of Communication
 To reduce the antenna height.
 For narrow banding of signal  since, usually for range 50

Hz-10 kHz we require antenna having the ratio of highest to
lowest frequency/ wavelength is 200, which is practically
impossible
Modulation converts a wideband signal into a narrow-band

signal whose ratio between highest frequency to lowest
frequency is approximately one and single antenna will be
sufficient to transmit the signal.
fH for
 wideband signal, and
 1 
fL
fH
fL
A A
f
300 Hz 3·5 kHz f 2 MHz +300 Hz 2 MHz+3·5 kHz
Fig. Spectrum is shifted by 2 MHz, using modulator
LUCK NOW
51
fH for PERSONAL REMARK : 
 1 
 narrow band signal
fL
fH
Therefore, 1
fL
 For multiplexing the signals.
 To reduce noise and interference, since noise affects less

at higher frequency. Hence by using modulation the effect
of noise can be reduced.
, The broad classification of modulation is shown below
Modulation
Continuous wave (CW) Pulse Modulation

or (Here the carrier wave
Analog Modulation is pulse type)
AM FM PM
Pulse Analog Pulse Digital
Modulation Modulation
Here the carrier Here Message signal Here Message signal
wave is continuous is in analog form is in digital form
in nature (usually
sinusoidal)
PAM PWM PPM PCM DPCM DM ADM

or
PTM
or
PDM
, Baseband signals : Are those signals which transmit without using

modulation. The term baseband is used to designate the band of
frequencies of the signal delivered by the source or input transducer.
, Passband signals : Are those signal which are transmited by using

modulation.
, Baseband communication : Is the technique that does not use

modulation. Baseband signals are transmitted without modulation i.e.
without any shift in the range of frequencies of the signal.
As the baseband signals have low frequencies with low power,

therefore, they cannot be transmitted over long distance.
, Carrier communication : Carrier is usually a sinusoidal signal of

high frequency. Carrier communication is the technique that uses
modulation to shift the frequency spectrum of baseband signal from
low to high frequency range.
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, Regarding the mode of propagation, communication may be PERSONAL REMARK : 
divided into the following two forms.
(i) Line Communication
(ii) Wireless or radio communication
 In line communication, the transmitter and receiver are connected
through a wire or line.
 In Wireless or radio communication a message is transmitted
through open space by electromagnetic waves called as radio
waves.
 All the radio, TV and satellite broadcasting are wireless or radio
communication.
, Fundamentals of Analog Signal Transmission
 HC(f) is a transfer function of linear filter.

 Here channel is a kind of filter that produces amplitude and
phase distortion.
 n0(t) is a noise that cannot be eliminated.
, DISTORTIONLESS TRANSMISSION
 No effect of noise
 Attenuation and delay effect can be tolerated
 Scaling is not tolerated
 For distortionless transmission
y(t) = k x (t – t0)
and HC (f) = K e–j2pf t 0 Ideal distortionless channel transfer function.
NOTE:It means for signal to be transmitted without distortion the ideal

channel would have flat amplitude transfer function and phase
function which is linearly dependent on frequency. So, that every
frequency component present in the signal undergoes same amount
of delay.
 For distortionless channel it should have above
characteristics within the message bandwidth atleast.
HC(f) = Ke –j2f t0
,|f|<B
Where, B = message bandwidth
K = Attenuation constant
t0 = Propagation delay
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, TYPES OF DISTORTIONS PERSONAL REMARK : 
LINEAR DISTORTIONS
Ex. A signal Vm sin(t   ) is
, Amplitude Distortion
applied to an amplifier whose
|HC(f)|  k gain A is independent of
frequency. The amplifier will
preserve the form of the input
signal (though with a delay) if
the phase shift is :
(a) Constant
(b) Inversely proportional to
frequency
(c) Proportional to frequency
 Characteristics of filter is varying i.e. different frequency (d) Proportional to the square
components are not attenuated equally. of the frequency
(IES-EE-2013)
 If variation of  < 1dB, amplitude distortion is negligible.
Sol.(a)
, Phase Distortion / Delay Distortion
HC(f)  –j2f to  m
 Different components of frequency are delayed by different
amount.
 Ear is insensitive to delay distortion so it has no severe effect
on speech signals
 Picture, data transmission are highly sensitive to delay
distortion.
, Remedy for Linear Distortion
Equalisation
The equaliser filter should be reciprocal of HC(f) and has constant

phase delay. HC( f ) Heq ( f ) = Ke –j2 f t0
|f|<B
Practical Constraints
 We rarely know the transfer function of channel.
 Noise is introduced at any moment. At some point, let the
channel provides deep attenuation. As we amplify the signal
the noise effect also get enhanced which distort the signal.
NON-LINEAR DISTORTIONS
 Produces harmonics
 Occurs due to non-linear transfer characteristics of amplifier,
mixers, etc.
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 Ideally, amplifier should have linear characteristics PERSONAL REMARK : 
y(t) = A x(t)
Where A = amplification
factor
 Due to saturation, the characteristics become non-linear for

higher value of x (t)
Types of Analog Modulation

, Usually a carrier wave in analog modulation is sinusoidal and given
by V(t)  A cos  c t  
This sinusoidal wave is expressed by three parameters
(i) Amplitude (A)
(ii) Frequency,  c (angular frequency)
(iii) Phase (  )
Any of the three parameters can be varied in accordance with the

baseband or modulating signal. This gives amplitude modulation,
frequency modulation or phase modulation respectively.
, Since,    c t    Therefore, frequency and phase modulation

commonly refer as angle modulation.
, The most fundamental function in electrical communications

is the sinusoidal signal because
(i) The sinusoidal analysis of electrical networks is even more

simple and convenient.
(ii) The response of a sine wave to linear time invariant system is

also sinusoidal i.e. if a sinusoidal signal is applied at the input
of linear system, the output waveform in also sinusoidal with
the same frequency as the input, except for a constant
transmission delay and gain/attenuation.
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CONCEPT OF MODULATION AND DEMODULATION PERSONAL REMARK : 
MODULATORS
, The process of loading a modulating signal onto a carrier is done by
using modulation.Circuit which provide modulation is called
Modulators.
, Modulation can be done using linear and non-linear devices.
, Modulation using linear time-invariant devices are Linear Modulators.
LINEAR MODULATORS
(i) Multiplier Modulators : Here the modulation is achieved directly

by multiplying m(t) with cosCt using an analog multiplier whose
output is proportional to the product of two input signals.
(ii) Switching Modulators : Here a modulated signal can be

obtained by multiplying m(t) not only by a pure sinusoid but by any
periodic signal say c'(t) of the fundamental frequency C. The square
pulse train c'(t) is a periodic signal whose Fourier Series is given
by
1 2 1 1
c'(t) = + [cos ct– 3 cos 3c t + 5 cos 5c t–.......]
2 
 There are two types of switching modulators

(i) Diode-bridge modulator, and
(ii) Ring modulator
NON-LINEAR MODULATORS
Modulation can also be achieved by using non-linear devices such

as semiconductor diode or a transistor (BJT, FET or MOSFET).
The input-output characteristics of either of the non-linear elements
can be approximated by a power series-
y(t) = a x(t) + b x2 (t) + c x3 (t) + ..........
Where x(t), and y(t) are the input and the output respectively of non-
linear elements.
, Bandwidth of Modulated Signal
Let m(t) = message signal or baseband signal or modulating
signal having spectrum shown below :
m(t)  M(f)
Am
–
Figure. : Spectrum of modulating signal
Before modulation, bandwidth of the message signal is fm
Carrier wave c(t) = Ac cos c t
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F.T A PERSONAL REMARK : 
or A c cos (2f c t)  c [ ( f – f c )   ( f  f c )]
2
To modulate the message signal, the message signal is multiplied
with high frequency
F.T M ( f – f c )  M ( f  f c )
 m (t) cos c t 
2
Ac/2
Am
2
–fc– fm –fc –fc + fm f–

c fm fc fc+ fm
After modulation, bandwidth is 2 fm

, GENERATION OF AM WAVE
Generation of AM waves
Using linear time variant circuits Using non-linear circuits
For example : switching or using non linear charcteristics

chopper modulator, collector devices such as transistors,
modulator, drain modulator. diodes, FETs etc.
+
+ + ideal
m(t) L
diode
vi (t) R C vo (t) For example : square law
AC cos ct modulator, Balanced modulator
– – –
BPF
Figure : simple diode switching non linear equation is given by
modulator
y (t) = ax(t) + b x2(t)
 For an input voltage vi (t) = AC Where x(t) = input of non-linear
cos ct + m(t) where AC >> |m(t)| y (t) = output of non-linear
element
 v i (t) for c(t)  0 Tuned to f c
Therefore v0(t) =  0 for c(t)  0 Nonlinear
+ Device V1
+
 Mathematically v0(t) can m(t)
R C v(t)
vi (t) o
L
be expressed as A c cos c t
– –
vo(t) =[Ac cos ct + m(t)] gp(t)
BPF
Figure : square law modulator
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where gp(t) is a periodic pulse train Square law modulator used for PERSONAL REMARK : 
of duty cycle 50% and period very small amplitude signal
 V1(t) = a Vi(t) + b V2i (t)
T
fc
 2 (–1) n –1
gp(t) = 
 
 2n – 1
where Vi(t) = m(t) + AC cosct
n 1
cos [2 fc (2n – 1)t] Now V0(t) = a [Accosct + m(t)]
 2
or gp(t) =  cos (2  fc t) + b [Ac cosct + m (t) ]2
 
 2b 
+ odd harmonic terms. or V0(t)= a Ac   a m(t) cosct
 
Ac  4 
Now, v0(t) =
   Acm(t) AM wave
 
cos 2  fc t + unwanted terms. a m(t) + b m2(t) + bA2c cos2(ct)
removed by means of BPF
unwanted terms
After passing through BPF
tuned to c
We get,
 2b 
V0(t) = a Ac   m(t) cosct
 a 
Note :
 Diode modulator circuit does not provide amplification and
hence, it can be used for Low power application only
 However amplifying devices like : BJT, FET etc. can
provide amplification. A very popular circuit used for this
purpose is called collector modulation uses class C amplifier
or drain modulator.
DEMODULATION
To demodulate a signal, the modulated signal is again multiplied with
the same carrier i.e.,
 1  cos c t 
 m ( t ) cos c t  cos c t  m ( t )  cos 2 c t  m ( t )  
 2 
m (t)
 (after passing through L.P.F..)
2
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CHAPTER - 4 (AMPLITUDE MODULATION) : COMMUNICATION ENGG .
CHAPTER-4 : AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) PERSONAL REMARK : 
, The purpose of communication system is to transmit information-
bearing signals through a communication channel seprating the
transmitter from the receiver. Information bearing signals are also
referred to as baseband signals.
, In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the high frequency carrier
wave is varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating or base band signal keeping angle constant.
 Consider a message signal m(t) = A m cos 2f mt = A m
cos mt. Where Am is the amplitude of massage signal and fm
is the frequency of the message signal/modulating signal/base
band signal, and
 Consider a carrier signal c(t) = Ac cos 2fc t = Ac cos ct
where Ac is the amplitude of carrier signal and fc is the
frequency of the carrier signal (where fc >> fm)
fm 50 Hz to 15 KHz
Note: 550 KHz to 1650 KHz (for AM)
fc
88 MHz to 108 MHz (for FM)
, Figure shows the AM signal produced by single tone (i.e. when

modulating signal or message signal contain only one frequency
component)
Carrier
wave
Modulating
Signal
Amplitude
Modulated signal
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The Block Diagram of the Amplitude Modulator PERSONAL REMARK : 
, Figure given below shows the block diagram of amplitude Ex. A given AM broadcast station
modulator.Conventional AM consists of a large carrier component transmits an average carrier
power output of 40 kW and
in addition to AM modulated signal.
uses a modulation index of
modulating signal Amplitude 0.707 for sine wave
Carrier Wave Modulator AM modulated signal
modulation. What is the
maximum (peak) amplitude of
Am(max)
the output if the antenna is
Envelop |AC+m(t)|
Experimentally represented by a 50 W
Am(min) modulation index can be resistive load?
expressed as [IES-EE-2005]
<1
A m ( max )  A m ( min )
(a) 50 kV (b) 50 V
 (c) 3.414 kV (d) 28.28 kV
A m ( max )  A m ( min )
Sol.(c)Amlitude of carrier
Figure : Actual view of Amplitude modulated signal Ac  Pc  2R L  2 kV
The standard equation for sinusoidal amplitude modulated wave may Amplitude of message signal
be expressed as , s(t) = m(t) cos c t + Ac cos c t Am  Ac  1.414 kV
s(t) = Ac [1 + m(t)] cos c t or s(t) = E (t) cos c t So, total amplitude is
Where, s(t) = Ac [1 + m (t)], called the envelop of AM wave. Ac + Am = 3.414 kV

