A HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOSFET

TRANSFORMERLESS INVERTER FOR

NONISOLATED MICROINVERTER
APPLICATIONS
PROJECT REPORT
(2017-2018)
Submitted in the partial fulfillment for the award of
DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted by
PARRI LOKESH 16308297

POJULA GOKULA KRISHNA 16308298

A.SANTOSH 16308309

SHAIK MOHAMMED SAJID 16308312

SHAIK MOHAMMED SALEEM 16308313

YERRAGURAVAGARI SAI SAHISHNU 16308331

Under the guidance of

Mrs. S.JAMUNA, B.E.,
LECTURER/E.E.E.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SRI DURGADEVI POLYTECHNIC COLLEG
R.S.M. NAGAR, KAVARAIPETTAI-601 206
THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project work entitled “A HIGH EFFICIENCY MOSFET

TRANSFORMERLESS INVERTER FOR NONISOLATED MICROINVERTER

APPLUCATIONS” submitted by………………………………………………. Register No

……………………… in partial fulfillment for the award of DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL

AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING.

This is the bonafide record of work carried out by him under our supervision during

the year 2017-2018 submitted for the Board Examination held on …………...…

PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all we would like to thank our parents for creating us as diploma
engineers.

Next we thanks to our honourable Chairman Mr.R.S.MUNIRATHINAM &

Vice - Chairman Mr.R.M.KISHORE, B.E., M.B.A., who made our ways full of light with a
kind heart to achieve our parents target as well as our target.

At the outset, we would like to emphasize our sincere thanks to the Principal
Dr. K. LAKSHMANAN, M.E., (PhD)., MISTE., AIE., for his encouragement & valuable
advice.

We thank our respected Head of Department

Mr. S.SIVAAADIDYAN, M.E.,MISTE., for presenting his felicitations on us.

We thank our respected project Guide Mrs. S.JAMUNA .B.E., for guiding in
various aspects to complete the project work.

We also owe our sincere thanks to all staff members of the ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING department.

Ultimately, we extend our thanks to all who had rendered their co-operation for
the success of the project
 CONTENT

INTRODUCTION
ABSTRACT
BLOCK DIAGRAM
POWER SUPPLY
BATTERY
SOLAR PANEL
TRANSFORMER
INVERTER
MOSFET
LIGHT-EMIITTING DIODE
OPTOCOUPLER
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
INDUCTOR
MICROCONTROLLER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CONCLUSION
BIBILOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

With worldwide growing demand for electric energy, there has been a great interest in exploring
photovoltaic (pv) sources. The pv microinverter has become a popular trend for its great flexibility in
system installation and expansion, safety of low-input voltage, and high system-level energy
harnessing under shading.
Because it is not mandatory for pv micro inverters to have galvanic insulation, the nonisolated
architecture, is an ideal choice for high efficiency design. Gu et al. Reported a nonisolated high boost
ratio dc–dc converter, which boosts pv panel voltage to around 380 v dc-link voltages for 240 v grid
voltage and achieves high efficiency over wide input voltage range.
In order to achieve high system efficiency and minimize the system common-mode (cm) voltage, the
secondary stage of the nonisolated pv microinverter requires a high efficiency transformerless
inverter
In recent years, there have been quite a few new transformerless PV inverters topologies, which
eliminate traditional line frequency transformers to achieve lower cost and higher efficiency, and
maintain lower leakage current as well.

For high-power- level transformerless inverters, most of them adopt neutral point clamp (NPC) or T-
type three-level inverter topologies, which require high dc-bus voltage and are not suitable for low
power PV inverter application.

For the lower power level transformerless inverters, most of the innovative topologies use super
junction metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) to boost efficiency. With
super junction MOSFETs, the conduction and switching losses are lowered.

However, with the poor reverse recovery from MOSFET’s slow body diode, MOSFET-based phase
legs will have a risk of device failure, which is related to high dv/dt, di/dt and phase-leg shoot through
from gating voltage false trigging on.
In the following, state-of-the-art MOSFET-based transformerless inverter topologies will be
reviewed and discussed according to their circuit topology, efficiency, MOSFET failure possibility
from body diode reverse recovery, and magnetic utilization.

The first and most influential one is the Highly Efficient and Reliable Concept (HERIC) inverter
topology ., this circuit uses ac switches S5/D5 (or S6/D6) to decouple the PV panel from the grid
during the current freewheeling period to reduce the CMvoltage.

Topology uses one active switch and four diodes to replace the two active switches at the cost of
higher conduction loss on freewheeling diodes.
ABSTRACTS
 ABSTRACTS

State-of-the-art low-power-level metal–oxide– semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)-

based transformer less photovoltaic (PV) inverters can achieve high efficiency by using latest super
junction MOSFETs. However, these MOSFET-based inverter topologies suffer from one or more of
these drawbacks: MOSFET failure risk from body diode reverse recovery, increased conduction
losses due to more devices, or low magnetic utilization. By splitting the conventional MOSFETbased
phase leg with an optimized inductor, this paper proposes a novel MOSFET-based phase leg
configuration to minimize these drawbacks. Based on the proposed phase leg configuration, a high
efficiency single-phase MOSFET transformer less inverter is presented for the PV micro inverter
applications. The pulse width modulation (PWM) modulation and circuit operation principle are then
described. The common-mode and differential-mode voltage model is then presented and analyzed
for circuit design. Experimental results of a 250Whardware prototype are shown to demonstrate the
merits of the proposed transformerless inverter on nonisolated two-stage PV microinverter
application.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
A HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOSFET TRANSFORMERLESS INVERTER FOR
NONISOLATED MICROINVERTER APPLICATIONS

BLOCK DIAGRAM

MICRO
CONTROLLER
 BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

Whenever solar energy is available the solar panel produce solar energy and this energy is
stored in batteries. The stored energy from battery is transfered to new single phase inverter
through filter
Filter is used to remove harmonics in the supply .The inverter is used to convert DC to AC
and boosting purpose . Here boosting process is done without transfer is done by using New
inverter topology concept . which reduce switching losses . the output power is delivered to
connected load.
e.x- lamp,A.C motor e.c.t
In order to operate the function of MOSFET according to program written in Micro
controller we need a driver circuit the driver need a driver 12vDC input and the microcontroller
needs 5v DC input. Inorder to reduce switching crosses electrical isolation must be required it is
achieved by means of driver circuit .
When solar energy is obtained +5v DC is given to microcontroller and +12v DC is given to
driver circuit .Now the inverter starts working and produce output voltage. Here our output is
1:10 time i.e., if 12v available 120v output is produced for high rating as components high
output can be produced .
POWER SUPPLY
 POWER SUPPLY

WORKING:
The power supply section consists of a transformer, a bridge circuit, a filter and a regulator. The
step down transformer is used to convert 230v ac to 12v ac.
The bridge circuit converts ac to dc. The filter is used to remove the ripples in the supply. The
regulator makes the supply voltage constant.

