ST E A M C H A RT S

A Table f Th e o r e t i cal Je t V e lo ci t i es an d Th e
o

C o rr e ct i o n s o f M e r cu r y C o lu m n s
W I TH

F I FTY I L L U ST R AT I V E P R O B L E M S

F . O . E LLENWOOD
As sista t P
n s
ro fe so r o H at P w E gi i g C ll U iv ity
f e o er n n ee r n orn e n e rs

A m ica S ci y f M c ha ic l E gi s
,

M mb
e er o f th e er n o et o e n a n n ee r

I
F R ST E D T O I I N
F I R ST T H O US A N D

N E W YO R%

J O H N W I L E Y 85 S O N S, I NC .

LO N D O N : C H APM AN H ALL LI MITED ,

19 14
 C py ight 9 4 by
o r
,
1 1 ,

F O ELLEN W O O D
. .

C o p v ri g h t ed i n G rea t B it i
r a n

ENGI NEERI NG L I B R
ARY

P un xs a m a r m c C OMP A N Y
30 7 - 2 ” Wen t Tw e n t y -fi ft h S t t ree . N e w Y or k
 P R E FACE

TH I s li ttl e book is in t en d e d to be o f as sis t ance t o engineers a n d

student s w h en makin g cal cul ation s in v o lv in g wet or superh eated
steam Th e chi ef aim of th e a ut h or h as been to prepare a set o f
.

steam char t s whi c h s h all be accura t e and comprehen sive an d at ,

the same tim e conveni ent t o h andl e and easy to rea d An attempt
,
.

h as al so been made to give conc i se ly t h e correc ti ons t o be app lied

, ,

t o th e readi ngs o f mercury co lumns an d t o p rep are a tab l e o f

,

v el ocities w hic h it is h ope d may prove usef ul

,
.

I n order to illus t rate some of t h e uses of th e c har ts a n d tab l e s ,

a n d al so t o aid t h ose wh o may de s ire it a number of p rob l ems wit h

, ,

th e ir so l u t ions h ave been a d d e d T o make th ese of more a ssis t ance

,
.
,

th ey h ave been i n d exe d F or th e f urt h er ai d of t h ose wh o may

.

d esire a brief review of th e th ermo dynamics of s t eam an d in or d er ,

t o make c l ear t h e meaning of all t erm s use d th e f ew p ag es of ,

F undamen t al P r incip l es were written .

For the mai n chart t ot al h eat an d s p eci fi c v o l ume w ere c h osen

,

as coor dinates because of t h e fa ct that upon t h ese two v al ues

cou ld be p l otte d lines of constant pressure entropy an d qua lity (or ,

superh eat ) so th a t eac h pair of t h e five se t s of lines wi ll make c l ear

,

intersect i ons T h e total h eat en t ropy c h art d oes not p ermi t t h is

. .

To comp l ete th e set of val ues or di nari ly nee d ed th e curve was ,

ad d ed show i ng t h e heat of the li quid and temper at ure o f v apori

,

z ati on . The supplementary chart P l ate 8 enab l e s one t o re a d t h e

, ,

external work and t h eref ore obtain eas i ly the intrinsic h ea t T h e

, .

i ndex chart for Pl at es 1 to 6 was made t o give a general i d e a of t h e

rel ative pos i tion and shape of eac h set of l ine s t o s h ow quickl y ,

t h e limiting val ues f or e a c h o f t h e six sec t ion s an d t o as sist in ,

d eterm ini ng th e part icula r p l at e nee d e d .

T h e r ange of pres s ure s qual ities an d s u p erh e ats i s in t en d e d to

, ,

be more t han s u ffi cien t f or present prac t ice For th e w e t region .

th e inc h o f mercury was u s e d as th e main uni t t o repre s en t p re ss ure s

iii

M231 09 9
iv P R E F A CE

l ess t h an one poun d abso l u t e as i t is beli eve d that this i s t h e more

,

conveni ent one for practi cal work Spec i al endeavor h as been .

m ad e to prev en t conf usion o f th e s e two uni ts by us ing broken l ines

to rep resent pressures in inc h e s of mercury an d by putting t h e ,

proper u n i ts with eac h numera l represent ing p ressure in t hi s reg i on .

