BASIC TERMS IN LOGIC

Basic Terms in Logic

Welcome to the second module of this course, Philosophy of man with

Logic! For this lesson, you will become familiar with the terms used in
Logic and their function in this course.

What is Logic?

Etymological Definition:

Zeno the Stoic first coined the word “logic.”

Logic came from the Greek term:

λογικε ( logike ) which means a “thought”

Etymologically, logic means a “treatise pertaining to thought.”

Aristotle considered Logic as the “organon” or the tool or instrument of the

sciences.

Logic is the instrument for gaining knowledge or the tool for correct
thinking.

Formal Definition:

Logic is the study of science and art of correct inferential reasoning. Logic
deals with the laws, methods and principles of correct thinking. Thereby,
logic distinguishes correct from incorrect reasoning.

It is a science because it is a systematized body of knowledge about the

principles and laws of correct inferential reasoning. It follows certain rules
and laws in arriving at valid conclusions.

Logic is also considered art, the art of reasoning. As an art, it requires the
mastery of the laws and principles of correct inferential thinking.

Formal and Material Logic

Formal Logic discusses the conceptual patterns or structures needed for a

valid and correct argument or inference. It deals with the correct patterns of
argumentation.

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Material Logic deals with the nature of the terms and propositions that are
used in the different types of inference. It discusses the types and meanings
of terms or words and sentences or propositions used in the arguments.

I. Simple Apprehension: First

Intelletual Act
The first act of the intellect, by which it knows the essence or nature of the
thing, without affirming or denying anything about it.

It is through simple apprehension that the intellect forms a mental image of

the thing called idea.

Apprehension is the beginning of knowledge. It is when we have an

understanding or an idea of things that we can say we know.

Idea and Term: Product of Apprehension

Idea is the mental product of the apprehension. It is the mental or intellectual

image or representation of the object, because it represents the object of thing
in the intellect.

An idea is formed through the process called abstraction.

Abstraction is defined as the process by which the intellect strips the

object of its non-essential qualities, retains the essential ones, and
forms them into one image, which is the idea.

Characteristics of Idea:
1. Abstract
2. Universal
3. Immaterial
4. Spiritual
5. Constant

Term is the external manifestation or sign of an idea. It is a written or spoken

word.

Idea exists in the mind, but when it is expressed or manifested verbally, it

then becomes a term.

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The term is considered as a conventional sign, and as a sign it stands for

something, like a thing, object, place, person, event, etc. It is a conventional
sign for the connection between the thing of object it signifies and the term is
established by convention. The term or word is part of language and
language is used to express our thought about reality.

II. Comprehension and Extension:

Logical Properties of Idea or Term
Comprehension is the sum total of the attributes or thought elements which
constitute the idea. It is the meaning, the signification, the thought, content or
connotation of the idea.

Extension is the sum-total of all the individuals, things or beings or groups

to which the idea can be applied. It expresses denotation or the application of
the idea to different individuals or things.

Example:

Comprehension Extension

An institution of
higher UST, UP, ADMU,
UNVERSITY learning DLSU, UE,

AdU, NU, UERM, etc.

There is an inverse relation between the comprehension and extension of

idea. As the comprehension of the idea increases, the extension decreases

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and vice versa. This means that, if the conceptual features of an idea
increase, the application of this idea will decrease.
Example:

UNIVERSITY

Comprehension Extension

AMA, STI, Samson Tech, All

Universities and Colleges, All public
and private primary and secondary
An institution of learning schools, etc.
An institution of higher learning All universities and colleges…
DLSU, ADMU, La Consolacion,
A Catholic Institution of higher San Sebastian, AdU, San Beda
learning College, UST

A Pontifical and Catholic Institution

of higher learning in the Philippines UST

The term with greater comprehension will have lesser extension and
the term with greater extension will have lesser comprehension.

III. Classification of Terms

A. According to Significance or Meaning (Comprehension)

1. Univocal – A univocal term is a term that is used in an identical sense. It

expresses only one meaning or sense when applied to several objects. A term
maybe univocal if it falls under the following conditions:
a. A term has no other possible meanings other than itself.

e.g. Homo Sapiens, Homo Erectus, solar system, heliocentricism, Rector

Magnificus, Supreme Pontiff, etc.
b. The term used is defined.

e.g.
Mercury is a planet in the solar system.
A notebook is a material used for writing made up of paper.
c. The terms used are taken to signify one meaning in two instances.

e.g.
The reverend father blesses the mother and the father of the child.
Water is heavier than air and the air outside is fresh.