Transformer:

Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these voltages are
5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input available at the
mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This is done by a
transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a required
level.
Rectifier:

The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The
rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used
because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles
of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four
diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite
ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2
and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance
RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and
D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series

with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Filter:

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and
smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load
is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point
changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
Voltage regulator:

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator
is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this
project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805
and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and
the numbers 05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels. The L78xx series of three-
terminal positive regulators is available in TO-220, TO-220FP, TO-3, D2PAK and DPAK
packages and several fixed output voltages, making it useful in a wide range of applications.
These regulators can provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems
associated with single point regulation. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal
shut-down and safe area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking
is provided, they can deliver over 1 A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed
voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltage and currents.
BATTERY
 BATTERY

An electric battery is a device consisting of two or more electrochemical cells that

convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell has a positive terminal, or
cathode, and a negative terminal, or anode. The terminal marked positive is at a higher electrical
potential energy than is the terminal marked negative. The terminal marked positive is the source
of electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external
device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit, Electrolytes are able to move as ions
within, allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver
energy to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows
current to flow out of the battery to perform work.[1] Although the term battery technically means
a device with multiple cells, single cells are also popularly called batteries.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode
materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery
used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can
be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be
restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium
ion batteries used for portable electronics.Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from
miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms
that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
Principle of operation

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of

some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other
half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode to which cations (positively charged ions)
migrate. Redox reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the
cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during
charging.[12] During discharge, the process is reversed. The electrodes do not touch each other,
but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use different electrolytes for each
half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells, but prevents mixing of the

electrolytes.The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the
terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts.[15] The terminal voltage of a cell that is
neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance,[16] the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage.

An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage
of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge
of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells,
the internal resistance increases under discharge and the open circuit voltage also decreases
under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs
typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal
arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different
chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have
different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.
SOLAR PANEL
 SOLAR PANEL

Solar panel refers to a panel designed to absorb the sun's rays as a source of energy for
generating electricity or heating. A photovoltaic (in short PV) module is a packaged, connected
assembly of typically 6×10 solar cells. Solar Photovoltaic panels constitute the solar array of a
photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential
applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and
typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts. The efficiency of a module determines the area of a
module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area
of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. There are a few solar panels available that are exceeding
19% efficiency. A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most
installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes a panel or an
array of solar modules, a solar inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and
interconnection wiring.

Efficiencies

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of

frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet,
infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by
solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light.
Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct
the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be capable of
raising efficiency by 50%. Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported
development of multi junction solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world
record for solar photovoltaic cells. The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar
cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future, with theoretical
efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three junctions.

Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is around 21.5% in
new commercial products typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The
most efficient mass-produced solar modules have power density values of up to 175 W/m2
(16.22 W/ft2). Research by Imperial College, London has shown that the efficiency of a solar
panel can be improved by studding the light-receiving semiconductor surface with aluminum
nanocylinders similar to the ridges on Lego blocks. The scattered light then travels along a
longer path in the semiconductor which means that more photons can be absorbed and converted
into current. Although these nanocylinders have been used previously (aluminum was preceded
by gold and silver), the light scattering occurred in the near infrared region and visible light was
absorbed strongly. Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum,
while the visible and near infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered by the
aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring down the cost significantly and
improve the efficiency as aluminum is more abundant and less costly than gold and silver. The
research also noted that the increase in current makes thinner film solar panels technically
feasible without "compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material
consumption".

 Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by MPP(Maximum power point) value of

solar panels
 Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing MPPT process: solar
inverter samples the output Power (I-V curve) from the solar cell and applies the proper
resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain maximum power.
 MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage(V MPP) and
MPP current(I MPP): it is a capacity of the solar panel and the higher value can make
higher MPP.

Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output than normal panels
which are wired in series with the output of the series determined by the lowest performing panel
(this is known as the "Christmas light effect"). Micro-inverters work independently so each panel
contributes its maximum possible output given the available sunlight.[7]

Applications

There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It can first be
used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar panels can be used to
refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for infrastructure. PV modules are used in
photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electric devices:

 Photovoltaic power stations

 Rooftop solar PV systems
 Standalone PV systems
 Solar hybrid power systems
 Concentrated photovoltaics
 Solar planes
 Solar-pumped lasers
 Solar vehicles
 Solar panels on spacecrafts and space stations
TRANSFORMER
 TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are commonly used in applications which require the conversion of

AC voltage from one voltage level to another. There are two broad categories of
transformers: electronic transformers, which operate at very low power levels, and
power transformers, which process thousands of watts of power. Electronic
transformers are used in consumer electronic equipment like television sets, VCRs, CD
players, personal computers, and many other devices, to reduce the level of voltage
from 220V (available from the AC mains) to the desired level at which the device
operates. Power transformers are used in power generation, transmission and
distribution systems to raise or lower the level of voltage to the desired levels. The basic
principle of operation of both types of transformers is the same.

In this chapter, we will first review some of the basic concepts of magnetic circuits,
which are fundamental building blocks in transformers and electric machinery. In order
to understand how a transformer operates, we will examine two inductors that are
placed in close proximity to one another. The concepts of such magnetic coupled
circuits will be extended to the development of transformers. After understating the
relationships between voltages and currents, we will look at some practical
considerations regarding the use of transformers.

The main learning objectives for this chapter are listed below.

Learning Objectives:

Understand concept of mutual inductance

Understand operation of ideal transformers

Use equivalent circuits to determine voltages and currents.
Analyze the operation of transformer for different transformation ratios.

Understand the concept of a reflected load in a transformer, and its application in

impedance matching.

Study the application of transformers in electrical energy distribution and power supplies.

Magnetic Field and Mutual Inductance: Review of basic concepts

Magnetic field

Magnetic fields are created due to movement of electrical charge, and are
present around permanent magnets and wires carrying current (electromagnet), as
shown in figure 1.

In permanent magnets, spinning electrons produce a net external field.

If a current carrying wire is wound in the form of a coil of many turns, the net
magnetic field is stronger than that of a single wire. This field of the
electromagnet is further intensified if this coil is wound on an iron core.

In many applications, we need to vary the strength of magnetic fields. Electromagnets

are very commonly used in such applications.
The magnetic field is represented by "lines of flux".