Ex. The amplitude modulated
NOTE-1: Complex envelop s(t) is given by s(t) = s(t) + j sh(t) where
waveform
sh(t) is the hilbert transform of s(t). This is the desired condition for s(t) =Ac [1 + Kam(t)] cos ct
conventional DSB AM that makes it easy to demodulate. is fed to an ideal envelope
detector. The maximum
NOTE-2: When the modulation index of AM wave is less than magnitude of K a m(t) is
unity the output of the envelop detector is the envelop of AM greater than 1. Which of the
wave.However ,When the modulation index of AM wave is greater following could be the detector
than unity the output of the envelop detector is not the envelop but output?
[GATE-EC-2000]
mode (i.e. magnitude) of envelop of AM wave.
(a) Acm(t)
, As long as |m(t)|  1 the amplitude Ac [1 + m(t)] is positive. This is (b) Ac2[1 + Kam(t)]2
(c) Ac[1 + Kam(t)]
the desired condition for conventional DSB AM that makes it easy
(d) Ac[1 + Kam(t)]2
to demodulate. Sol.(c) The envelop detector detect
only the signal content in the
, On the other hand if m(t) < –1 for some t, the AM signal is said to be
envelop.The envelop is
overmodulated and its detection is rendered more complex. defined as the magnitude of
pre- envelop
, Since this envelop consist of baseband signal m(t). Hence the
Pre  envelop of s(t)
modulating signal may be recovered from an AM wave M = s(t) + j sh(t)
[i.e. modulated signal s(t)] by detecting the envelop. = Ac[1 + Kam(t)] cos  ct
+j Ac[1 + Kam(t)]sin  c t
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Ex. Let m( t )  e t and carrier signal c ( t )  A C cos  c t PERSONAL REMARK : 
= Ac [1 + Kam(t)]ejct
Then modulated signal, s ( t )  m ( t )  c ( t )  e  t A c cos c t
|M| = A c[1 + K a m(t)] is the
envelop of signal S(t)]
m(t) C(t) Ex. For an AM wave, the
maximum voltage was found to
cos 2  fc t be 10 V and the minimum
e
–t
voltage was found to be 5 V.
=
t
The modulation index of the
t wave would be
Modulating signal Carrier signal (IES-EC-2001)
(a) 0.33 (b) 0.52
(c) 0.40 (d) 0.1
Sol.(a)Modulation index is given by
-t E max  E min 10  5 5 1
e cos ct    
E max  E min 10  5 15 3
NOTE : Message signal m(t)

t
with nonzero offset : On rare
envelop occusion ,the message signal m(t) will
have a nonzero offset such that its
Modulated signal with high frequency
maximum Amax. and its minimum
, The time domain equation of AM wave is given by relation Amin.are not symmetric i.e.
s ( t )  A c  1   cos m t  cos c t ....(A)
Amax.=/ Amin. in this case , envelop
| m(t) | max A detection will would remain
Where,  = Modulation index =  m
carrier amplitude Ac
distortionless if
A m = Modulating signal amplitude Emax  Emin

A c = Carrier signal amplitude 2A  Emax  Emin
, The amplitude variation in AM about an unmodulated carrier amplitude
is measured in terms of a factor called modulation index or depth
of modulation or degree of modulation.
, When the message contains single frequency, then the modulation is
called single tone modulation. Equation (A) represents single tone
modulation.
Equation (A) may also written as

s(t)  A c cos  c t  A c .cos (  c  m ) t   A cos (    )t ....(B)
  2   c
 c
m
  2
Carrier 
Lower side band upper side band
From equation (B), we conclude
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(i) Beside the carrier there are two sidebands at PERSONAL REMARK : 
c  m and c  m
(ii) The amplitude of sideband become half of amplitude of

Am   A 
modulating signal i.e. since Ac  m 
2  2 2 
S(
)
Ac
2
Am
2 LSB USB
–C – m – c –C + m C – m C C + m
2 m 2 m
(iii) The bandwidth requirement is 2 m .
From equation (A), frequency domain analysis can be written as
Ac A µ
s(t)  [ ( – c ]   (  c )]  c
2 2
[M ( – c) + M ( + c)] ....(C)
Bandwidth of the A.M signal = 2 m = 2 × message bandwidth
Bandwidth of USB = m and Bandwidth of LSB = m
S()
AC AC
2 2
Ac . Ac .
4 4
–C – m – C –C + m C – m C C + m 
2 m 2 m
Spectrum of modulated signal S( )
POWER CALCULATION OF AM WAVE

, As we know that power is given by relation
V2
P  I2 R or
R
2
  2
Power in carrier wave, Pc   A c  R
Ac
 2  2R

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 A c . µ/2 

A c2 µ 2
Power in sideband, PLSB = PUSB =   R 1. Show that the efficiency of
 2  8R
single tone AM is 33.3 % for
So, total power ( PT )  Pc  PL S B  PU S B the modulation index to be
equal to unity.
[IES-EE-2001:10 Marks]
A c2  µ2 
1  
or PT 
2R   

 μ2   2 
or
PT  Pc 1 
 2

  PC  A c when, R  1 
     2 
Transmitted power Carrier power  
µ2
In terms of voltage, VTrms  VCrms 1  and

µ2
In terms of current, ITrms = ICrms 1 

Power in sideband
, Modulation efficiency,  
Total power
2
Ac
2
8R 2
or   2 2 
or   ....(A)
Ac  2  2
1   
8R  2 

max  33 % when 100% modulation is taking into account.
Note: The calculation of modulation efficiency as derived is applicable

for sinsoidal signals only.
m 2 (t)
 Generally,  
A c2  m 2 (t)
Where, m 2 (t) = power of message signal

 If the modulating signal is square wave then
PT = PC ( 1 + µ2) since for square wave rms value is equal to its

peak value
 If the modulating signal is triangular wave then
 µ2 
PT = PC 1   since for triangular wave rms value is equal
  
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Vm PERSONAL REMARK : 
to where Vm is the peak value
3
, When the message contains more than one frequency, it is

called multi-tone modulation.
 2 2 2 
PT  Pc 1  1  2  3  ........  ....(i)
 2 2 2 
A m1 A m2 A m3
Where, 1  , 2  , 3  and so on
Ac Ac Ac
and equation (i) reduces to PT = PC (1 + µeffe.)
   
Where, µeffe. =     .......
  
, Baseband communication is the communication that does not uses
modulation, while carrier communication uses modulation.
AM DEMODULATION
Detection of original signal i.e. message signal or modulating signal
from the modulated signal is called demodulation.
Square law Detectors or Non-linear Detectors
AM Demodulators
Envelop detectors or Linear Detectors
 Square Law Detectors
, used for low level amplitude modulated signals (say below 1V) so
that the operating region of device characteristics is restricted to
non-linear region. This circuit is similar to square law (non-linear)
modulator. The only difference is in filter circuits.
Diode, operating in non-linear region
AM
modulated i R C V0=output
wave
+ –
vd
L.P.F
, The circuit arrangement of square law detector is shown.The diode,
is operating in non-linear region.The distorted diode current is given
by non-linear(square law) relation, i = a vi(t)+ b v2i(t) where vi(t) is
the input modulated wave voltage i.e.
vi(t) = AC [1+  coswmt]coswct
, The d.c. source Vd is used to adjust the operating point. This portion
is limited to non-linear region due to which the lower half portion of
the current waveform is compressed. This causes envelop distortion.
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 Envelop Detector or Linear Detector PERSONAL REMARK : 
, In envelop detector diode is operating in linear region therefore it is
also called linear detector, as shown below.
Diode, operating in linear region
AM
modulated RL C V0=output
wave
Tuned transformer
, When the modulated carrier at the input of the detector is  1V, the
operation takes place in the linear region of the diode characteristic.
, The AM wave has a time varying amplitude called as the envelop

of the AM wave. The envelop consists of the baseband signal m(t).
Therefore, the baseband signal can be recovered from an AM wave
by detecting the envelop. By using the envelop detector, the
detection is less costly and simple.
, Envelop detector is most popular in commercial receiver circuits

since it is very simple and cheaper.
NOTE : The baseband signal is preserved in the envelop only if   1

(i.e. modulation index is less than or equal to 1).
, Assume that the Rs is the source resistance and rf is the forward

resistance of diode then charging time constant
1
i.e. (RS + rf) << ....(A)
fc
, Assume (RS + rf) << RL Discharging time
1
RLC >> .... (i)
fC
1
and RL C << ....(ii)
fm
Combining (i) and (ii) we get
, In an envelop detector the RC time constant of the diode

should be greater than period of the carrier signal and less
than the period lowest modulating signal i.e.,
 1
< RLC < ....(B)
fc fm
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Where, RL C = discharging time constant of diode PERSONAL REMARK : 
fm = highest frequency of modulating signal m(t)
c = 2fc
Where, fc = frequency of carrier wave
or in other words we can say charging time constant (RsC)
should be very-very low and discharging time constant (RLC)
should be very-very high for proper detection of the
modulating signal.
, The ripple can be reduced by increasing the time constant RC so
that capacitor discharges very little between the positive peaks
 1 
 i.e. R L C   Making RC too large, however would make it
 c 
impossible for the capacitor voltage to follow the envelop thus
producing diagonal clipping.
, Distortion in Envelope Detector Caused by the Wrong time
Constant as shown
Vi(t)
Vi(t) C RL V0(t)
t
(a) (b)
V0(t) V0(t) Called Clipping

Distortion
t t
(c) Correct RLC (d) RLC too large
Spikes produced at
V0(t) the output with low
time constant
(e) RLC too small