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2. Equivocal – An equivocal term is a term that expresses two or more

different or unrelated meanings. Equivocal terms may be externally the same,
(same spelling and/or pronunciation) but different in sense. They may be
equivocal in:

a. pronunciation as in, son-sun, sweet-suite, pain-pane;

b. spelling, as in, bow-bow, read-read, lead-lead; or
c. both in spelling and pronunciation, as in club-club, watch-watch, ball-ball.

The sentence of the judge was not clear

I love Philosophy

My notebook is new

3. Analogous – an analogous term is a term that expresses a meaning that is

partly different and partly the same, or meanings that are related.

a. Analogy by proportion – when a term is applied to unlike objects

because of some resemblance between them.

Example:

“Foot”

 Foot of the mountain

 Foot of the stairs

“Leg”

 Leg of the chair

 Leg of the table

b. Analogy by attribution – when the term is used in an absolute sense

in one thing and then attributed in other things because of some
intrinsic relation with the first.

Example:

“Healthy” – Healthy food, healthy exercise, healthy medicine,

healthy body.

“Being” – Divine Being, human being, animate being, inaminate

being.

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B. According to Application or Extension

1. Singular – A singular term is one that applies to only one individual

or object. It may be proper noun or name, a term prefixed by a
demonstrative pronoun, or a term with restrictive qualification.

e.g.
The 15th President of the Philippine Republic.
The Dean of the College

2. Universal – A universal term is one that is applied distributively to

all the individuals or objects in a class or to the class itself. It always
expresses a universal idea. It is usually prefixed by terms like all,
every, no, each, and other similar terms serving as universal
quantifiers.

e.g.
Every Catholic is a Christian.
A square is a polygon

3. Particular – A particular term is one that applies to only a part of the

extension of the universal. It is usually prefixed by terms like some,
few several, majority, many, a number of, and other similar terms
serving as particular quantifiers.

e.g.
Some students are lazy.
Several policemen are dishonest.

4. Collective – A collective term is one that applies to a collective idea.

It represents a group or class but does not apply distributively to the
individuals in the class or group. It may appear singular in form, but
because it represents a class it is considered collective.
e.g.
A flock of sheep is destroying the crops.
The family celebrates the holiday.

IV. Predicaments and Predicables

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Predicaments are classifications of universal natures and concepts.

Predicables are classifications of universal predicates in general.

Predicaments and Predicables are useful to put order in our universal

concepts by ways of classification and to assign the proper nature of things
when we try to understand and define them.

A. The Supreme Predicament

Aristotle called them Categories, which is the Greek term for

Predicaments. According to Aristotle, there are Two Supreme
Predicaments: that of Substance, and that of Accident. Above these two
is the Transcendental Being, and we use the concept Being to manifest
the one and the other.

Substance is being that carries existential actuality by itself (or a being

that exists by itself).

Accident is a modification of the substance, or being, and does not carry

existential actuality by itself, but in the substance of which it is a
modification (a being that does not exist by itself, but in the substance).

B. The Ten Predicaments

 The First Predicament is that of Substance; the remaining nine are

the sub-classification of the Predicament Accident, in other words,
Accident, the Second Supreme Predicament is further subdivided
into nine other Predicaments, comprising the different kinds of
accidents.

 Accidents are non-essential modifications of the substance. Some of

these are in the substance, e.g. quantity, quality; others are just
circumstantial determinations, as to place, time, etc.

1. Substance
 A nature that carries existential actuality and reality by itself,
and not a inhering in something else as subject. (e.g., a tree,
an animal)
 A nature that exists by itself
2. Quantity
 Modification of substance as regards the effect of having
extended and measurable parts.
 The extended and measurable parts, as regards dimensions
and weight.

3. Quality
A formal modifier of the substance.
e.g. health, figure, beauty, color.

Aristotle further subdivided Quality as follows:

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a. Habit or Disposition:

Habit is a quality modifying the substance well or ill, as to itself, or

as to its operation, in a permanent manner.
 e.g. physical fitness, wisdom, virtue.