These lines of flux help us to visualize the magnetic field of any magnet even
though they only represent an invisible phenomena.
Magnetic field forms an essential link between transfer of energy from
mechanical to electrical form and vice-versa (as we will see later).

Magnetic fields form the basis for the operation of transformers, generators, and motors.
Figure 1: Magnetic field created by (a) permanent magnet, (b) straight wire, (c) coil of wire wound on an
iron core

Direction of the Magnetic Field

The direction of this magentic field can be determined using the right hand rule.
This rule states that if you point the thumb of your right hand in the direction of
the current, your fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field.

Figure 2: Right hand rule

Magnetic Flux, Φ

Magnetic field can be visualized as lines of magnetic flux that form closed paths
(see Figure 1). Magnetic flux emanates from the north pole and returns through the
south pole.
Magnetic flux describes the total amount of magnetic field
in a given region. Magnetic flux is imperceptible to the five
senses and thus hard to describe. Flux is known only
through its effects.
It is measured in Webers (Wb)

Magnetic Flux Density, B

If we examine the cross-sectional area of the magnet shown in Figure 1(a) and assume
that the flux is uniformly distributed over the area, the magnetic flux density is defined
as the magnetic Flux per cross-sectional area.

i.e., B (1)
A

where A is the cross sectional area.

Flux density is a vector quantity

Its units are Weber per sq meter or Teslas (T)

Figure 3: Magnetic flux density

Flux Linkage, λ

The flux passing through the surface bounded by a coil is said to link the coil (refer to
figure 1(c)).

For a coil of wire, the flux passing through the coil is the product of the number
of turns, N, and the flux passing through a single turn, .
This product is called the magnetic flux linkage of the coil, λ.

i.e.,N weber-turns. (2)

Faraday’s Law

Michael Faraday discovered that whenever a conductor is moved through a magnetic

field, or whenever the magnetic field near a conductor is changed, currents flow in the
conductor. This effect is called electromagnetic induction.
Voltage induced in a single coil, due to
sinusoidally varying flux is:
d
et Volts (3)
dt

For a coil with N number of turns, the total induced voltage can be calculated by
adding the voltages induced in all the turns,

d
e Net N Volts (4)
dt
Substituting from equation (2), λ = N

d
e Volts (5)
dt

Figure 4: Voltage induced in a coil due to sinusoidally varying flux

Mutual Inductance

Consider the situation illustrated in figure 6 where two coils are placed close to each
other. To keep our discussion simple, let’s assume that the resistance of the coils is
negligible. When AC current flows through the first coil, it produces a time-varying
flux. When the second coil is placed in its vicinity, some of this flux links the other coil.
According to Faraday’s law, this flux in turn induces voltage in the other coil. The
magnetic coupling between the coils due to this flux is described by a quantity called
mutual inductance. The magnetic flux produced by one coil can either aid or oppose
the flux produced by the other coil.

Figure 6: mutually coupled coils

 Next we will study a very useful electrical device (transformer) that exploits the concept of
mutual coupling to transform voltage and current from one circuit to another.

Voltage Relationships

This common flux flows through the transformer core and links with the
secondary winding. According to Faraday’s law, a voltage is induced across the
terminals of the secondary winding.

Assuming that all of the flux links all of the turns in each coil, when the
common flux changes (d /dt), a sinusoidal voltage v2 is induced in the secondary
winding, the voltages are given by:

d d
v N and v N (11)
1 2
1 dt 2 dt
• The polarities of the induced voltages are given by Lenz’s law; i.e. the induced
voltages (also called emf) produce currents that tend to oppose the flux
change.

From the above v1 N1

• equations, (12)
v2 N2
In terms of RMS
• values,

V1 N1
= a (turns ratio) (13)
V2 N2

• The “turns ratio” determines the amount the voltage is changed

Current Relationships

If we now connect a load across the terminals of the secondary winding (figure
10), the circuit on the secondary side of the transformer is complete, and a current i2
starts to flow through it.

i1 i2
+ + +
v1 N1 N2 v2 Load
_
- -

Primary Secondary
Winding winding

Figure 10: Ideal transformer connected to a load

• The magnetomotive force corresponding to the current in the secondary
winding is given by: mmf = N2 i2
• The input coil is forced to generate a counter mmf to oppose this mmf.

• This results in current i1 such that the total mmf applied to the core is:

F = N1 i1 - N2 i2 (14)

In a well designed transformer, the core reluctance is very small.

In the ideal case, this reluctance is zero, and therefore the mmf required to establish
flux in the core

Therefore, F =N1 i1 - N2 i2=0

Transformer rating

The transformer is usually rated in terms of its input and output voltages and apparent power
that it is designed to safely deliver.

For example, if a transformer carries the following information on its name-plate:

10kVA, 1100/110volts

What are the meanings of these ratings?

The voltage ratio indicates that the transformer has two windings, the high-voltage winding is
rated for 1100 Volts and the low-voltage winding for 110 volts.

These voltages are proportional to their respective number of turns. Therefore, the voltage ratio
also represents the turns ratio a. (e.g., a = 10 here)

The kVA rating (i.e., apparent power) means that each winding is designed for 10 kVA.

Therefore the current rating for the high-voltage winding = 10000/1100 = 9.09A

Current rating for low voltage winding = 10000/110 = 90.9 A

The term “rated load” for a device refers to the load it is designed to carry for (theoretically)
indefinite period of time. Rated load for the transfor

Note that during actual operation, the transformer may be required to operate at less power
than its rated power.
 Impedance transformation

Consider the following circuit, where a load impedance ZL is connected in the secondary
winding. The RMS values of current and voltage in the secondary winding are related to the
impedance by:
mer refers to the apparent power specified as above, and shown in the name-plate information.
V2
ZL (23)
I2
Substituting for V2 and I2,

(N 2 / N1 2

)V1 N 2 V1 (24)
ZL
/N2 N I
(N1 )I1 1 1

Rearranging this equation, and substituting a = N1/N2, the impedance seen by the source, Z’L is given by:

V1
Z 'L a2 Z L (25)
I1
i.e., When a load impedance Z L is connected across the secondary winding terminals, the AC
source connected on the input side sees the load impedance magnified by the factor a2.