, The required condition for the detector output is to follow
the envelop at all times is
1 1 1  2
 R LC 
c m 2
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Where, RLC = time constant of diode PERSONAL REMARK : 
m = 2 fm
µ = modulation index
, For   1 the envelop does not preserve the baseband signal, rather,,
the baseband signal recovered from the envelop is distorted. This
type of distortion is known as envelop distortion. An AM signal with
  1 is known as over modulated signal.
NOTE : Envelop detection is an extremely simple and

inexpensive operation which does not require generation of
a local carrier for the demodulation.Square law detectors does
not require local carrier for the demodulation.
The envelop of AM has the information about m(t) only if the AM

signal AC [1 + m(t)] cos ct satisfies the condition Ac [1 + m(t)] > 0
for all t.
Am(max)
Envelop |AC+m(t)|
Am(min)
(a)
<1
(b)  =1
Over modulated
signal
(c)  >1
, An over modulated signal can’t be demodulated by a square law

demodutlator and envelope detector.
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, Overmodulation (i.e.,   1 ) is never applied in the case of envelop PERSONAL REMARK : 
detector method. However, an overmodulated signal can be recovered
using a costly as well as complex technique i.e., synchronous
detection.
, Experimentally modulation index can be expressed as
A m ( max )  A m ( min )

A m ( max )  A m ( min )
, Resulting depth of modulation i.e., degree of modulation after

transmitting through circuit.
0

1  4 Q2  2
Where,  0 = initial depth of modulation
Q = quality factor
fm
= f
c
GENERATION OF AM SIGNALS
, The device which is used to generate an amplitude modulated (AM)

wave is known as Amplitude Modulator.
Low-Level AM
, Methods of AM Generation
High-Level AM
, Square law diode modulation and switching modulation are examples

of Low level modulation & high level modulation respectively.
(i) Using linear time variant circuit, for example : switching or
chopper modulator, collector modulator, drain modulator etc.
(ii) Using non-linear devices such as transistors, diodes, FETs.
, Switching modulator can be obtained by a ring modulator used for

AM-SC (amplitude modulated suppress-carrier) generation.
, The diode modulator circuit does not provide amplification, and hence
it can be used for low power application.
, For high power amplification we need amplifying devices like

transistors,FET's etc. Each one of them can be used for generating
amplitude modulation by varying gain parameters ( h fe , gm ,  etc. ) in
accordance with modulating signal. The collector modulation method
is an example of High-Level modulation.
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, Usually class-C amplifier configuration is used for amplification in PERSONAL REMARK : 
order to get high efficiency.
, In brief, AM generation using non-linear circuits is given below :
+ non-
m(t) linear BPF AM signal
+ V1 device V2 V0(t)
Ac cos ct
V1( t )  m( t )  A c cos  c t
V2 ( t )  a V1( t )  b V12 ( t )
since non-linear
 device have 
 
 voltage characteristics like 
 2 
 Vo (t)  a V1 (t)  b V 1 (t) 
2b
Note : Here modulation index, µ = A
a m
, Advantage of a Balanced Modulator over a Simple non-linear
Circuit
In simple non-linear circuits, the undesired non-linear terms i.e.,

harmonics are eliminated by a BPF (bandpass filter). Hence in the
case of non-linear modulator circuit, bandpass filter must be carefully
designed. But in a balanced modulator, the undesired non-linear terms
are automatically balanced out, and at the output we get only the
desired term, so filter design is not too much complex.
, Square law detectors are used for detecting low level modulated
signals (below 1 volt) so that operating region of device characteristic
is restricted to non-linear region.
, The only difference between the modulator and demodulator is the

output filter. In the modulator, output is passed through a bandpass
filter tuned to fc, whereas in the demodulator the multiplier output is
passed through a LPF. Therefore, all the modulators can be used as
demodulators provided that the BPF at the output are replaced by
low-pass filter (LPF) of bandwidth B.
, For demodulation, the receiver must generate a carrier in phase and

frequency synchronism with the incoming carrier. These modulators
are called synchronism or coherent or homodyne demodulators.
, Usually Band Pass filter (BPF) is a parallel combination of R, L

and C.
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, Costa’s receiver has two synchronous detector inphase coherent PERSONAL REMARK : 
detector or I-channel and quadrature phase coherent detector or Q-
channel.
, Quadrature multiplexing is an effective method of transmitting two

message signals within the same bandwidth, and usually used in
colour television chrominance signals, which carry the information
about colours.
, One important component of Costas receiver is a voltage controlled

oscillator (VCO) and its frequency can be adjusted by an error control
d.c. signal.
, Ring modulator or chopper-type balanced modulator is referred to

as a double-balanced modulator as it is balanced with respect to the
baseband signal as well as the carrier.
, Switching modulator is single balanced modulator as it is balanced

with respect to the carrier only.
, Summary of Different Possible Amplitude Modulated System,
with   1 (i.e., 100 % modulation) is given below

System Pt Ps %Saving power BW Circuit
(Transmitted (Saved Complexity
Power) Power) PT – Pt where, P =  P
T C
PT 
(i) AM-DSB/FC  –  0% 2m Min,  33%
or PC
AM-FC 
(ii) AM-DSB/SC Pc PC  67% 2m  100%
or
DSB-SC 
(iii) AM-SSB/FC  Pc  16% m  33%
or PC
SSB-FC  
(iv) AM-SSB/SC    83% m Max,  100%
or PC PC
SSB-SC  
Where, Pt = Transmitted power

PT = Total power
A c2
Pc = Carrier power =
2R
Ps = Saved power
BW = Bandwidth
 = Efficiency
Ex. Which of the following analog modulation scheme requires the

minimum transmitted power and minimum channel bandwidth?
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) VSB (b) DSB-SC (c) SSB (d) AM
Sol.(c) SSB anlog modulation scheme requires minimum transmitted power
and minimum channel Bandwidth.
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MIXER PERSONAL REMARK : 
, Mixer is non-linear device which generates the sum and difference
frequencies or in other words mixer is a device which is used to
change the carrier frequency of a modulated signal to some
intermediate frequency which is usually less than the carrier
frequency.
V1
cos 2  f Lt
Oscillator
s (t) = m (t) cos 2 fct
m(t)
V1(t) = [cos 2  (fC + fL) t + cos 2  (fC – fL) t]
2
Where fL = fC – fI , fI is intermediate frequency.
m (t)
V1(t) = [cos 2 (2fC – fI) t + cos 2 fI t]
2
After passing through BPF, tuned to fI
0 f
fI 2f C –f I 2f C 2 fC + fI
(i) When fL is fC + fI , the operation is called up-conversion

(ii) When fL is fC – fI then it is called down-conversion
, Mixer is also called frequency converter or translator.
, Usually a detector circuit consist of a half wave rectifier followed
by a Low Pass Filter (L.P.F.).
Ex. Consider a system shown in the figure. Let X(f) and Y(f) denote the
Fourier transforms of x(t) and y(t) respectively. The ideal HPF has
the cutoff frequency 10 kHz.. [GATE-EC-2004]
HPF
10 kHz
13 kHz
X(f)
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The positive frequencies where Y(f) has spectral peaks are PERSONAL REMARK : 
(a) 1 kHz and 24 kHz (b) 2 kHz and 24 kHz
(c) 1 kHz and 14 kHz (d) 2 kHz and 14 kHz
Sol.(b) Let the modulating signal, x(t) with frequency, fm
Output after balance modulator = 10  fm
Output after HPF with cut-off frequency, 10KHz = 10 + fm
Output after next balance modulator
= 13  (10 +fm) = 23 + fm and 3  fm
, Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation
In AM the power required to transmit the carrier is very high when

compare to the sidebands. So the modulation efficiency is very less.
Always the power in the sideband should be as high as possible. To
increase the modulation efficiency the carrier is suppressed and only
the sidebands are transmitted.
s (t) = Ac m (t) cos 2fct + Ac cos 2fct

(time domain equation of AM)
s (t) = Ac m (t) cos 2fct
(time domain equation of DSB carrier is suppressed
i.e., DSB - SC)
s (t) = m (t) c (t)
Ac
s (f) = [M (f – fc) + M (f + fc)]
2
(frequency domain equation)
Ac S(f)
1 M(f)
2
–fm fm  –fc –fm –fc –fc +fm f c+ f m fc fc+ f m 
B.W. = 2w
= 2 × (Highest frequency component of the message)
Power required to transmit a DSB wave is very less as
compared to AM but the bandwidth is same as AM.
Single-tone Modulation of DSB-SC
m(t) = Am cos 2fmt
ACA M
s(t)  m(t) c(t) 4
–fc –fm –fc+f m fc–fm fc +fm
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or s(t) = Am Ac cos 2fc t cos 2fm t PERSONAL REMARK : 
Ac Am
s(t)  [cos2(fc – fm) t + cos2(fc + fm)t]
2
A c2 A 2m A2 A2
PUSB = & Pt = c m
8 4
Power saved
% Power saving   100
Total power
Pc 2
% Power saving    100
Pc (1   2 / 2) 2  2
or % Power saving  1  AM

, GENERATION OF DSB-SC SIGNALS
Two methods, which are most widely used are :
(i) Balanced modulator (Non-linear device)
(ii) Ring Modulator or Switching Modulator (Linear device)
 Balanced Modulator
, Figure shows the block diagram of balanced modulator
, A relatively simple method for generating DSB-SC AM signal is to
use two conventional AM modulators.
m(t) AM A C[1+m(t)] cos ct
modulator
+
 DSB = 2 A m(t) cos  t
Carrier signal C c
–
AC cos ct
–m(t) AM
modulator AC[1– m(t)] cos ct
Figure: Block Diagram of Balanced Modulator
, In a balanced modulator two non-linear devices (For example :

Diodes, BJT's ,FET's etc) are connected in the balanced mode so as
to suppress the carrier wave
, The circuit arrangement of balanced modulator using two

diodes as non-linear elements is shown below -
D1
+ + –
+
m(t) I1
R L C
modulating cosct V 0(t)
– + –
signal m(t) + DSB-SC
wave
m(t) I2 R L C
– – + –
D2
BPF centred with ( c)
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, From above figure PERSONAL REMARK : 
VA = m(t) + cosct Ex. What would be the value of
gain k in figure below to
so VB = –m(t) + cosct yield the suppressed carried
DSB signal?
And the current I1 and I2 obtained as [IES-EE-2001:10 Marks]
V
I 1 = aVA + b VA2 = a [m(t) + cosct] + b [m(t) + cosct]2 k aV
2
+
+
and I2 = aVB + b VB2 = a [–m(t) + cosct] + b [–m(t) + cosct]2 +
x(t) A cosc t Vo
and V0 = I1 R – I2 R = R [I1 – I2] = 2a m(t) + 4bR m(t) cos c t
+
bV22
The output of a BPF centred around  c is given by output V
V= 4bR m(t) cosct Sol. From the given figure we
observe that the signals V1
or V0 = K m(t) cosct (which is desired DSB-SC wave) and v2 are expressed
 Diode-Bridge Modulator V1  k[x(t)  A cos  c t] and
, The DSB-SC wave can be obtained by multiplying the message signal V 2 [ x ( t ) A co s  c t ]
m(t) with any periodic signal f(t) of the fundamental frequency fC.
V 0 = aV12 bV 22
The fourier series expression is
= ak 2 [x(t) + Acos  c t] 2

b[x(t) Acos  c t] 2
f(t) =  C n cos (n ct + n)
n0 or V0= ak2[x2(t) + A2 cos2  ct
+ 2Ax(t)cos  ct]  b[x2(t) +

A cos2  c t  2Ax(t)cos  ct]
2
Hence, m(t) f(t) =  C n m(t) cos (n  t +  )
c n
. or V0 = ak2[x2(t) + A2 cos2  ct +
n0
2A x(t) cos  ct]  b[x2(t) +
The spectrum of the product m(t)f(t) is A2 cos2  ct  2Ax(t)cos  ct]
a
or V0 = (ak2  b)x2(t) +A2
the spectrum M() shifted to  c, 
(ak2  b) A2 cos2  ct +
c,  c ...... If this signal is passed D1 D3 2A x(t) cos  ct(K2+b)
through a bandpass filter of band width For DSB  SC (Double
2B Hz and tuned to c, the desired c d Sideband Suppressed
Carrier System) to
modulated signal C1 m(t) cos (ct +1) is generate the first two term
D2 D4
obtained. should be zero.
b
i.e. ak2  b = 0
The figure shown below is of a electronic
Diode-bridge b
switch, the diode-bridge modulator, or k  Ans.
electronic switch
driven by a sinusoid A cos c t to produce a
the switching action.
 