Disposition is a quality analogous to the former but not permanent in

character.
 e.g. a cold-ailment, an initiation in mathematics.

b. Capability or Incapability

Capability is power and strength for action;

Incapability is shortcoming of strength for action.

c. Passion and Passive modification

Passion is a quality of a transient nature resulting from some

alteration in the substance.
 e.g. fatigue, rash or heat, anger.

Passive modification is akin to the former, but it is of a lingering

nature.
 e.g. redness or paleness of complexion

d. Form and Figure

Both denote a quality that follows the dimensional termination of the

substance.

Form is said of the shape of artificial things.

Figure is said of the shape of natural things.

 e.g., the form of a house, the figure of a woman.

4. Relation
 Reference of one substance to another. e.g. fatherhood,
sonship, kingship.
5. Action
 Motion of the substance, commonly inducing a result in
another thing. (e.g. running, sawing, baking)

6. Passion
 Modification of the substance as the result of the influence
of another agent. (e.g. a wound, a confusion)
 This accident should not be confused with the species of
Quality that runs under the same name (passion).
7. When

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Circumstantial determination of the substance as to time, that is, as to a point

or portion, of certain duration. (e.g., at noon; between two or three o’clock)

8. Where
Circumstantial determination of the substance as to place, that is, as to a
point in space, or on a surface, or within a circumstantial body. (e.g., in
Baguio, on my face, in the stomach, in the air)

9. Posture
Determination of the substance as to the disposition of its parts. (e.g. upright,
standing, lying)

10. Habit
Determination of the substance as to external outfit. (e.g. dressed, armed)

C. Predicability, Kinds

Predicability is the aptitude of a universal concept to be said of many

subjects. It is a logical property of the universal concept. There are two
kinds:

a. Univocal
When the universal concept is applicable to many subject in exactly
the same sense. This is the usual case with the predicables.
b. Analogous
When the universal concept is applicable to many subjects in a sense
that is neither altogether the same nor altogether different, but
kindred.

D. The Predicables

The Predicables are the different kinds of Logical Universals, that is,
universal concepts that may be applied to many subjects. Taken as
Classifications, they are universal concepts bearing different kinds of
logical relationship to the subject.

1. Genus
A universal that expresses that part of the essence of the
subject, which the subject has in common with other
individuals of a different species.
o e.g., Man is an animal. (Animal bears an essential
feature, which man has in common with the brute).
2. Specific Difference
A universal that expresses that feature of the essence of
the subject, which distinguishers its essence from that of
other species.

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o e.g. Man is rational. (Rational expresses the
essential feature of man, which distinguishes him
from the brutes.)
3. Species
A universal that expresses the whole essence of the
subject. It comprises both the Genus and Specific
Difference.
o e.g. Man is a rational animal.
4. Property
A universal that expresses an attribute that is not part of
the essence of the subject, but necessarily flows from it.
o e.g. Man is being capable of progress, of making
tools, of religious sentiment, of artistic feeling, of
wonderment.
5. Accident
A universal that expresses a feature that is not part of the
essence of the subject, nor necessarily associated with it,
but is associated with the subject merely in a factual and
contingent manner.
o e.g., Mary is beautiful and healthy. (Such attributes
are not necessarily said of the subject.)

V. Definition
In dealing with ideas and terms, there is a need to get familiar with its
meaning for the sake of clarity. Since terms and ideas do not possess absolute
univocity, we must be able to harness our capacity to give its meaning and to
be able to define them. In this way, the vagueness of discourse can be totally
clarified and the right understanding of its meaning and context can be
properly achieved.

A. Meaning of Definition
a. Etymology
 The term definition came from the Latin term definere which
means “to lay down.”
 To define means to lay down the markers or limits.
 So when we define, we are putting or laying down the
markers or limits of the word or term. Outside of the
markers, we can no longer apply the term or the word.
b. Real Definition
 The conceptual manifestation either of the meaning of the
term or of the formal features of the object.

B. Kinds of Definition
a. Nominal 1 – A nominal definition simply explains the meaning of a term or
word. It may provide the origin or root word or an equivalent term.
i. Synonym – an equivalent term or word.
e.g. joy means happiness; the President means the Chief.

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ii. Etymology – the origin or root of the word.