We say that the load impedance is reflected or referred to the primary side by the square of the
turns ratio a.
I1 I2
N1: N2
+ +
V2
VS ~ _ ZL
_

Z’L

Figure 16: Load impedance as seen by the source

This circuit can be simplified as follows:

ZS I1
+
+ a.V2 2

VS ~ _ Z’L=a ZL

Reflected load
impedance

Figure 17: Simplified circuit

n a similar manner, it can be shown that if an impedance is connected on the source side of
the circuit (as shown below), the load sees it changed by a factor of (1/ a2).
ZS

+
VS ~ ZL

Z
Z”S = (1/ a2) ZS
Figure 18: Source impedance as seen by the load

If we look at this circuit from the load side (i.e., as seen by the load), the voltage of the
source and the impedance appear changed as shown below.

Reflected source
impedance (1/a2)ZS

(1/a)VS
Z
~ L

Figure 19: Simplified circuit

Application Example: Power Supply Circuits

Transformers are an integral part of all power supplies. A typical application example of AC-DC
power supply is shown below, where transformer is used for lowering the voltage to a level
more suitable for consumption. This voltage is then rectified and filtered to obtain a DC voltage.

AC input
voltage DC output
Transformer Rectifier Filter voltage
bridge And
regulator

Figure 24: Block diagram of a power supply

 Aside from the ability to easily convert between different levels of voltage and current in AC
and DC circuits, transformers also provide an extremely useful feature called isolation, which is
the ability to couple one circuit to another without the use of direct wire connections.

Voltage Regulation

Because of the elements R1, R2, L1 and L2, the voltage delivered to the load side of a transformer
varies with the load current which is undesirable.

The regulation of an actual transformer is defined as:

Percent regulation = V2 no-load - V2 load x 100% (26)
V2 load
Efficiency

Because of the resistances in the transformer equivalent circuit, not all of the power input to the
transformer is delivered to load . Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output to the input

Since, Input power = Output power + Power losses

Efficiency = Output power x 100% (27)

Output power + Losses
INVERTER
 INVERTER

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC); the
converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers,
switching, and control circuits.

Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small
switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that
transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar
panels or batteries.

There are two main types of inverter. The output of a modified sine wave inverter is similar to a
square wave output except that the output goes to zero volts for a time before switching positive or
negative. It is simple and low cost (~$0.10USD/Watt) and is compatible with most electronic devices,
except for sensitive or specialized equipment, for example certain laser printers. A pure sine wave inverter
produces a nearly perfect sine wave output (<3% total harmonic distortion) that is essentially the same as
utility-supplied grid power. Thus it is compatible with all AC electronic devices. This is the type used in
grid-tie inverters. Its design is more complex, and costs 5 or 10 times more per unit power (~$0.50 to
[1]
$1.00USD/Watt). The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because
early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert
DC to AC.

The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to
AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment
designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they produce
alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system. They
can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.
 -inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the electric
grid.[2]

Uninterruptible power supplies

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power when
main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the
batteries.

Induction heating

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for use in induction heating.
To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to
high frequency AC power.

HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted
to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back
to AC.

Variable-frequency drives

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the

frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled power. In
most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be
provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable-frequency drives are
sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motors in some
electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and hybrid electric
highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius.
MOSFET
 MOSFET (IRF840)

8A, 500V, 0.850 Ohm, N-Channel Power

MOSFET
Features
This N-Channel enhancement mode silicon gate
• 8A, 500V
power field effect transistor is an advanced
power MOSFET designed, tested, and
• rDS(ON) = 0.850Ω
guaranteed to withstand a specified level of
energy in the breakdown avalanche mode of
• Single Pulse Avalanche Energy Rated
operation. All of these power MOSFETs are
designed for applications such as switching
• SOA is Power Dissipation Limited
regulators, switching converters, motor drivers,
relay drivers, and drivers for high power bipolar
• Nanosecond Switching Speeds
switching transistors requiring high speed and
low gate drive power. These types can be
• Linear Transfer Characteristics
operated directly from integrated circuits.

• High Input Impedance

Formerly developmental type TA17425.

• Related Literature

- TB334 “Guidelines for Soldering

Surface Mount Components to PC
Boards”
Ordering Information Symbol
PART NUMBER PACKAGE BRAND D

IRF840 TO-220AB IRF840

NOTE: When ordering, include the entire part number. G

Packaging

JEDEC TO-220AB
TOP VIEW

SOURCE
DRAIN
GATE

DRAIN
(FLANGE)

Absolute Maximum Ratings TC = 25oC, Unless Otherwise

Specified

IRF840 UNITS
Drain to Source Voltage (Note 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..................... . . . .VDS 500 V
Drain to Gate Voltage (RGS = 20kΩ) (Note 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..V
..................... DGR 500 V
Continuous Drain Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..................... . . ID 8.0 A
TC = 100oC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................... . . ID 5.1 A
Pulsed Drain Current (Note 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ID
.................... . M 32 A
Gate to Source Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................... . . . .VGS ±20 V
Maximum Power Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..................... . .PD 125 W
Single Pulse Avalanche Energy Rating (Note 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .EA
.................... . S 510 mJ
Operating and Storage Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T ,
................... T ST -55 to 150 oC
J G
Maximum Temperature for Soldering
Leads at 0.063in (1.6mm) from Case for 10s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................... . .T 300 oC
L
Package Body for 10s, See Techbrief 334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................... ...T 260 oC
pkg
Electrical SpecificationsTC = 25oC, Unless Otherwise Specified
PARAMETER SYMBOL TEST CONDITIONS MIN TYP MAX UNITS
BV
Drain to Source Breakdown Voltage DSS VGS = 0V, ID = 250µA (Figure 10) 500 - - V
V
Gate to Threshold Voltage GS(TH) VGS = VDS, ID = 250µA 2.0 - 4.0 V
I
Zero-Gate Voltage Drain Current DSS VDS = Rated BVDSS, VGS = 0V - - 25 µA
o
V = 0.8 x Rated BV ,V = 0V, T = 125 C - - 250 µA
DS DSS GS J
I V >I r ,V = 10V
On-State Drain Current (Note 2) D(ON) DS D(ON) x DS(ON)MAX GS 8.0 - - A
I
Gate to Source Leakage Current GSS VGS = ±20V - - ±100 nA
r
Drain to Source On Resistance (Note 2) DS(ON) VGS = 10V, ID = 4.4A (Figures 8, 9) - 0.8 0.85 Ω
g
Forward Transconductance (Note 2) fs VDS ≥ 50V, ID = 4.4A (Figure 12) 4.9 7.4 - S
t
Turn-On Delay Time D(ON) VDD = 250V, ID  8A, RG = 9.1Ω, RL = 30Ω - 15 21 ns
MOSFET Switching Times are Essentially
Rise Time tr - 21 35 ns
Independent of Operating Temperature.
t
Turn-Off Delay Time D(OFF) - 50 74 ns
Fall Time tf - 20 30 ns
Q
Total Gate Charge g(TOT) VGS = 10V, ID = 8A, VDS = 0.8 x Rated BVDSS - 42 63 nC
(Gate to Source + Gate to Drain) Ig(REF) = 1.5mA (Figure 14) Gate Charge is
Q Essentially Independent of Operating
Gate to Source Charge gs - 7.0 - nC
Temperature
Q
Gate to Drain “Miller” Charge gd - 22 - nC
C
Input Capacitance ISS VGS = 0V, VDS = 25V, f = 1.0MHz (Figure 11) - 1225 - pF
C
Output Capacitance OSS - 200 - pF
C
Reverse-Transfer Capacitance RSS - 85 - pF
Internal Drain Inductance LD Measured from the Modified MOSFET - 3.5 - nH
Contact Screw on Tab Symbol Showing the
to Center of Die Internal Devices
Measured from the Drain Inductances - 4.5 - nH
D
Lead, 6mm (0.25in) from
Package to Center of Die L
D
Internal Source Inductance LS Measured from the - 7.5 - nH
Source Lead, 6mm G
L
(0.25in) from Header to S
Source Bonding Pad
S
R o
Thermal Resistance Junction to Case θJC - - 1.0 C/W
Source to Drain Diode Specifications
PARAMETER SYMBOL TEST CONDITIONS MIN TYP MAX UNITS
I
Continuous Source to Drain Current SD Modified MOSFET D - - 8.0 A
I Symbol Showing the
Pulse Source to Drain Current (Note 3) SDM Integral Reverse P-N - - 32 A
Junction Diode
G