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, During positive half cycle of the carrier, the terminal c is positive PERSONAL REMARK : 
than d, all the diodes are ON closing the terminals a & b. During
next half cycle, terminal d is positive with respect to c and all four
diodes are open, opening the termminals a and b.
, The input to BPF is m(t) during positive half cycle and is zero during
negative half cycle. The switching on and off of m(t) repeats for
each cycle of the carrier, resulting in the switched signal m(t) f(t).
, The fourier series for the square pulse train is given by

 2  
c(t) =  (cos ct – cos 3ct + cos 5ct ......... )
   
 2  
m (t) f(t) = m(t) + [m(t) cos ct – m(t) cos ct + m(t)
   
cos 5ct – ...... ]
2
After passing through BPF, Y(t) = m(t) cos ct

 Ring modulator or Chopper type Balanced Modulator
, Ring modulator uses square wave as a carrier.
, Since 4 diodes are connected in the form of ring that's why switching
modulator is called ring modulator.
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, Figure shows the circuit arrangement of ring modulator PERSONAL REMARK : 
D1
a c
+ +
D4
m(t) D2 
–
b D3
d
+ –
A cos 
, The diodes are used as a switching device. The carrier signal is such
that its amplitude is Ac > |m(t)|max and c > m
, During Positive half-cycles of the carrier, diodes D1 and D3 conduct

and, D2 and D4 are open. Hence, terminal a is connected to c, and
terminal b is connected to d.
, During negative half cycle of the carrier, diodes D1 and D3 are open,
and D2 and D4 are conducting, thus connecting terminal a to d and
terminal b to c.
, The output is proportional to m(t) during the positive half cycle and
to –m(t) during the negative half cycle.
m(t)
t (modulating signal)
c(t)
t (carrier signal)
s(t)
t (modulated signal)
, m(t) is multiplied by a square pulse train c(t). The fourier series for
c(t) is given by

4 ( 1)n1
c (t) 
 
n 1
2n  1
cos 2 f c t (2n  1)
s (t)  m (t) c (t)

4 ( 1)n1
or s (t) 

m(t) 
n  1
2n  1
cos [2fc t (2n – 1)]
So, frequency component fm  fc (2n – 1) will be present where

n = 1, 2, 3, ......
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or s(t) = (4/) m(t) [cos 2f c t – (1/3) cos 6f c t + (1/5) cos PERSONAL REMARK : 
2 (5fc) t – ......]
Ex. Which one of the following is
By passing the output of ring modulator through a BPF with centre used for the detection of AM-
DSB-SC signal ?
frequency fc and bandwidth 2, we get DSB signal.
(a) Ratio detector
 (b) Foster-Seeley discriminator
s(t) = m(t) cos2  fc t
 (c) Product demodulator
or s(t) = K m(t) cos2  fc t  which is required DSB-SC wave (d) Balanced-slope detector
(DRDO-EC-2007)
, This circuit is referred to as a double balanced modulator as it is
Sol.(c) Product demodulator is used
balanced with respect to the baseband signal as well as the carrier.
for the detection of AM-
SYNCHRONOUS OR COHERENT OR HOMODYNE DSB-SC signal
DETECTION
, Local oscillator signal must be exactly coherent or synchronized with

the carrier wave at the transmitter both in phase and frequency.
Synchronization Techniques
Costa's Receiver Pilot Carrier

(For synchronous Detection
of DSB-SC or AM-SC wave)
A small amount of carrier signal
This system has two synchronous detectors known as pilot carrier is transferred
(i) I-phase or inphase coherent detector along with the modulated signal
(which is inphase with transmitted carriers) from the transmitter
(ii) Q-phase (Quadrative phase coherent detector)
(which is in phase quadrature with the carrier. This pilot carrier is a separated at the
receiver by an appropriate filter, is
amplified and is used to phase
Here the two detectors constitute a negative
lock the locally generated carrier
feedback system which synchronizes the
at the receiver
local carrier with the transmitted carrier
1
Product 2 m(t)cos c
LPF Demodulated
Modulator
I-channel output
Cos (ct+ )
phase
VCO discriminator
m(t) cosct 90ºphase
shifter

Sin(ct+ )
Q-channel
Product LPF
Modulator 
m(t)sin c

, Phase discriminator provides a dc control signal which may be used

to correct local oscillator phase error. The local oscillator is a VCO
whose frequency can be adjusted by an error control dc signal.
Limitation : The costa's receiver ceases no phase control when
there is no modulation i.e. m(t) = 0
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, DEMODULATION OF DSB SIGNALS PERSONAL REMARK : 
Most widely used methods are Synchronous detection or coherent
detection
Receving
Antenna
DSB-SC s'(t)= m(t)cos2 ct 

LPF m(t)
m(t)cosct 
modulating
signal
cosct
(locally generated carrier)
s c t . cos c t
s'(t) = m (t) c o
 
 Locally generated
D S B .S C . carrier signal
 m(t) m(t)
or S'(t) = m(t) [1 + cos2c t] = + cos 2 c t
 2 2
  
and S'() = M() + M ( + 2c ) + M ( – c)
   )
S'(

After passing through LPF. 
M(0) 
M(0) 

 M(0)
m(t)
or s'(t) =
2 –2c 2c
m m
Spectrum of S'()
LPF
Effect of phase and frequency Errors in Synchronous detection
One thing should be always kept in mind that the frequency and
phase of the locally generated carrier signal and the carrier signal at
the transmitter must be identical. This means that the local oscillator
signal must be exactly synchronized with the carrier signal at the
transmitter both in frequency and phase otherwise the detected signal
would get distorted and /or attenuated
Receiver
DSBSC Product s'(t)

LPF modulating
m(t)cosct Demodulator signal
cos{(c+ ) t+ } locally generated carrier
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s'(t) = m(t) cosct. cos [(c  ) t   )] PERSONAL REMARK : 

s'(t) = m(t) [cos{t  }  cos c  ) t   }]


After LPF s'(t) = m(t) cos [  t +  ]


This part distort th e signal
Now, Let us consider the three cases

(i) when and  = 0

Here, s'(t) = m(t) 
 No distortion

(ii) When  = 0 but   0

so, s'(t) = m(t) cos  
 No distortion, only attenuation

when  = 90º s'(t) = 0 
 This is known as quadrature
null effect Because the output
signal is zero when the local
carrier is in phase quadrature with
the carrier
(iii) When  = 0 and   0

s'(t) = m(t) cos (  )t is time dependent and produce distortion

(iv) When   0 and   0

Here we get an attenuated and distorted signal
, SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) MODULATION
SSB-SC wave with single tone modulating signal
Let m(t) = cos mt
cos (c –m) t = cos mt cos ct + sin mt sin ct ....(A)
cos (c +m) t = cos mt cos ct – sin mt sin ct ....(B)
(A) and (B) can be expressed as –
s(t)SSB = cos mt cos ct  sin mt sin ct ....(C)
Note: + sign represents the lower side band
– sign represents the upper side band
 
we can write sin mt = cos  m t – 
 2
Now equation (C) can be written as
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s(t)SSB = m(t) cos ct  mh (t) sin ct PERSONAL REMARK : 
Note : Where mh(t) is a signal obtained by shifting the phase
of every component present in m(t) by  –   .

 2
HILBERT TRANSFORM
, Here the name "Transform is some what misleading because there
is no change of domain is involved (as in the case of Fourier, Laplace
and Z-transform)
, Hilbert transform of m(t) is obtained by phase shifting the every

frequency component present in m(t) by – .
2
, A delay of /2 at all frequencies at negative frequencies the

spectrum of signal multiplied by + j and at positive frequencies
the spectrum of signal is multiplied by –j.
This is equivalent to spectrum of signal is multiplied by –j sgn(f)
F.T.
i.e. If m(t)  M(f)
F.T.
then mh(t)  –j sgn (f) M(f)
, Thus the operation of Hilbert transform is equivalent to

convolution integral i.e. filtering. In fact Hilbert transform is
a simple filter. This filter is called a quadrature filter,
emphasizing it role in providing a 90º phase shift.
, Hilbert transform of m(t) can be defined as :
 1   m()
mh(t) =

m(t) *
t
or mh(t) =
 – t–
d
m(t) mh(t)

or (– phase shifter) or
2
M(f) Mh(f)
, and the inverse Hilbert transform is defined as
  m h () d
m(t) = –
 – t–

, Time domain of sgn (t) is given by  – j sgn (f)
t
, The transfer function of Hilbert transform H (f) = – j sgn f
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 1 for f  0 PERSONAL REMARK : 

Where, sgn f =  0 at f  0

 –  for f  0
, Hilbert transform may be viewed as a linear filter with impulse
1
response h(t) = and frequency respone H(f) = –j sgn f
πt
, Figure shows magnitude and phase spectrum of H(f) = –j sgn f
H(f)
sgn(f )
1 
2
f  f
–
–1 2
Magnitude Spectrum Phase Spectrum
The transfer function is expressed as - H(f) = |H (f)| ej  (f)
 
 2
for f  0 (i.e. for negative frequency)
 (f)  
– 
for f  0 (i.e. for positive frequency)
 2
 j ,
 e 2 f 0

1 
and H (f) = F   = –j sgn (f) =  0 f 0
π t  – j ,
e 2 f  0

 j, f 0
 
–j ,
or H (f) =  0 f  0 = e 2 sgn (f )

– j, f  0
The response Mh() of the system with transfer function H() is
related to input M() as
Mh() = H() M()
Where m(t)  M() and mh(t)  Mh()
Applications of Hilbert Transform

(i) Generation of SSB signals
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(ii) Design of minimum phase type filters PERSONAL REMARK : 
(iii) Representation of Band pass signals
Properties of Hilbert Transform
(i) A signal m(t) and its hilbert transform mh(t) have the same
energy density spectrum