Th e book f orm of c h art was chosen because t h e author bel i eves

t h at it wil l be of greater convenience and easier to read than a large
folde d c h art made t o the same scales B y maki ng the plates small .

the eye h as to tr ave l onl y a s h ort d i stance t o read the scales and ,

this m ay al so be d one wit h out requiring any d esk space w h atever .

T he book f orm also h as t h e advantages o f be t ter protecting the

c h art permi tting a qui cker reference and wa s ting l ess space i n t h e
, ,

corners th an d oes t h e same c h art wh en in th e f orm of a l arge

,

fo l de d s h eet .

T o Pro f Lionel S M arks an d to D r Ha rvey N D a vis and to

. . . .
,

t h eir p ub l is h ers Lon gm an s G reen , Co the aut h or desires to

,
.
,

express hi s t h anks f or permiss i on to use t h eir steam tab l es in pre

paring these charts He al so w i shes to a cknowledge his indebted
.

ness t o P rof A lbe rt W Smit h D irec t or o f Sibley C o ll ege a nd to

. .
, ,

Pro f Will iam N B arnar d f or t h eir many h el p fu l criticisms %and

. .
,

to M r C H B erry an d M r E T J ones ins t ruc t ors in Sibley

. . . . . .
,

C o ll ege for t h eir ab l e assistance in p reparing t h e c h arts an d

,

prob l ems . F O E . . .

I TH A CA N ew York Au gu st 1 9 1 4
, , , .
 C O N T E N TS
PAGE

I N TR ODU CTI ON
Fundam ental Prin ciples
Preparation and Us e of the S team Charts and Tabl es
Atmospheri c Press ure and B arom etri c C orr ecti ons

CHARTS
Index Chart
Plates 1 to 7 , the Total H eat -
Volum e Chart
Plat es 8a and 8b , th e E xt ern al Work -
Volum e Chart
Plate 9 a, C orr ection Of M ercury C olumn D ue to Temp erature
Plate 9b ,C orr ection of B ar om etri c R eadi n g s D ue to Chan g e
E levati on

TA B LE S
1 . C orr ection Of B arometri c R eading s to °
45 Latitude
2 . Corr ection Of th e B arom ete r for C apillari ty
3 D ens it y
. of M ercury
4 . Theoretical Velocities Of St eam

PROBLE MS

I N DE X
 I N TR O D U C TI O N

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE S

P ress ure Volume an d Temp erature En trop y

- - Di agrams —I n th e
s tudy Of thermo dyn ami c s of vap ors t h e p re ss ure vo l ume a n d th e -

temperat ure entropy di a gr ams are Of very great imp ort ance for t he
-
,

reason that by t h ei r ai d t h e are as representing work an d h eat ,

resp ec t ive ly may usually be sh o wn Since t h e engineer i s con

,
.

cerned with the tra n s forma t ion O f h ea t in t o work any di agrams ,

w hic h wil l assis t him to un d erst an d h ow thi s i s accomp l is h ed wil l

always be very u s e fu l O ther diagr a ms may be of more assis t ance
.

i n Obtaining numeric al resu l ts bu t t h e s e tw o w i ll always be fore

,

most i n anal yzing t h ermo dyn ami c processe s .

P re ss ureVolume-
Di a gram — Re f erring t o F ig
l a w h ere t h e
. .
,

absolute pressure P i n poun ds per s quare f oo t is represente d by

, , ,

t he ordi nates and t h e vo l ume V in cubic f eet by absciss ae the

, , , ,

area abhg undern eat h curv e ab re p res en t s t h e work d one in foot

pounds by t h e substance in p a ssing al ong th e cons t an t p re ss ure line -

from a to b T hi s might be expressed in thi s manner :

.

k
Vb
Wor =
[ P dV = P [Vb Va] area abhg .