S
o
Source to Drain Diode Voltage (Note 2) V T = 25 C, I = 8.0A, V = 100A/µs (Figure 13) - - 2.0 V
SD J SD GS
o
Reverse Recovery Time t T = 25 C, I = 8.0A, dI /dt = 100A/µs 210 475 970 ns
rr J SD SD
o
Reverse Recovered Charge Q T = 25 C, I = 8.0A, dI /dt = 100A/µs 2.0 4.6 8.2 µC
RR J SD SD

NOTES:
2. Pulse Test: Pulse width ≤ 300µs, duty cycle ≤ 2%.
3. Repetitive Rating: Pulse width limited by Max junction temperature. See Transient Thermal Impedance curve (Figure 3).
o
4. VDD = 50V, starting TJ = 25 C, L = 14mH, RG = 25Ω, peak IAS = 8A.

Typical Performance Curves Unless Otherwise Specified

1.2 10
POWER DISSIPATION MULTIPLIER

1.0
8
ID, DRAIN CURRENT (A)
0.8
6

0.6
4
0.4

2
0.2

0 0
o 25 50 75 100 125 150 TC, CASE TEMPERATURE
0 50 100 150 TC, CASE TEMPERATURE ( C)
o
( C)

FIGURE 1. NORMALIZED POWER DISSIPATION vs CASE FIGURE 2. MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS DRAIN CURRENT vs
TEMPERATURE CASE TEMPERATURE

1
0.5
ZθJC, NORMALIZED TRANSIENT
THERMAL IMPEDANCE

0.2
0.1 0.1
0.05
0.02 P
0.01 DM

-2 SINGLE PULSE t1
10
t2 t2
NOTES:
DUTY FACTOR: D = t1/t2
-3 PEAK TJ = PDM x ZθJC x RθJC + TC
10 -5 -4 -3
10 10 10 10-2 0.1 1 10
t1, RECTANGULAR PULSE DURATION (s)

FIGURE 3. NORMALIZED MAXIMUM TRANSIENT THERMAL IMPEDANCE

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE
 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn-

junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible,ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising,general lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.
OPTOCOUPLER
 OPTOCOUPLER

What is MOSFET driver?

MOSFET driver is main component of power electronics circuits. MOSFET drivers are dedicated
integrated circuits which are used to drive MOSFETS in low side and high side configuration. To know more
about gate driver check following article:

Isolated MOSFET driver TLP250 working

In this article I will discuss isolated Mosfet driver TLP250. Mosfet driver TL250 like other MOSFET
drivers have input stage and output stage. It also have power supply configuration. TLP250 is more suitable for
MOSFET and IGBT. The main difference between TLP250 and other MOSFET drivers is that TLP250 MOSFET
driver is optically isolated. Its mean input and output of TLP250 mosfet driver is isolated from each other. Its
works like a optocoupler. Input stage have a light emitting diode and output stage have photo diode. Whenever
input stage LED light falls on output stage photo detector diode, output becomes high.
Pin configuation isolated mosfet driver TL250

Pin layout of TLP250 is given below. It is clearly shown in figure that led at input stage and photo detector
diode at output stage is used to provide isolation between input and ouput. Pin number 1 and 4 are not connected
to any point. Hence they are not in use. Pin 2 is anode point of input stage light emitting diode and pin 3 is cathode
point of input stage. Input is provided to pin number 2 and 3. Pin number 8 is for supply connection. Pin number 5
is for ground of power s Pin number one and four is not connected to any point physically. Therefore they are
not in use.
 Pin number 8 is use to provide power supply to TLP250 and pin number 5 is ground pin which provides
return path to power supply ground. Maximum power supply voltage between 15-30 volt dc can be given to
TLP250. But it also depends on temperature of environment in which you are using TLP250.
Pin number 2 and 3 are anode and cathode points of input stage LED. It works like a normal light emitting
diode. It has similar characteristics of forward voltage and input current. Maximum input current is in the range of
7-10mA and forward voltage drop is about 0.8 volt. TLP250 provides output from low to high with minimum
threshold current of 1.2mA and above.
Pin number six and seven is internally connected to each other. Ouput can be taken from either pin number
6 and 7. Totem pole configuration of two transistor is used in TLP250. In case of high input , output becomes high
with output voltage equal to supply voltage and in case of low input, output become low with output voltage level
equal to ground.
Mosfet driver TLP250 can be used up to 25khz frequency due to slow propagation delay.
This all about pin configuration and working of TLP250. Now i will talk about how to used isolated mosfet
driver tlp250 as low side MOSFET driver and high side mosfet driver.

TLP250 as a low side MOSFET driver

Circuit diagram of low side mosfet driver using tlp250 is shown below. In this circuit diagram, tlp250 is
used as non inverting low side mosfet driver. you should connect an electrolytic capacitor of value 0.47uf between
power supply. It provide protection to tlp250 by providing stabilize voltage to IC.