 
 Energy spectra of m(t) =
  | M () | d
–

 
 Energy spectra of mh(t) =
  | M h () | d
–
 
 
=  | –j sgn  M () | d =  | –j sgn  |

| M () | d
 
– –
(ii) A signal m(t) and its Hilbert transform mh(t) have the same
autocorrelation function
(iii) A signal m(t) and mh(t) are mutually orthogonal

i.e. –  m(t) m h (t) dt  0
By parseval theorem
 
*
 m (t) m h (t) dt   M (f) M h (f) df
– –
 
* 2
=  M (f) j sgn(f) M (f) df = j  sgn f | M (f)| df  0
– –
Since, sgn (f) is an odd function so integral is zero.
(iv) If mh(t) the Hilbert transform of m(t), then the Hilbert

transform of mh(t) is – m(t)
(v) For non-overlapping spectra mh(t) ch(t) = m(t) ch(t) e.g. Hilbert
transform of m(t) cos ct is m(t) sin ct
(vi) Hilbert transform of sin 2 f0t = – cos 2 f0t
(vii) H. T. of e j2π t 0t is = –j sgn (2 f0) e j2π t 0t
(viii) Mh(f) = (–j sgn f) M(f), |Mh(f)| = |M(f)|
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Concept of Pre-Envelop of Analytic Signal PERSONAL REMARK : 
Pre-envelop of signal m(t) called complex values signal is
mp(t) = m(t) + jmh(t) where, m(t) is called the real part and
mh(t) is called the imaginary part. Envelop of the signal m(t) is the
magnitude of its pre-envelop. i.e. |mp(t)| = Envelop of m(t).
Thus, the envelop is the trace of the positive peaks of carrier (i.e. in
modulated signal)
In order to reduce the bandwidth requirement to transmit the signal

SSB modulation is used. In this technique only one sideband is
transmitted (either USB or LSB). So the bandwidth and power
requirement to transmit the signal is reduced.
S(t) = m (t) Ac cos 2fc t = Am Ac cos 2fm t cos 2 fct
Ac Am Ac Am
S(t) = cos 2(fc + fm) t + cos 2 (fc – fm) t
2 2
Ac Am
S(t) = cos 2(fc + fm) t (If USB is transmitted)
2
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Ac Am PERSONAL REMARK : 
S(t) = cos 2(fc – fm) t (If LSB is transmitted)
2
Ac Am
S(t) = cos 2(fc  fm) t
2
Ac Am
or S(t) = [cos2fct cos 2fmt  sin 2 fc t sin 2 fmt]
2
, The generalized equation of AM-SSB signal

Ac
S(t) = [m(t) cos 2fc t  mh (t) sin 2 fc t]
2
A c2 A m
2
Transmitted Power, Pt 
8
Pc
Pc  µ 2 2
, Power saving, Ps =
Pc  PUSB
= 4 = 4 2
2(2   )
Pt Pc (1  µ 2 /2)
AM
or Ps = 1 
2
, GENERATION OF SSB SIGNALS

Most widely used methods are :
(i) Frequency Discrimination Method / Selective Filtering Method
(ii) Phase Discrimination Method
(i) Frequency Discrimination Method
The output of a bandpass filter is a DSB signal. If the DSB signal is
passed through a
bandpass filter, the
upper sideband or
lower sideband is
suppressed. A c cos 2  fC t
If the passband is
from fC to fC + W, we will get the USB.
, In filter or frequency discrimination method we need a sharp cut-off
bandpass filter which is practically impossible to be realized. Such
filter which separate the desired (usually USB) sideband from the
lower one (i.e. LSB) because the USB and LSB have very small
frequency difference. (because fm is very small)
, Filter method is used for speech communication where lowest spectral
component is 70Hz, and it can be taken as 300 Hz without affecting
the intelligibility of the speech.
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, Filter method is not useful for video communication where baseband PERSONAL REMARK : 
starts from as low as d.c.
, Need High degree of selectivity (quality factor, Q range lying
between 1000 to 2000)
(ii) Phase Discrimination Method or Phasing Method
, In this method, the time domain description of SSB-SC is used.
, A lower sideband SSB-SC signal is given by expression
 SSB(t) = m(t) cosct  mh(t) sinct  as shown by using block
diagram
, Basic Requirements of Phase Discrimination or Phasing

method
 Each baseband modulator need to be carefully balanced in
order to suppress the carrier
 Phase shifting is possible by using Hilbert transform of m(t).
 Each modulator should have equal sensitivity to the baseband
signal
 The carrier phase shifting network must provide an exact 90º
phase shift at the carrier frequency.
, Demodulation of SSB Signals
Coherent / Synchronous
Detection
Demodulation of SSB Signals
Carrier Reinsertion Method
(1) Coherent / Synchronous (Homodyne Detection)
V1 V2
Accos 2  f c t
Ac A
s (t)  m ( t ) cos 2  fc t  c mh( t ) sin 2  fc t
2 2
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A 2c Ac PERSONAL REMARK : 
V1(t) 
4
1 cos4 f t
c m(t) 
4
mh (t) sin 4fct
 Detection of SSB Signals
A 2
c
with a Carrier (SSB + C)
V2 (t)  m(t)
4 We now consider SSB singals
Consider the locally generated signals as A c cos ( 2  fc t   ) with an additional carrier
A 2 (SSB + C). Such a signal can
V2 (t )  (cos m(t)  m h (t) sin )
C
be expressed as
4
S(SSB + C)(t) = Acos ct + [m (t)
A c2
 = 0 0 , V 2 (t) = m (t) i.e. Perfect replica of message cos c t + mh(t) sinct]
4
and m(t) can be recovered by
  we get highly distorted signal
synchronous detection
A c2 [multiplying S (SSB + C)(t) by
  90 0 , V2 ( t )   mh( t )
4 cos C t] if the carrier
Note :Quadrature null effect in the case of SSB, is a major component A cos ct can be
advantage over DSB. extracted (by narrowband
filtering of) S (SSB + C) (t)
(ii) Carrier Reinsertion Method
alternatively, if the carrier
, The major advantage of the SSB-SC modulation is that it reduces amplitude A is large enough,
the bandwidth requirement to half as compared to DSB-SC m(t) can also be
modulation. (approximately) recovered
, But, SSB-SC signal are relatively difficult to generate due to difficulty from S(SSB + C)(t) by envelope
or rectifier detection. This can
in isolating the desired sidebands. The required filter must have a be shown be rewriting as
very sharp cut-off characteristic, particularly when the baseband
S(SSB + C)(t) = [A + m(t)]cos ct + mh(t)
signal contains extremly low frequencies (i.e. used in television sinct = E(t)cos (ct + )
and telegraphic signals). Under such circumstances, it becomes where, E(t) is the envelope of
very difficult to isolate one sideband from the other. Hence SSB S(SSB + C)(t) is given by
scheme becomes unsuitable for handling such types of signals.Refer
E(t)  {[A  m(t)]2  m h2 (t)}1/ 2
right hand side for detailed discussion.
This difficulty overcome by scheme known as Vestigial Sideband  2m(t) m 2 (t) m 2h (t) 1/ 2
 A 1    
 A A2 A 2 
(VSB) Modulation.
VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VEB) MODULATION SYSTEMS  If A >> |m(t)|, then in general
A >> |mh(t)|, and the terms
, In VSB modulation the desired sideband is allowed to pass completely, m2(t)/A2 and m2h(t)/A2 can be
whereas just a small portion (called trace or vestige) of the ignored.
undesired sideband is also allowed.
 2m(t) 1/ 2
, Generation of VSB modulation signals is easier than conventional. Thus, E(t)  A 1  

 A 
Am, DSB-SC and SSB signals. The bandwidth requirement in VSB
 Using Taylor series expansion
modulation signal is slightly higher (approximately 25%) the SSB
and discarding hiher order
signals but considerable less than DSB-SC signals. terms [because m(t)/A <<1],
, VSB is used in television for transmission of picture signals i.e. we get
VSB is used for video signal transmission in commercial television
 m(t) 
broadcasting. E(t)  A 1    A  m(t)

 A 
, VSB is a compromise between DSB-SC and SSB-SC signals.
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, Figure shows the frequency spectrum of VSB signal PERSONAL REMARK : 
It is evident that for a large carrier,
VSB the SSB + C can be demodulated by
an envelope detector.
In AM, envelope detection requires
the condition A > |m(t)|, whereas for
SSB + C, the condition is A >> |m(t)|.
Bandwidth of the VSB signal BW = fc + fv  fc + fm = fm + fv

where, fm = Bandwidth of the message fv = width of the VSB
Filter method
, VSB Generation
Phase-Discrimination method
Generation and Detection of VSB Signal

(i) Filiter Method : A VSB-SC signal can be genereated by passing
DSB-SC signal through an appropriate filter as in figure 1(a). The
system is similar to DSB-SC except that the filter characteristic should
be appropriate. The filter characteristic desired for VSB can be
derived by analysing the demodulation technique of the VSB-SC
signal which is nothing but the synchronous dectection shown in fig.
1(b)
, Characteristic sof the filter with a transfer function H(  ) shown in
figure 2(a) that may generate a VSB-SC signal from a DSB-SC
signal. A DSB-SC signal has a spectrum given by.
1 1
SDSB ( )  F(   c )  F(   c )
2 2
The output of the filter H(  ) will be given by
1 ....(i)
SVSBSC ( )  H( )[F(   c )  F(   c )]
2
f (t) Product H( )

VSB-SC
modulator filter
signal
cos 
c t (a)
VSB-SC Product y(t)

LPF y0 (t) = f (t)
signal modulator
(b)
cos
c t
Figure : 1(a) VSB-SC Modulator (filter method)

1(b) VSB-SC Demodulator Synchronous
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This signal is passed through a product modulator for synchronous PERSONAL REMARK : 
detection as shown in figure 1(b). The output of this product modulator
denoted by ed(t) will be given as
1
y d (t) S VSB SC (t) cos  c t = [SDSB SC (c )SDSBSC (c )]
2
substituting the value of SVSB SC () from (1) we get
1
y d (t)  [{F(  2  c )  F(  c )  F(  )}H (  c ) 
4
{F(  )  F(  )  F( 2  c )}H (  c )]
The signal ed(t) is passed through alow pass and and, hence, the
components centered around 2 c are filtered out. Thus, the
output of LPF of the synchronius detector will be gives as
1
y o (t)  F( ){H(   c )  H(   c )} ....(ii)
4
For getting a distortionless reception, the output e0(t) should be
given as, y 0 (t)  C1F( ) where,C1is a constant ....(iii)
when comparing equation (iii) with equation (ii) we get the following
condition for a frequency range |  | <  m (since the baseband is
limited to  m)
H(   c )  H(   0 )  C(cons tant ) |  | <  m ....(iv)