I n general it m ay be s t ate d t hat i f a s ubs t ance exp an ds or i s

,

compresse d in suc h a manner t h a t it s p ressure volume hi s t ory i s -

d e finite for th e entire c h ange a s from th e p o i nt a to s ome poin t 0

,

al ong th e p ath adc Fig 1 a t h e fo ll owing e quation i s t rue

,
.
,

] : fV
°
Work = P dV area adchg .

T his would represen t work d one by t h e subs tance upon s ome

o th er body In c ase t h e s ubst ance had been compre s se d a long the
.
 F UN DAM EN TAL PRI NC IP LE S

a th cda th en th e a re a odug h represents the work done upon thi s

p ,

substance in or d er to compress i t
a

or Work P dV

[ area adchg ] area odugh .

Temp e rature - —
E ntrop y Di agram I f, by the addit i on heat a of ,

substance may be made to change it s state p o i nt a to some ot h er

Vo l ume

FI G . 1 .

con di t ion b in suc h a manner that its t emperature and pre s sure
,

are uni f orm through ou t t h e entire m ass of t h e sub s t ance during

*

t hi s c hange th en th e h eat whic h has been a d de d to th is sub s tance

,

i s equal t o t h e are a mabn Fig 1 b T hi s is true by reason o f t h e

,
. .

defini tion Of entropy In other wor ds f or such p r ocess es as thi s i f

.
, ,

H Heat a dd e d t o th e s ub st ance in B t u . . .

°
T Absolute tempera ture 4 60 t F ) .

qb E ntropy
then th e c h ange o f entropy from a t o b is d e fine d by th e e qu a tion
dH
do
T

Tf
a
fb
(15a
T d (b are a abn m

I t i s p a rt i c ula rl y i m p o r ta t
n n ot to c f s thi
on u e s wor d un i for m it
w h t h e wor d con st
ant .
 F UND AMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S

t h e con di t i on given above i f the heat had

F or , b een added at
constant temperature as from b to f F i g 1 b then , ,
.
, ,

ar e a bfkn

f
I
?
15
or , of ¢b d i stance bf or ah .

For bot h of these cases the addi t i on Of h eat to the substance caused
an increase O f entropy Had the heat been abstracted the entropy
.
,

w ould h ave been decreased N ote that i t i s a lways the chan ge in

.

entropy ft h at engineers are in terested in r ath er than it s abso l u t e ,

values .

—
Adi ab ati c s T h e t erm adi abati c means no t r an sf er of h eat
. .

Hence an adiabat i c expans i on or compress i on means one in w hi c h

no h eat is added or abstracted during the process .

Reve r s i ble an d Irrevers i ble Adi abati cs The two general —

.

classes into whi ch all adiabat i cs may be div i ded are call ed revers i ble ,

an d irrevers i ble adiabatics An a diabatic expansion or compres

.

s i on w hic h is fricti onl ess an d whi ch takes place i n such a manner

,

that the substance passes t hrough a continuous series of uni form

states woul d be cal l ed a revers i ble adi abati c A revers ib l e adia
,
.
,

batic is also calle d a constant entropy l ine or isentropic because a ,

vert ical li ne on the temperature en t ropy c h ar t is t h e on l y on e whi c h

-

permits the area underneat h it to become equ al t o zero t hus sat i s ,

fyi n g the defin i t i ons o f adi abat i cs an d entropy .

I t is imposs ib l e to have these conditions fulfille d in a c tu al cases ,

but it is us eful to study t h em a n d comp are t h em wi th t h e actua l

’

condi tions w hich may be made to appro a c h very c l ose t o t h e i deal .

Thus a substance may expand in a singl e cyl in d er wit h but very

, ,

litt l e frict i on and wit h but very litt l e tr ans fer of h eat t o or from
,

the cylinder wall s an d S l owl y enough so t h a t all of th e substance

,

in t his cyl in d er is alm os t exact l y in th e same stat e Suc h cases .

may properly be t reate d as reversib l e adiabat i cs or i sen trop i cs .