As shown in figure above input is drive signal that drives the output. Vin is according to signal ground. It
should not be connected with supply ground and output ground. It is clearly shown in above figure TLP250 and
load ground is referenced to the power ground and it is isolated from input signal reference ground. When input is
high, MOSFET Q1 get high signal from TLP250 and it is driven by power supply and current flows through the
load. When input is low, MOSFET Q1 get low signal from TLP250 output pin and mosfet Q1 remains off and
there is no current flow to load. Value of supply voltage ranges between 10-15 volt. Input resistor at gate of
MOSFET is used depend on amplitude of input signal. Usually input signal is provided through microcontroller
and microcontroller input signal level is in the order of 5 volt. Capacitor C1 is used as decoupling capacitor.
TLP250 as a high side MOSFET driver

Circuit diagram of MOSFT driver tlp250 used as high side driver is shown below. It is used as non
inverting high side mosfet driver. Because input signal ground is connected to cathode of input stage light
emitting diode. Therefore it is used as a non inverting high side mosfet driver.

In high side configuration there are three grounds as shown in figure above. Ground of input signal, ground
of supply voltage and ground of power supply voltage. Remember that while using TLP250 as high side MOSFET
driver, all grounds should be isolated from each other.
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of
piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly
used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated
circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters/receivers
THE DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
Crystal Oscillators are usually, fixed frequency oscillators where stability and accuracy are the primary
considerations. For example it is almost impossible to design a stable and accurate LC oscillator for the upper HF
and higher frequencies without resorting to some sort of crystal control. Hence the reason for crystal oscillators.
A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF A CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

.
This is a typical example of the type of crystal oscillators which may be used for say converters. Some points of
interest on crystal oscillators
OSCILLATOR TYPES
The PIC16F87XA can be operated in four different oscillator modes. The user can program two configuration bits
(FOSC1 and FOSC0) to select one of these four modes:
• LP Low-Power Crystal
• XT Crystal/Resonator
• HS High-Speed Crystal/Resonator
• RC Resistor/Capacitor
EXTERNAL CLOCK INPUT OPERATION (HS, XT OR LP OSC CONFIGURATION)

Notes:
1: Higher capacitance increases the stability of oscillator but also increases the start-up time.
2: Since each resonator/crystal has its own characteristics, the user should consult the resonator/crystal
manufacturer for appropriate values of external components.
3: Rs may be required in HS mode, as well as XT mode, to avoid overdriving crystals with low drive level
specification.
4: When migrating from other microcontroller devices, oscillator performance should be verified.
INDUCTOR
 INDUCTOR

An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component which resists
changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil.
Energy is stored in a magnetic field in the coil as long as current flows. When the current flowing through an
inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction. According to Lenz's law the direction of induced electromotive force (or "e.m.f.") is
always such that it opposes the change in current that created it. As a result, inductors always oppose a change in
current, in the same way that a flywheel opposes a change in rotational velocity. Care should be taken not to
confuse this with the resistance provided by a resistor.

An inductor is characterized by its inductance, the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current, which has
units of henries (H). Inductors have values that typically range from 1 µH (10−6H) to 1 H. Many inductors have a
magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the
inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that
make up electric circuits. Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly
in radio equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose are
called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies, and in
combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers.

Applications
Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Applications range from the use of large
inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter capacitors remove residual hums known as the mains
hum or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus
installed around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Inductors
are used as the energy storage device in many switched-mode power supplies to produce DC current. The inductor
supplies energy to the circuit to keep current flowing during the "off" switching periods.
An inductor connected to a capacitor forms a tuned circuit, which acts as a resonator for oscillating current. Tuned
circuits are widely used in radio frequency equipment such as radio transmitters and receivers, as narrow bandpass
filters to select a single frequency from a composite signal, and in electronic oscillators to generate sinusoidal
signals.

Two (or more) inductors in proximity that have coupled magnetic flux (mutual inductance) form a transformer,
which is a fundamental component of every electric utility power grid. The efficiency of a transformer may
decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy currents in the core material and skin effect on the windings. The
size of the core can be decreased at higher frequencies. For this reason, aircraft use 400 hertz alternating current
rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great saving in weight from the use of smaller transformers.[5]

Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to limit switching currents and
fault currents. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors.
MICROCONTROLLER
(AT89S52)
 MICROCONTROLLER (AT89S52)
Description

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system
programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the indus- try-standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash
allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory pro-
grammer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the
Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to
many embedded control applications.

The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines,
Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a
full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static
logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle
Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue
functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con- tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

Pin Configurations

40-lead PDIP 44-lead PLCC

P1.1 (T2 EX)

P0.0 (AD0)
P0.1 (AD1)
P0.2 (AD2)
P0.3 (AD3)
P1.0 (T2)

(T2) P1.0 1 40 VCC

(T2 EX) P1.1 2 39 P0.0 (AD0)
VCC
P1.4
P1.3
P1.2

NC

P1.2 3 38 P0.1 (AD1)

P1.3 4 37 P0.2 (AD2)
6
5
4
3
2
1
44
43
42
41
40

P1.4 5 36 P0.3 (AD3) (MOSI) P1.5 7 39 P0.4 (AD4)

(MOSI) P1.5 6 35 P0.4 (AD4) (MISO) P1.6 8 38 P0.5 (AD5)
(MISO) P1.6 7 34 P0.5 (AD5) (SCK) P1.7 9 37 P0.6 (AD6)
(SCK) P1.7 8 33 P0.6 (AD6) RST 10 36 P0.7 (AD7)
(RXD) P3.0 11 35 EA/VPP
RST 9 32 P0.7 (AD7)
NC 12 34 NC
(RXD) P3.0 10 31 EA/VPP
(TXD) P3.1 13 33 ALE/PROG
(TXD) P3.1 11 30 ALE/PROG
(INT0) P3.2 14 32 PSEN
(INT0) P3.2 12 29 PSEN (INT1) P3.3 15 31 P2.7 (A15)
(INT1) P3.3 13 28 P2.7 (A15) (T0) P3.4 16 30 P2.6 (A14)
(T1) P3.5 17 (T0) P3.4 14 27 P2.6 (A14) 29 P2.5 (A13)
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

(T1) P3.5 15 26 P2.5 (A13)

(WR) P3.6 16 25 P2.4 (A12)
(RD) P3.7

(A12) P2.4
GND
NC
XTAL2
XTAL1
(WR) P3.6

(A8) P2.0
(A9) P2.1
(A10) P2.2
(A11) P2.3

(RD) P3.7 17 24 P2.3 (A11)

XTAL2 18 23 P2.2 (A10)
XTAL1 19 22 P2.1 (A9)
GND 20 21 P2.0 (A8)
44-lead TQFP
P1.1 (T2 EX)