The terms H(  +  c) and H(    c) represent H(  ) shifted by -
 c and +  c, respectively, as frequency range |  |<  m as shown
in figure 2. It is obvious from figure 2 that H(  +  c) + H(    c)
will be constant over |  |<  m only if the cut-off characteristic of
filter H(  ) has a complementary symmetry (odd symmetry) around
the carrier frequency.
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, Table given below shows the modulators and demodulators PERSONAL REMARK : 
used by various AM systems. (Very Important)
S.No. System Modulators Demodulators
(i) Multiplier Modulator
(ii) Non-linear Modulator
(i) Synchronous Detection
(iii) Switching Modulator
1. DSB-SC (ii) Switching demodulator
(a) Diode Bridge Modulator
(iii) Ring demodulator
(b) Ring Modulator
(iv) Balanced Modulator
(i) Rectifier detector or
DSB+FC (i) Switching Modulator Square Law detector
2.
or AM (ii) Balanced Modulator (ii) Envelope detector or
Linear detector
(i) Frequency discriminator
(i) Synchronous detection
3. SSB-SC (ii) Phase discriminator
(ii) Envelope detection
(iii) Weaver's method
(i) Filter Method (i) Synchronous detection
4. VSB-SC
(ii) Phase discriminator (ii) Envelope detection
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1. In an amplitude modulated system, if the total power is 600 W and
the power in carrier is 400 W, then the modulation index is :
(IES-EC-2000)
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.75 (c) 0.9 (d) 1
Sol.(d) Total transmitted power is given by
 2   PT 
PT  Pc 1   So,     1  1
 2   Pc 
2. If the radiated power of AM transmitter is 10 kW, the power in the

carrier for modulation index of 0.6 is nearly : (IES-EC-2001)
(a) 8.24 kW (b) 8.47 kW (c) 9.26 kW (d) 9.6 kW
 2 
Sol.(b)The transmitted power is given by, PT  Pc 1 
 2 
Where, Pc = carrier power
 = modulation index
PT 10 kW
So, Pc  2
  8.47 kW
 1  0.18
1
2
3. For an AM wave, the maximum voltage was found to be 10 V and
the minimum voltage was found to be 5 V. The modulation index of
the wave would be (IES-EC-2001)
(a) 0.33 (b) 0.52 (c) 0.40 (d) 0.1
Sol.(a)Modulation index is given by
E max  E min 10  5 5 1
   
E max  E min 10  5 15 3
4. A 10 kW carrier is sinusoidally modulated by two modulating signal

corresponding to a modulation index of 30% and 40% respectively.
The total radiated power is : (IES-EC-1999)
(a) 11.25 kW (b) 12.5 kW (c) 15 kW (d) 17 kW
Sol.(a)The effective modulation index is given by,  eff   12   2 2
Here 1 = 0.3,  2 = 0.4 So, eff = 0.5

Transmitted power is given by
 2 
PT  Pc 1  eff 
 2 
Pc = carrier power
So, PT = 10 kW [1 + 0.125] = 11.25 kW
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5. Consider the following types of modulation : (IES-EC-2002) PERSONAL REMARK : 
1. Amplitude modulation 2. Frequency modulation
3. Pulse modulation 4. Phase modulation
Which of the above modulation are used for telecasting TV
programmes?
(a) 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 4
Sol.(c) The video signal is transmitted using Vestigial side-band amplitude
modulation and audio signal is transmitted using frequency modulation.
6. The modulation index of an AM wave is changed from 0 to 1. The

transmitted power is : (IES-EC-2003)
(a) Unchanged (b) Halved
(c) Increased by 50% (d) Quadrupled
 2 
Sol.(c) Transmitted power is given by PT  Pc 1 
 2 
3
when  = 0, PT = Pc and when  = 1 PT  Pc
2
1
So, Change in transmitted power PT '  PT  Pc
2
Transmitted power is increased by 50%.
7. Consider the following: (IES-EC-2003)

1. Filter system 2. Phase-shift method
3. Third method 4. Balanced modulator
Which of these can be used to remove unwanted side-bands in SSB?
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
Sol.(b)Balanced modulator is used to suppress the carrier
8. In an SSB transmitter one is most likely to find (IES-EC-2003)

(a) Class-C audio amplifier (b) Tuned modulator
(c) Class-B RF amplifier (d) Class-AB power amplifier
Sol.(c) Since in SSB only one side band is present and class - B amplifiers
amplify only half cycle of the signal.
9. A public broadcast system using amplitude modulation with double

sideband should invariable have which one of the following features
at the transmitter? (IES-EC-2003)
(a) Band limit the signal to 5 kHz
(b) Use a high frequency carrier oscillator
(c) Use a stable crystal oscillator
(d) Use an all-around radiating transmitting antenna
Sol.(b) High frequency carrier oscillator is used to keep the demodulation
circuitry simple like enelop detection.
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10. Which one of the following statements regarding the threshold effect PERSONAL REMARK : 
in demodulators is correct ? (IES-EC-2000)
(a) It is exhibited by all demodulators when the input signal to noise
ratio is low
(b) It is the rapid fall in output signal to noise ratio when the input
signal to noise ratio falls below a particular value
(c) It is the property exhibited by all AM suppressed carrier coherent
demodulators
(d) It is the property exhibited by correlation receivers
Sol.(b)In high recevied signal-to-noise ratios, the non - linear demodulation
process can be well approximated by a linear equivalent and signal
and noise at the demodulator output will be additive. At high noise
levels, threshold effect results in signal mutilation. Due to this the
output SNR degraded fast there exits a specific signal-to- noise ratio
at the input of the demodulator known as threshold SNR, beyond
which signal mutilation occurs.
11. In a broadcast transmitter, the RF output is represented as

e(t) = 50[1+0.89 cos 5000 t+0.30 sin 9000 t]cos(6  1010t) volt.
What are the sidebands of the signals in radians?(IES-EC-2004)
(a) 5  103 and 9  103
(b) 5.991  106, 5.995  106, 6.005  106 and 6.009  106
(c) 4  103, 1.4  104
(d) 1  106, 1.1  107, 3  106 and 1.5  107
Sol.(b) There are two message signals having frequency components fm1
and fm2. In AM the sidebands are present at fc + fm1 and fc + fm2.
12. A composite signal xc(t) is expressed as: (IES-EC-2005)

xc(t) = Ac cos c t  Am cos (c  m)t + Am cos (c + m)t
Which of the following methods can be employed to retrieve the sinu-
soidal component at m from xc(t)?
(a) An envelop detector, square law detector
(b) Only a discriminator
(c) Only a square law detector
(d) Only an envelop detector
Sol.(a) Given, x c (t)  A c cos  c t  A m cos( c   m )t

 A m cos( c   m )t
or, x c (t)  A c cos  c t  2A m sin  c t sin  m t

The detection of NBFM is similar to AM.
FT FM to AM AM Output
AM
Converter Signal Demodulator Signal
Signal
A general FM demodulator.
13. A circuit produces an output y(t) = a + bx2(t) where x(t) is its input.
This circuit can produce which one of the following?(IES-EC-2005)
(a) Rectified output (b) Pulse modulation
(c) Amplitude modulation (d) Frequency modulation
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Sol.(c) Let x(t) = m(t) + cosct PERSONAL REMARK : 
Then, y(t) = a + bx2(t) = a + bm2(t) + b cos2ct + 2bm(t) cosct
After passing y(t) to band pass filter centered at c and having
bandwidth twice the message bandwidth, final output is
y0(t) = 2b m(t)cosct which is DSB wave.
14. An amplitude modulated signal occupies a frequency range from 395

kHz to 405 kHz. It can be demodulated by which of the following?
(a) Using an envelope detector and filter (IES-EC-2009)
(b) Multiplying with a 395 kHz local signal
(c) Multiplying with a 405 kHz local signal
(d) Low pass filtering with cut off at 400 kHz
Sol.(a) The advantage of AM is that it is detected using envelop detector
thereby decreasing the receiver cost.
15. Assertion (A): In amplitude modulation systems the value of

modulation index should be around 1
Reason (R) : The power carried in the intelligence carrying sidebands
increases with the modulation index. (IES-EC-2010)
Codes:
(a) Both A and R are individually true but R is the correct explanation
of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Sol.(d)For faithfull detection of AM signal the value of modulation index
should be less than 1
2 Pc
Power in the sideband is given by, Pside-band  
2
Where, Pc = carrier power
16. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 7.5 A, when only the

carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.65 A, when the carrier is sinusoidally
modulated. Find the percentage modulation. Determine the antenna
current when the depth of modulation is 0.75.
(IES-EE-2010)
(a) 8.49 A (b) 4.49 A (c) 18.49 A (d) 6.32 A
16.(a)Given antenna current, It = 8.65 A and carrier current, Ic = 7.5 A
modulation index ,  = 0.75
2
 2 
2 2
I 
we know that , I  I 1  a  or   2  t   1
t C
 2  Ic 
  8.65  2 
or      1  81.2% or 0.812
  7.5  
For the second part we have,
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(0.75) 2
2
I t  Ic 1   7.5 1   8.489 A
2 2
17. What would be the value of gain k in figure below to yield the
suppressed carried DSB signal?
V k 2
aV
+
+
b
(a) k x(t) A cos
+
Vo
a c t
a +
aV22
(b) k V
b
1 b b
(c) k (d) k 2
2 a a
17.(a)From the given figure we observe that the signals V1 and v2 are
expressed V1  k[x(t)  A cos  c t] and V2 [x (t) A cos  c t]
V0 = aV12 bV22 = ak 2 [x(t) + Acosc t]2 - b[x(t) - Acos c t]2

or V0= ak2[x2(t) + A2 cos2  ct + 2Ax(t)cos  ct]  b[x2(t) +
A2 cos2  c t  2Ax(t)cos  ct]
or V0 = ak2[x2(t) + A2 cos2  ct + 2A x(t) cos  ct]  b[x2(t) +
A2 cos2  ct  2Ax(t)cos  ct]
or V0 = (ak2  b)x2(t) +A2 (ak2  b) A2 cos2  ct +
2A x(t) cos  ct(K2+b)
For DSB  SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier System) to
generate the first two term should be zero.
b
i.e. ak2  b = 0 or k  Ans.
a
18. In commercial TV transmission in India, picture and speech signal
are modulated respectively as : (GATE-EC-1990)
Picture Speech
(a) VSB and VSB
(b) VSB and SSB
(c) VSB and FM
(d) FM and VSB
Sol.(b)In commercial TV transmission in India picture signals are modulated
using VSB and speech signals are modulated using SSB modulation
technique.
19. The maximum power efficiency of an AM modulator is

(GATE-EC-1992)
(a) 25 % (b) 50 % (c) 75 % (d) 100 %
Pc
P 2
2
Sol.(b)  % = sideband  100 = Pc
X 100
Ptransmitted Pc   2
2
LUCK NOW
94
2 PERSONAL REMARK : 
Where ,Pc = carrier power. Now, efficiency,  % =  100
2  2
1
When ,  = 1 then  max =  100 = 33.33%
3
For sinusoidal message signal
When message signal is a square wave having Am =  Ac
A2c
Psideband =  2A2C/2 and Pcarrier =
2
2 A2c / 2
2 2 2
 100 2
% =  A c  A c = 2  100
 1
2 2
For  = 1 ,  max = 50%
20. Which of the following demodulator (s) can be used for demodulating
the signal (GATE-EC-1993)
x(t) = 5 (1 + 2 cos 2000  t) cos 2000  t
(a) envelope demodulator (b) square-law demodulator
(c) synchronous demodulator (d) none of these
Sol.(c) x(t) = Ac (1+  cos  mt ) cos  ct
We get  = 2 and As  >1 (overmodulation)
The demodulator used is synchronous demodulator.
21. Single side band (GATE-EC-1994)

(a) Envelope detector (b) Integrate and dump
(c) Hilbert transform (d) Ratio detector
Sol.(c)SSB wave is given by,  SSB(t) = f(t) cos  ct  fh(t)sin  ct
where, fh(t) is the hilbert transform of f(t)
22. AM system: (GATE-EC-1995)