“ ”
O n th e ot h er h an d sudden or free exp ansions are sure to
,

set up eddi es whose ki net i c energy will soon reappear in t h e form

of heat thus caus i ng an increase of entropy
, Friction will h ave a .
 FU NDAM E N TAL P RI NC IP LE S

s i mil ar e ffect Suc h expans i ons are called irrevers i b l e a nd if t h ey

.
,

have taken p l ace without any heat bei ng transferred to or from

another substance they wo uld be called i rr evers i ble adi abati cs
, .

I n the case of a di ab a t i c expans i on of gases or steam through a

properly f ormed nozzle in w hi ch t h ere are no eddi es f ormed and in
-
,

w hich there i s no fri ct i on the transformat i on of t h e available heat

,

energy i nto veloc i ty is complete and may there f ore be cons i dered as
a revers ible adiabatic In actual steam turb i ne nozz l es the loss due
.

to fri ct i on and eddies is extremely small so that in turbine des i gn ,

t h e expansion in t h e nozzle i s j ust ly assume d to be a reve rs ible

adiabatic T h e main l osses in t h e turb i ne occur in t h e endeavor
.

to trans f er the energy Of the j et to t h e turbine b l ades T h ese losses .

cause considerab l e re h eating so t hat in any a c t ual case t h ere is

,

considerable i ncre ase in the entropy Of th e steam in pass i n g t hrough

the turbine As an i llustr a t i on see prob l ems 4 1 and 4 2
.
, .

The term adiabatic wil l be used h ereaf ter to me a n re v er sible

a di abatic unl ess specificall y st a t e d oth erwis e
,
.

Work and H eat Dep end up on —

Path F rom th e con s i d eration
of

t h e P V and To charts it will be eviden t that it i s not su ffi c i ent to

give merely t h e ini t i al an d final states of a substance in or d er to
find the work d one an d t h e h eat re quire d to go from one state to
ano th er I t is al so necessary t o give t h e exact pat h to be f ollowed
. .

T hus in F igs 1 a an d 1 b h eat might be added an d abstracted i n

,
.
,

suc h a manner that th e s t a t e c i s fin all y reac h ed by means of th e

cons t an t pressure l ine ab an d th e con s tant vo l ume line be or
, ,

t hi s same state migh t h ave been reac h e d more d irect ly by some

suc h l ine as adc .

B y Observing th e areas it wi ll be seen t h a t t h e work d one in the

firs t case is abhg whi l e for th e pat h adc t h e work d one is represented
,

by t h e area adchg Al so from t h e Tgb c har t it may be seen that in

.

going from a to b an amoun t o f heat equal to the area abh m was

supp lie d t o th e s ubs t ance an d in going al ong th e constant vo l um e
,

line be an amount O f h eat equa l to the area bcmn was abstracted

, ,

from t h e substance The substance might also have reache d t h e

.

state 0 by expanding adiabat i call y along the line adc % but note
the d ifference in areas representing the work and h ea t .
 F UN DAMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S

Cycles I f a s ubstance should be made to fo ll o w a seri es of

.
-

’
paths suc h as ab be and ca so that i t is returned to its ini t i al
, , , ,

state t h e sub s tance wou l d then have comp l eted a cycle and the
, ,

substance u s ed would have been called t h e working substance .

Had the cyc l e been comp l ete d in t he order O f t h e l etter s abc an , ,

amount O f work in f oo t pounds e qual to t h e area abc Fig l a -

, , ,
.
,

would h av e been d one u p on s ome externa l mec h anism Th e h eat .

equi valent in B t u of thi s work woul d be represented by the

. . .
,

area abc Fig 1 b T hi s h ea t woul d h ave been supp lie d t o t h e

,
. .

working substance from some external source .

whi ch are In dep e n den t of th e

P r op erti e s Af ter a cyc l e Path —

h as been comple t ed the substance is in exactly the same cond i t i on

,

as at th e begi nning s o its pressure vo l ume temperature entropy

, , , , ,

and intrinsic h eat must al l be t h e same as origi nally Li kewise i f a .