P0.2 (AD2)
P0.0 (AD0)
P0.1 (AD1)

P0.3 (AD3)
P1.0 (T2)

VCC
P1.4
P1.3
P1.2

NC
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
(MOSI) P1.5 1 33 P0.4 (AD4)
(MISO) P1.6 2 32 P0.5 (AD5)
(SCK) P1.7 3 31 P0.6 (AD6)
RST 4 30 P0.7 (AD7)
(RXD) P3.0 5 29 EA/VPP
NC 6 28 NC
(TXD) P3.1 7 27 ALE/PROG
(INT0) P3.2 8 26 PSEN
(INT1) P3.3 9 25 P2.7 (A15)
(T0) P3.4 10 24 P2.6 (A14)
(T1) P3.5 11 23 P2.5 (A13)
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
(RD) P3.7

(A12) P2.4
GND
GND
XTAL2
XTAL1
(WR) P3.6

(A8) P2.0
(A9) P2.1
(A10) P2.2
(A11) P2.3
Block Diagram
P0.0 - P0.7 P2.0 - P2.7

V CC
PORT 0 DRIVERS PORT 2 DRIVERS

GND

RAM ADDR. PORT 0 PORT 2

REGISTER RAM LATCH LATCH FLASH

PROGRAM
B STACK
ACC ADDRESS
REGISTER POINTER REGISTER

BUFFER
TMP2 TMP1

PC
ALU INCREMENTER

INTERRUPT, SERIAL PORT,

AND TIMER BLOCKS

PROGRAM
COUNTER
PSW

PSEN
ALE/PROG TIMING INSTRUCTION
AND REGISTER DUAL DPTR
EA / V PP CONTROL
RST

WATCH PORT 3 PORT 1 ISP PROGRAM

DOG LATCH LATCH PORT LOGIC

OSC
PORT 3 DRIVERS PORT 1 DRIVERS

P3.0 - P3.7 P1.0 - P1.7

Pin Description

VCC

Supply voltage.

GND

Ground.

Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink
eight TTL
inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs.

Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during
accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups.

Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code
bytes dur- ing program verification. External pull-ups are required during program
verification.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are
pulled high by the inter- nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-
ups.

In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external

count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively,
as shown in the follow- ing table.
Port 1 receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
also

Port Pin Alternate Functions

P1.0 T2 (external count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-out
P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control)
P1.5 MOSI (used for In-System Programming)
P1.6 MISO (used for In-System Programming)
P1.7 SCK (used for In-System Programming)

Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are
pulled high by the inter- nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-
ups.

Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory
and dur- ing accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @
DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s.
During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2
emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.

Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
program- ming and verification.
 Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are
pulled high by the inter- nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.

Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and

verification.

Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in
the fol- lowing table.

Port Pin Alternate Functions

P3.0 RXD (serial input port)
P3.1 TXD (serial output port)
P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)
P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)
P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)
P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)
P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe)
P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)

RST

Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times
out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature.
In the default state of bit
DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is
enabled.

.
PSEN

Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program

memory.

When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is
activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped
during each access to exter- nal data memory.

EA/VPP

External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.

EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program

executions.

This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash
programming.

XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Special Function Registers

A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space is
shown in
Table 5-
1.

Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be
imple- mented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return
random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect.

User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in
future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the
new bits will always be 0.

Timer 2 Registers: Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON (shown in
Table 5-
2) and T2MOD (shown in Table 10-2) for Timer 2. The register pair (RCAP2H,
RCAP2L) are the
Capture/Reload registers for Timer 2 in 16-bit capture mode or 16-bit auto-
reload mode.

Interrupt Registers: The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two
priorities can be set for each of the six interrupt sources in the IP register.
 Memory Organization

MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Up to
64K
bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.

Program Memory
If the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to external memory.

On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses 0000H

through
1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H through FFFFH
are to
external memory.

Data Memory

The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a parallel address space to
the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper 128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but
are physically separate from SFR space.

When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode used in the instruction
specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct
addressing access the SFR space.

For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location 0A0H (which is P2).

MOV 0A0H, #data

Instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For example, the following
indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than
P2 (whose address is 0A0H).
.Timer 0 and 1
Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89S52 operate the same way as Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89C51 and
AT89C52. For further information on the timers’ operation, please click on the document link below:

http://www.atmel.com/dyn/resources/prod_documents/DOC4316.PDF

. Timer 2

Timer 2 is a 16-bit Timer/Counter that can operate as either a timer or an event

counter. The type of operation is selected by bit C/T2 in the SFR T2CON (shown in
Table 5-2). Timer 2 has three operating modes: capture, auto-reload (up or down
counting), and baud rate generator. The modes are selected by bits in T2CON, as
shown in Table 10-1. Timer 2 consists of two 8-bit registers, TH2 and TL2. In the
Timer function, the TL2 register is incremented every machine cycle. Since a machine
cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscil-lator frequency.

Table 10-1. Timer 2 Operating Modes

RCLK +TCLK CP/RL2 TR MODE

0 0 21 16-bit Auto-reload
0 1 1 16-bit Capture
1 X 1 Baud Rate Generator
X X 0 (Off)

In the Counter function, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0 transition at

its corre- sponding external input pin, T2. In this function, the external input is
sampled during S5P2 of every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one
cycle and a low in the next cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value
appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle following the one in which the
transition was detected. Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required
to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator
frequency. To ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes, the
level should be held for at least one full machine
cycle.
 13. Interrupts
The AT89S52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and INT1), three timer interrupts
(Timers 0, 1, and 2), and the serial port interrupt. These interrupts are all shown in Figure 13-1.

Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing a bit in Special
Function Register IE. IE also contains a global disable bit, EA, which disables all interrupts at once.

Note that Table 13-1 shows that bit position IE.6 is unimplemented. User software should not write a 1 to this
bit position, since it may be used in future AT89 products.

(MSB) (LSB)

EA – ET2 ES ET1 EX1 ET0 EX0

ble Bit = 1 enables the interrupt.

Enable Bit = 0 disables the interrupt.

Symbol Position Function

Disables all interrupts. If EA = 0, no interrupt is acknowledged. If EA
EA IE.7 = 1, each interrupt source is individually enabled or disabled by
– IE.6 Reserved.
ET2 IE.5 setting
Timer 2orinterrupt
clearingenable
its enable
bit. bit.
ES IE.4 Serial Port interrupt enable bit.
ET1 IE.3 Timer 1 interrupt enable bit.
EX1 IE.2 External interrupt 1 enable bit.
ET0 IE.1 Timer 0 interrupt enable bit.
EX0 IE.0 External interrupt 0 enable bit.
User software should never write 1s to reserved bits, because they may be used in future AT89 products.
Oscillator Characteristics

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier
that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 16-1. Either
a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an
external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven,
as shown in Figure 16-2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external
clock signal, since the input to the internal clock- ing circuitry is through a divide-by-
two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low
time specifications must be
observed.