(a) Coherent detection (b) Envelope detection
(c) Correlation detection (d) PLL
Sol.(b)The AM-system contains envelop of modulating signal which is best
detected by envelop detector.
XAM(t) = Acos  ct + m (t) cos  ct or XAM(t) = [A + m(t)]cos  ct
23. A DSB-SC signal is generated using the carrier cos  c t    and

modulating signal x (t). The envelope of the DSB-SC signal is :
(a) x(t) (b) |x(t)| (GATE-EC-1998)
(c) only positive portion of x (t) (d) d(t) cos 
Sol.(b) f (t) = x (t) cos(  ct +  ) or fh(t) = xh(t) sin (  ct +  )
Pre-envelop , f(t) +jfh(t) = x(t) cos (  ct +  ) +jxh(t)sin(  ct +  )
Envelop = |Pre-envelop|
= f 2 (t) f 2 h (t) = x 2 (t) cos 2 (  c t )  x 2 h (t) sin 2 (  c t ) = |x(t)|
LUCK NOW
95
24. A modulated signal is given by, s(t) = m1 (t) cos (2  fct) + m2 (t) sin PERSONAL REMARK : 
(2  fct) where the baseband signal m1(t) and m2(t) have bandwidths
of 10 kHz and 15 kHz, respectively. The bandwidth of the modulated
signal, in kHz, is : (GATE-EC-1999)
(a) 10 (b) 15 (c) 25 (d) 30
Sol.(d) Bandwidth = 2(highest frequency component)
= 2fm = 30 kHz
25. A modulated signal is given by
s(t) = e–at cos[c+)t]u(t), where a, c and  are positive constants
and c. The complex envelop of s(t) is given by
(a) exp(–at) exp[j(c+)t]u(t) (b) exp(–at) exp[jt]u(t)
(c) exp(jt)u(t) (d) exp[(jc+)t]
Sol.(a)The complex envelop of s(t) is given by, s(t) + jsh(t)
where sh(t) is the Hilbert Transform of sh(t)
s(t) + jsh (t) = e  at cos(  c+   )tu(t) + je  at cos

( c+    ) u(t) = e  at [cos(  c+   )t + j sin (  c +   )t]u(t)
2
= e  at ej(  c +   )t
26. The amplitude modulated wave form s(t) =Ac [1 + Kam(t)] cos ct is
fed to an ideal envelope detector. The maximum magnitude of Kam(t)
is greater than 1. Which of the following could be the detector output?
(GATE-EC-2000)
(a) Acm(t) (b) Ac [1 + Kam(t)]2
2
(c) Ac[1 + Kam(t)] (d) Ac[1 + Kam(t)]2

Sol.(c)The envelop detector detect only the signal content in the envelop.
The envelop is defined as the magnitude of pre-envelop
Pre  envelop of s(t)
M = s(t) + j sh(t) = Ac[1 + Kam(t)] cos  ct +j Ac[1 + Kam(t)] sin  c
t = Ac [1 + Kam(t)]ejct
|M| = Ac[1 + Ka m(t)] is the envelop of signal s(t)]
27. A message m(t) bandlimited to the frequency fm has a power of Pm.

The power of the output signal in the figure is. (GATE-EC-2000)
(Multiply) Ideal low pass filter Output
m(t)cos0t cut off f = fm signal
passband (0 > 2fm)
gain = 1
cos(0 t + )
Pm cosθ Pm Pm sin 2θ Pmcos2θ

(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 4 4 4
Sol.(d)The output of the multiplier is given by
m(t)
x(t) = m(t) cos  0 t cos(  0t+  ) or x(t) = [cos(2  0 t +  )+ cos  ]
2
m(t)cos 
As the low pass filter is bandlimited to fm. Output of filter y(t) =
2
LUCK NOW
96

T PERSONAL REMARK : 
1 2
The power of signal y(t) =  y2 (t)dt
T T

2
T

2
m2 (t) cos 2  cos 2   1  T/2 2  P cos 2 
=
1  dt =   m (t)dt  = m
T 
T
2
4 4  T  T /2  4
28. The Hilbert transform of cos1t + sin2t is. (GATE-EC-2000)

(a) sin1t – cos2t (b) sin1t + cos2t
(c) cos1t – sin2t (d) sin1t + sin2t
Sol.(a)Hilbert transform of cos  1t + sin  2 t is given by
 
cos(  1t )+ sin (  2t  ) or sin  1t  cos  2t
2 2
NOTE : Hilbert transform is a negative 900 phase shifter.
29. A 1 MHz sinusoidal carrier is amplitude modulated by a symmetrical

square wave of period 100 sec. Which of the following frequencies
will NOT be present in the modulated signal? (GATE-EC-2002)
(a) 990 KHz (b) 1010 KHz (c) 1020 KHz (d) 1030 KHz
Sol.(c) For a symmetrical square wave signal with period T, the Fourier
series expansion is
4 cos3 m t cos5 m t
m(t) = [cos  m t   ]
 3 5
The bands of AM signal will be, f c  f m , f c  3 f m , f c  5 f m and so on.
Clearly 1020 KHz is not present in the AM band.
30. The input to a coherent detector is DSB-SC signal plus noise. The
noise at the detector output is: (GATE-EC-2003)
(a) the in-phase component (b) the quadrature-component
(c) zero (d) the envelope
Sol.(a) The input to the coherent detector is
x(t) = m (t) cos  ct +ni(t) cos  ct+nq(t)sin  ct
where ni(t) = in - phase noise component
Output of the detector y(t) = m(t) cos2  ct + ni(t)cos2  ct + nq(t) sin
 ct cos  ct
m(t) n i (t)
output from the LPF , yLPF(t) = +
2 2
31. A DSB-SC signal is to be generated with a carrier frequency
f c= 1 MHz using a non-linear device with the input-output
characteristic V0=a0vi + a1vi3 where a0 and a1 are constants. The
output of the non-linear device can be filtered by an appropriate
band-pass filter.Let Vi = Aci cos(2fcit) + m(t) where m(t) is the
message signal. Then the value of fci (in MHz) is:(GATE-EC-2003)
(a) 1.0 (b) 0.333 (c) 0.5 (d) 3.0
LUCK NOW
97
Sol.(c)The output of non linear device PERSONAL REMARK : 
y(t) = a0[Accos2  fcit + m(t)] + a1[Accos2  fcit + m(t)]3
y(t) = a0Accos2  fcit + a0 m(t) + a1[A3ccos32  fcit+m3(t) +
3m(t)A2ccos22  fcit+3Acm2(t) cos2  fcit]
The square & cube of cos ine terms contains higher frequency
components which are supressed by BPF
The DSB equation is 3 m(t) cos 4fct
i i fc
So, 2 fc  fc or f c   0.5 MHz
2
Common Data for Qustions 32 and 33.
Let m(t) = cos[(4  103)t] be the message signal & c(t) = 5 cos[(2
x 106)t] be the carrier
32. c(t) and m(t) are used to generate an AM signal. The modulation
index of the generated AM signal is 0.5. Then the quantity
Total sideband power

si: (GATE-EC-2003)
Carrier power
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/4 (c) 1/3 (d) 1/8
Psid e b a n d  2 0.25 1
Sol.(d) = = =
P tran sm itted 2 2 8
33. An AM signal is detected using an envelop detector. The carrier

frequency and modulating signal frequency are 1 MHz and 2 kHz
respectively. An appropriate value for the time constant of the envelop
detector is (GATE-EC-2004)
(a) 500 sec (b) 20 sec (c) 0.2 sec (d) 1 sec
Sol.(b) The required condution for time constant
1 1 1
<< RC<< i.e. Time constant,   RC 
fc fm fc
1 1
or   or   1s and  
1 MHz fm
1
  or   500 s
2 103
34. An AM signal and a narrow-band FM signal with identical carriers,

modulating signals and modulation indices of 0.1 are added together.
The resultant signal can be closely approximated by
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) Broadband FM (b) SSB with carrier
(c) DSB-SC (d) SSB without carrier
Sol.(b)The expression for AM signal is, yAM(t) = Acosct + m(t) cosct
The expression for NB FM signal is
yFM(t) = Acosct  Ackfg(t) sinct or y(t) = yAM(t) + yFM(t)
= 2A cosct + m(t)cosct  Ackfg(t)sinct
Here,  AM =  FM = 0.1, Let m(t) = Am cosmt
yAM(t) = Acosct + 0.1Acosct cosmt
yFM(t) = Acosct  0.1 Asinctsinmt
LUCK NOW
98
Am k f Am PERSONAL REMARK : 
 FM = 0.1 = ,g(t)   A m cos  m t  sin  m t
m m
Therefore, y(t) = 2Acosct + 0.1 A [cosctcosmt  sinctsinmt]
The expression of SSB with carrier.
35. Two sinusoidal signals of same amplitude and frequencies 10 kHz

and 10.1 kHz are added together. The combined signal is given to an
ideal frequency detector. The output of the detector is
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) 0.1 kHz sinusoid (b) 20.1 kHz sinusoid
(c) a linear function of time (d) a constant
Sol.(a) s(t) = cos1t + cos2t
The frequency detector will detect only the common frequency.
The time-period of s(t)
LCM of numerator(T1 ,T2 )
  100  99  9900 s
HCF of deno min ator(T1 ,T2 )
Fundamental frequency = 0.1 kHz
36. Which of the following analog modulation scheme requires the

minimum transmitted power and minimum channel bandwidth?
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) VSB (b) DSB-SC (c) SSB (d) AM
Sol.(c) SSB anlog modulation scheme requires minimum transmitted power
and minimum channel Bandwidth.
37. The diagonal clipping in Amplitude Demodulation (using envelop

detector) can be avoided if RC time-constant of the envelope detector
satisfies the following condition, (here W is message bandwidth and
 is carrier frequency both in rad/sec) (GATE-EC-2006)
1 1 1 1
(a) RC  (b) RC  (c) RC  (d) RC 
W W  
Sol.(a)The condition is given by
1 1 1 2 1 1
<RC< or in general << RC <<
c m 2 fc fm
38. A message signal with bandwidth 10 kHz is Lower-Side Band SSB

modulated with carrier frequency fc1=106 Hz. The resulting signal is
then passed through a Narrow-Band Frequency Modulator with
carrier frequency fc2=109Hz. The bandwidth of the output would be
(GATE-IN-2006)
(a) 4 x 104 Hz (b) 2 x 106 Hz (c) 2 x 109 Hz (d) 2 x 1010 Hz
Sol.(b) The LSB signal look as
When this signal is FM modulated f

fc fc fm fc fm fc
BWFM = 2fc = 2  106 Hz
LUCK NOW
99
Common Data for Questions 39 & 40 PERSONAL REMARK : 
Consider the following Amplitude Modulated signal, where fm < B
xAM(t) = 10(1 + 0.5sin2fmt)cos2fct
39. The average side-band power for the AM signal given above is
(GATE-EC-2006)
(a) 25 (b) 12.5 (c) 6.25 (d) 3.125
Sol.(c)Compare the given equation with standard equation of AM signal
XAM (t) = Ac[1 +  cos  mt] cos  ct and Ac = 10  = 0.5
A 2c 2 Pc 0.25  50
Pc = = 50 Watt and Psideband = = = 6.25 Watt
att
2 2 2
40. The AM signal gets added to a noise with Power Spectral density
Sn(f) given in the figure below. The ratio of average sideband power
to mean noise power would be: (GATE-EC-2006)
S0(f)
N0/2
–fe–B –fe –fe+B fe–B fe fe+B f
25 25 25 25
(a) 8N 0 B (b) 4N 0 B (c) 2N 0 B (d) N0B
Sol.(b)Sideband Power Ps = 25/4 Watts.
Noise Power (baseband band width)
N0 25
  2B  N 0 B , Ratio 
2 4N 0 B
41. A Hilbert transformer is a : (GATE-EC-2007)