Biology – bio (=life) + logos (=study)
Philosophy – philos (=love) + Sophia (=wisdom)

b. Real 2 – A real definition explains what a thing or subject is. It explains the
nature of the object by giving its properties, characteristics, qualities, or
features. It could be a complete explanation of the object or thing or a simple
description of the object.

i. Essential – an essential definition explains the very nature of

the object by giving its proximate genus and specific
difference. The proximate genus consists of the essential
elements which makes the object or individual similar to
others. The specific difference is the distinctive element
which distinguishes it from others.

e.g.
Mother – a woman having a child.
Z genus W specific difference
Triangle – a polygon with three sides and three angles

i. Descriptive – A descriptive definition explains what a thing

or object is by giving the positive but non-essential features
of the object. Sometimes, it is difficult to give the essential
features of objects or things as this explains the general
acceptance of a simple description of its characteristics.

1 [Nominal = nomen (=name)]

1. Distinctive – a distinctive definition

explains an object or thing by giving the
set of distinctive characteristics of an
object or external features, those
features that are distinct to the object.

E.g. Water is a colorless, tasteless and

odorless substance.

2. Genetic – a genetic definition explains

an object by giving its origin or process
of production.

E.g. Water is a result of the combination

of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom
of oxygen

3. Causal – a causal definition explains a

thing or object by giving its efficient

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cause, i.e. that which produces a thing,
or the final cause, i.e. the end or purpose
of an object or its efficient cause.

E.g. Painting is a work of art by a

painter.

Certain Types of Definitions are formulated by the following

certain formats:
Distinctive

X – is [genus] characterized by certain [qualities, properties, traits]

X Z is [genus] having the following or manifesting certain [traits, qualities,
symptoms, etc.]

Genetic
X – is [genus] derived from, or originated from [source, origin, etc.]
X – is [genus] produced through [processes, procedure, formulation, etc.]

Causal
X – is [genus] produced or created or made by [makes, creator, writer,
producer]
X – is [genus] used for, or designed to, or intended for [use, purpose, goal,
etc.]

C. Other Classification

Popular – A popular definition is based on the common knowledge or idea

of people about a thing or object.

E.g. Jose Rizal is our national hero.

Fiesta is a day of thanksgiving.

b. Scientific – Scientific definitions are usually technical definitions of

scientific terms. In the field of medicine and physical science, terms and
objects or instruments, body parts and diseases are given scientific
definitions.

E.g. Diabetes insipidus is a disorder of the posterior lobe of the pituitary

gland due to a deficiency of vasopressin, the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

c. Medical – definition of medical terms of procedures, using medical terms.

d. Legal – definition of legal concepts, procedures, using legal terms.
e. Lexical – definition given in the dictionary.

D. Rules of Definition

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1. The definition must be clearer than the term being defined. It must not
contain terms which will only make it less intelligible.

E.g. Net is the reticulated fabric decussater at regular intervals with

interstices and intersections.
Happiness is a way station between too little and too much.

2. The definition must not contain the term being defined. The definition
must use other terms in defining. It is supposed to explain a particular term
and is not supposed to use the same term in the explanation.

E.g. Teacher is the person who teaches.

A cookbook is a book for cooking

3. The definition must be convertible with the term being defined. The
purpose of this rule is to make sure that the definition is equal in extension
with the term being defined. The definition must not be too narrow nor too
wide. It must be accurate and precise.

E.g. A dog is a four-legged animal.

A wolf is a sheep-killing animal.

4. The definition must be an affirmative statement not negative whenever

possible. The definition is supposed to explain what a term or object is and
not what it is not. Only when the term is negative should the definition be
negative.

E.g. A child is an individual who is not yet an adult.

An amateur is not a professional.
Correct definition: Darkness is the absence of light.

Activities/Exercises
1. Give at least two (2) examples for each classification of terms.

2. Give one (1) example for each type of Predicaments and Predicables
and one (1) example for each type of definition.

References

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(2006). Retrieved from http://www.philosophyetc.net/2006/04/ten-things-
everyone-should-know-about.html

Branches of Philosophy. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.philosophy-

index.com/philosophy/branches/

Dungen, W. V. D. (2009). Theodicy. Retrieved from

http://www.sofiatopia.org/equiaeon/theodicy.htm

Maritain, J. (2005). An Introduction to Philosophy (Sheed and Ward Classic).

London, England: Sheed & Ward.

Russel, B. (n.d.). The Problems of Philosophy. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.personal.kent.edu/~rmuhamma/Philosophy/RBwriti
ngs/ProbPhiloBook/chap-XV.htm

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