Figure 16-1.OscillatoR Connections

C2
XTAL2

C1
XTAL1

GND

Note: 1. C1, C2 = 30 pF ± 10 pF for Crystals

= 40 pF ± 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

POWER SUPPLY
The power supply unit is provided to supply power to the microcontroller. Here the
transformer is used to step down the voltage of 230v to the 12v,and this 12v supply is
given to the bridge rectifier, this bridge rectifier is used to convert the 12v AC to the 12v
DC .Bridge rectifier mainly used because the microcontroller requires only DC supply
.And this bridge rectifier is connected to the regulator through the capacitor filter. This
capacitor is used remove the ac spikes from the DC. This regulator is used mainly to
provide the constant output of 5v DC to the microcontroller i.e., linear output.

Again one capacitor is used to further filter the spikes, because even one spike may cause
several damage to the circuit. And this constant pure DC is applied to the microcontroller.
And one LED is used to indicate that the input to the microcontroller is continuously
provided. Here a simple resistive load is used to limit the starting current.

DRIVER CIRCUIT

Driver circuit is used to connect the microcontroller with the switch. As the output of
microcontroller is 5V, and whereas the input to be given to the MOSFET is 12v, so in
order to make the output of microcontroller to 12V the driver circuit is used.

Here first a transformer is used to provide the external input to the driver circuit. Here
step down transformer is used to step down the 230V input to the 12V. And this
transformer is connected to the capacitor filter. This capacitor is used filter the spikes and
to store the input.

And this stepped down voltage is given to the phototransistor in the optocoupler. The 5V
output from the microcontroller is given to the LED and the control signal to LED is
given through the pins of port 2.when both the 5V and control signal are received from
the microcontroller the circuit is closed and the LED emits light. When this light falls on
the phototransistor the output is given to the MOSFET switch through the output pins
Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4. This output is given to the gate of the switch

MICROCONTROLLER
Microcontroller is used to control MOSFET switches in inverter topology . Ic no of
microcontroller is 8952 .It consist of totally 40 pins . Program written
in microcontroller is EMBEDANCE-C LANGUAGE

It consist of four ports namelly port.0 ,port.1 ,port.2 ,port.4 . Each port has 8 pins . Port0
pins are p0.0 , p0.1 , p0.2 , p0.3 , p0.4 , p0.5 , p0.6 , p0.7 . port1 pins p1.0, p1.1 , p1.2 ,
p1.3 ,p1.4 , p1.5 ,p1.6 ,p1.7 . Port2 pins p2.0, p2.1 , p2.2 , p2.3 ,p2.4 , p2.5 ,p2.6 ,p3.7 .
p3.0, p3.1 , p3.2 , p3.3 ,p3.4 , p3.5 ,p3.6 , p3.7. All the port pins are 32 this port pins are
used to input and /output operation .

The remaining 8 pins are ALE , RST , EA , VCC , VSS ,XTAL1 ,XTAL2
,PSEN . They are used to produce controll signals . It consist of crystal oscillator . It
generates clock pulse. The pins of crystal oscillator is XTAL1 ,XTAL2 .it pin number is
19 ,18 . and it capacity is 11.0592 . and rst is used for rest the microcontroller .

The input voltage of microcontroller is 5 v dc . And it is getting from power

supply . It provides constant 5v dc by regulate the voltage.

The main purpose of microcontroller is to control the mosfet switches through

driver circuit .the driver circuit is used because of the output voltage of the
microcontroller is 5 v dc it is not sufficient to gates switches .it requires 12 v thats why
microcontroller is conected to the inverter topology through driver circuit .

The advantages of micrcontrller is high efficiency , it occupies less space, easy

to change program.
NEW INVERTER TOPOLOGY

Non-linear dc voltage is produced by solar panel by taking sun light, then this supply is
stored in battery through a diode , diode is used to avoid reverse current from the battery
again to solar panel, bttery used is a 12v battery, then this dc voltage stored in the battery
is given to MOSFET (m5) this is used to converted the dc to ac voltage .

The supply is converted to ac because dc voltage cannot be stepped up so we are using

AC voltage .A MOSFET is used to step up the voltage in 1:10 ratio ,voltage is stepped up
by using capacitor and inductor arrangment.

Then a diode D1 is placed to convert this ac voltage into dc , then this dc voltage is
given to inverter , because inverter needs dc input supply, so the stepped up ac voltage is
converted into dc voltage.The function of MOSFET is controlled by the program written
in Microcontroller

Then this dc supply is given to inverter it consists of MOSFET's, in Case of single phase
supply 4 MOSFET's are used , incase of 3 phase supply 6 MOSFETS's are used , by
using this MOSFET's dc supply is given to load (i.e) grid

Inverter converts the dc supply to ac supply and give it to load (i.e) grid , in case if load is
dc supply an rectifier ( i.e ) diode is placed in between inverter and load.
APPLICATIONS:
 Photovoltaic (pv) sources.

ADVANTAGES:
 High efficiency
 Low cm voltage
 Improved magnetic utilization
CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION

This paper proposes a MOSFET transformerless inverter with a novel MOSFET-based phase
leg, which achieves:

1) high efficiency by using super junction MOSFETs and SiC diodes;

2) minimized risks from the MOSFET phase leg by splitting the MOSFET phase leg with
optimized inductor and minimizing the di/dt from MOSFET body diode reverse recovery;

3) high magnetics utilization compared with previous high efficiency MOSFET

transformerless inverters in [21], [22], [25], which only have 50% magnetics utilization. The
proposed transformerless inverter has no dead-time requirement, simple PWM modulation for
implementation, and minimized high-frequency CMissue.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES

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[2] S. B. Kjaer, J. K. Pedersen, and F. Blaabjerg, “A review of singlephase grid-connected

inverters for photovoltaic modules,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 41, no. 5, p. 1292, Sep.
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[3] Q. Li and P. Wolfs, “A review of the single phase photovoltaic module integrated
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[4] Y. Xue, L. Chang, S. B. Kjaer, J. Bordonau, and T. Shimizu, “Topologies of single-phase

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[5] W. Yu, J. S. Lai, H. Qian, and C. Hutchens, “High-efficiency MOSFET inverter with H6-
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