(a). non-linear system (b) non-causal system
(c). time-varying system (d) low-pass system
1
Sol.(a) h(t) =
t
A hilbert transform is a kind of hyberbolic function which is a non -

linear function
42. Consider the amplitude modulated(AM) signal

Accosct + 2 cosm t cosct. For demodulating the signal using envelop
detector, the minimum value of Ac should be (GATE-EC-2008)
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 0.5 (d) 0
 2 
Sol.(a) XAM(t) = Ac 1  cos m t  cos c t
 Ac 
2
for envelop detection   1 or 
Ac 1 or Ac  2
 Ac = 2 (100% modulation)
LUCK NOW
100
43. The signal cos c t  0.5 cos m t sin c t is (GATE-EC-2008) PERSONAL REMARK : 
(a) FM only (b) AM only
(c) both AM & FM (d) neither AM nor FM
Sol.(c)The given equation represents a DSB-SC wave with sin  ct as a
carrier in which partial carrier cos  ct is present. Equation also
represents NBFM
44. For a message signal m(t) = cos(2fmt) and carrier of frequency fc,
which of the following represents a single side-band (SSB) signal?
(a) cos(2fmt)cos(2fct) (b) cos(2fct) (GATE-EC-2009)
(c) cos[2(fc +fm)t] (d) [1+cos(2fmt)] cos(2fct)
Sol.(c)The sinusoidal message signal equation of SSB for uppersideband
cos (  c+  m)t = cos  ct cos  mt  sinct sinmt for lower sideband
cos (  c   m)t = cos  ctcos  mt + sin  c t sin  mt
45. A message signal given by (GATE-EC-2009)
1 1 
m(t)  cosω t  sinω t is amplitude-modulated with a
2 1 2 2
carrier of frequency c to generate s(t) = { 1 + m(t)] cos ct
What is the power efficiency achieved by this modulation scheme?
(a) 8.33 % (b) 11.11% (c) 20% (d) 25 %
Sol.(c) For amplitude modulation
XAM (t) = Ac cos  ct + m(t) cos  ct
XAM (t) = Ac cos  ct + (1/2 cos  1t  1/2 sin  2t) cos  ct
 1 1 
XAM= Ac cos  ct 1 cos1 t  sin  2 t 
 2A c 2A c 
A2c 1 1 1
Pc = ,  =  21   2 2 =  =
2 4A c 4A c 2
2
2A c
2 Pc 1 Ac2 1
Psideband = = 2  =
2 2A c 2 2 8
2
 2  Ac2   
Ptransmitted = Pc 1   = 1  
 2 2  2
1 5 5
Here Ac = 1 and Ptransmitted =  =
2 4 8
Psideband 1/ 8
% =  100 =  100 = 20 %
Ptransmitted 5/8
46. Suppose that the modulating signal is m(t) = 2 cos(2fmt) and the
carrier signal is xc(t) = AC cos(2fct). Which one of the following is
a conventional AM signal without over modulation?
(a) x(t) = ACm(t) cos (2fct) (GATE-EC-2010)
(b) x(t) = AC[1+m(t)] cos (2fct)
LUCK NOW
101
AC PERSONAL REMARK : 
(c) x(t) = AC cos (2fct) +m(t) cos (2fct)
4
(d) x(t) = AC cos (2fmt) cos (2fct) +AC sin (2fmt) sin (2fct)
Sol.(c)The expression in option (c) can be written as
 m(t) 
x(t)  A c 1  cos 2 f c t
 4 
To avoid overmodulation |kam(t)| < 1 which is satisfied in the
expression.
47. A message signal m (t) = cos 2000  t + 4 cos 4000  t modulates

the carrier c (t) = cos 2  fc t where fc = 1 MHz to produce an
AM signal. For demodulating the generated AM signal using an
envelope detector, the time constant RC of the detector circuit
should satisfy (GATE-EC-2011)
(a) 0.5 ms < RC < 1 ms (b) 1s  RC  0.5 ms
(c) RC << 1s (d) RC >> 0.5 ms
Sol.(b)In the given signal m(t), fm = Largest frequency component = 2KHz
Carrier frequency, fc = 1MHz
1 1
As,  RC  , So, 1s << RC << 0.5 ms
fc fm
48. The Column-1 lists the attributes and the Column-2 lists the modulation
systems. Match the attribute to the modulation system that best meets it.
Column-1 Column-2
P. Power efficient transmission of signals I. Conventional AM
Q. Most bandwith efficient transmission of II. FM
voice signals
R. Simplest receiver structure III. VSB
S. Bandwidth efficient transmission of signals IV. SSB-SC
with significant dc component (GATE-EC-2011)
(a) P-IV, Q-II, R-I, S-III (b) P-II, Q-IV, R-I, S-III
(c) P-III, Q-II, R-I, S-IV (d) P-II, Q-IV, R-III, S-I
Sol.(b)The only advantage of AM is that the receiver section is very cheap.
The bandwidth of conventional AM is 2fm whereas the bandwidth of
SSB-SC is fm as only single sideband is transmitted.
VSB is a kind of SSB with a little dc component.
49. A 100 MHz carrier of 1 V amplitude and a 1 MHz modulating signal

of 1 V amplitude are fed to a balanced modulator. The output of the
modulator is passed through an ideal high-pass filter with cut-off
frequency of 100 MHz. The output of the filter is added with 100
MHz signal of 1 V amplitude and 900 phase shift as shown in the
figure. The envelope of the resultant signal is [GATE-EC-2004]
1 MHz,1V Balanced +
HPF
Modulator 100MHz
+
+
100MHz 1V.900
100 MHz,1V
LUCK NOW
102
(a) constant (b) 1 sin(2π x 106 t)

(c) 5 / 4 - sin(2π x106 t) (d) 5/4  cos(2π x 106 t)

Sol.(c) Given, fc = 100 MHz = 100  106 Hz
Ac = 1 V, fm = 1 MHz = 1  106Hz, Am = 1 V
High pass filter with cut-off frequency = 100 MHz
The output of the balanced modulator
s(t) = m(t). c(t) = 1.cos (2106t)1.cos(2.100  106t)
1
= {cos[2(108+106)t} + cos [2(108  106)t]}
2
Output after high pass filter with cut-off frequency , 100 MHz .
1
Let output of the HPF is , r(t) = cos [2(108+106)t]
2
After adding another signal at the output, we have
1
y(t) = cos[2(108 + 106)t] + sin [2  108t]
2
1
or y(t)  [cos(2  100  106 t)cos(2106 t)  sin(2 
2
100  106 t)sin(2  106 t)  sin(2  100  106 )]
1
y(t)  [cos(2   100  106 t)[cos(2  106 t) 
2
1
or sin 2   100  106 t[z  sin 2   106 t)]
2
L e t y ( t )  c o s   B s in  
1 2  sin 2   106 t
where, A  cos 2  106 t and B 
2 2
and   2   100  106 t
Therefore envelop of y(t) will be y(t)  A 2  B2
1 2 1
cos 2  106 t  [4  sin 2 2  106 t  2  2 sin 2  106 t]
or y(t)  4 4
1 1
c o s 2 2   1 0 6 t  s i n 2 2   1 0 6 t  1  s in 2   1 0 6 t
or y ( t )  4 4
1
or y(t)   1  sin 2  106 t
4
5
Envelop of y(t) =  sin(2106 t)
4
LUCK NOW
103
50. Consider a system shown in the figure. Let X(f) and Y(f) denote the PERSONAL REMARK : 
Fourier transforms of x(t) and y(t) respectively. The ideal HPF has
the cutoff frequency 10 kHz.. [GATE-EC-2004]
HPF
10 kHz
13 kHz
X(f)
The positive frequencies where Y(f) has spectral peaks are

(a) 1 kHz and 24 kHz (b) 2 kHz and 24 kHz
(c) 1 kHz and 14 kHz (d) 2 kHz and 14 kHz
Sol.(b) Let the modulating signal, x(t) with frequency, fm
Output after balance modulator = 10  fm
Output after HPF with cut-off frequency, 10KHz = 10 + fm
Output after next balance modulator
= 13  (10 +fm) = 23 + fm and 3  fm
This condition is fulfilled by options given in alternative (b) only.
LUCK NOW
104

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CHAPTER NAME / TOPIC NAME Page No.

CHAPTER -2 : RANDOM VARIABLES & RANDOM PROCESS

Information Source  Kind of communications

, A communication system has three basic components namely

1. 3 Hz - 30 Hz Ultra Low Frequency (ULF)

2. 30 Hz - 300 Hz Extra Low Frequency (ELF)

3. 300 Hz - 3000 Hz Voice Frequency (VF)

4. 3 kHz - 30 kHz Very Low Frequency (VLF)

5. 30 kHz - 300 kHz Low Frequency (LF)

6. 300 kHz - 3000 kHz Medium Frequency (MF)

7. 3 MHz - 30 MHz High Frequency (HF)

8. 30 MHz - 300 MHz Very High Frequency (VHF)

9. 300 MHz -3000 MHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF)

10. 3 GHz - 30 GHz Super High Frequency (SHF)

11. 30 GHz - 300 GHz Extreme High Frequency (EHF)

12. 300 GHz - 900 THz Infra Red Frequencies

, The analysis of signal and linear systems in frequency domain is

, Fourier series is applied to periodic signals whereas the fourier

1. x(t) is absolutely integrable over its period i.e.

, Trigonometric fourier series may also be represented by

COMPLEX EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES

Note : The trigonometric series and the complex exponential series

 The complex function e jn 0 t can be seen as a vector of unit length

e jn 0t = cosn 0t + j sin n 0t

SPECTRAL ESTIMATION : INTRODUCTION

, If H() does not satisfy this condition, it is unrealizable.

Properties of Impulse function

 x(t) (t) dt  x(0) –   t   Shifting Property

, Fourier transform of rectangular pulse

 e j T/2 – e –j T/2  2A

Energy Spectrum (for Non periodic signal) / Parseval's

, This theorem states that energy of a signal x(t) may be obtained

, Power Spectral Density (PSD) may be treated as average power

, From the above expression it is clear that cross-correlation represent

, The autocorrelation function is defined separately for energy signals

2. Let the transfer function of a network be H(f) =|H(f)|ej(f)=2e–j4f. If

3. Power spectral density of a signal is (IES-EE-2003)

i.e. P(A  B) .... (I)

Properties of Random Variable

 A function x(w) from S to R (, ) is a random variable if and only

 X + (ω) = maximum 0, X(ω) ,

 X ()   min imum 0, X()

Discrete Random Variable

Probability Mass Function

p(x xi ) if x xi 

is called the probability mass function.

Discrete Distribution Function

Domain of Fx(x) is  ,   and its range is [0,1].

PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION

 P x  c   0 c . which is not possible in discrete case.

 Properties of P.D.F. fX (x)

 The probability of X lying between a and b is given by

 For a continuous case, the probability of x being equal to any

Geometric Mean =  log x f (x) dx

M.D = x  mean f x dx

Mean deviation about any point A

M.D about ‘A’  x  A f x dx 

Mode: It is the value of x for which f(x) is maximum.