,

substance is in a certai n state such as c it merely means t h at all , ,

of the above p r op erti es have s ome defin i te value an d may be de ter mi n ed

r egar dless of the man ner i n whi ch thi s s u bs tan ce may h ave r eached

thi s s tate 0 .

—
Intri ns i c H eat Ol In tri n si c En ergy E it h er o f these terms may
'
.

be use d to represent all o f t h e h eat energy containe d wit hin a

subs t ance measured above some convenient standard I t is to be .

caref ull y no t e d t h at thi s i s a different quantity in general from t h e

h eat required to bring t h e substance to a particul ar state from t h e
s t an d ar d con dition T hi s i s on accoun t of t h e f act that when h eat
.
,

is a dded t o a sub s t ance in whi c h no h eat is l ost by rad i ation or ,

otherwis e in whi c h there is no c h ange in el ectrical or c h emical

,

energy or in whi c h t h ere is no c h ange in t h e ki net i c energy of t h e

,

substance d ue to its mass velocity then in going from a t o b a , ,

general equation may be written thus : ,

k
b

c
He a t G ai n i n intrinsi E xternal wor
ad ded a h eat a d one a

T h e external work d one mean s t ha t work is done by t h e sub

stance upon s ome external mechanism I n case t his term is nega .

t ive it means that t h e work i s done by th e ext ernal mec h anism

,

upon th e substance .
 F UNDAMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S

S team Formed at Cons tan t Pres s ur e —For

nearly a l l commercia l
.

pur poses steam i s generated in a steam bo iler at a pressure whi c h

i s mainta ined nearly constant . It i s therefore very important t o
consider carefully the format i on O f steam at constant pressure It .

has been found by experi ment t h at during the change of st a te Of

any subs t ance from a liquid to a v ap or tha t if t h e pressure be kept
,

const an t t h e temperature o f the vapor in cont a ct wit h it s liqui d will

also rem ain constan t t h e vaporiz at i on has been compl ete d .

FI G . 2
.

Suppose tha t a poun d of water at a temperature Of mel ting ice ,

32 F is contained in a meta l cyli n d er wit h a t i g ht fitti n g piston

°
-
.

re st ing upon t h e surfa ce of t h e w at er Th e are a o f this p is t on an d

.

t h e t otal weigh t res t ing upon th e w a t er bei ng kno wn t h e ab so ,

l u t e pressure Ou the water may be d etermine d Let this v alue in .

pounds per s qu are inc h be d eno t e d by p and in p oun ds per square

,

foo t by P The vo l ume O f t his poun d o f water wi ll be very small

.
,

only 01 6 cubic f ee t We may represen t this s ta rt ing point by t he

. .

letter a in F igs 2a an d 2b (We l ocate the poin t a on the zero

. .

entropy line merely a s a matter Of convenience as we s hall be con ,

cerned only wi t h t h e h e a t measured above 32 F ) °

.
 F UNDAMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S

Let h eat be app lie d to the cyli nder n ow and i t wil l be foun d that ,

at fi rs t t h e p i ston moves up only a little due to t h e S li ght in crease

.
,

i n the volume of the water T h e temperature however i s Ob .

, ,

served to rise rapidly unt i l i t reaches some defini te po int dependent

e nt i rely upon the pressure i mposed by t h e p i ston Let t his state .

b e represented by b T h e substance is n ow all in the f orm of

.

li qu i d but at the part i cu l ar temperature known as the t emp erature

,

o f vapor i zat i on for t his given pressur e .

Si nce t h e volume h as c h ange d only very slightly t h e point s a ,

an d b on the P V diagram w i l l a l most exactly coinc i de E ven .

though thi s watpr had been h eated to a temperature of 4 00 F as °

.
,

i t might h ave been if under a pressure of 250 pounds or more its ,

volume wou l d st ill only be 01 8 7 cub i c foot T h i s extremely small

. .

change in volume means that very little work shown by the area ,

a bkk
’
Fig 2a has been d one on the piston and consequent ly all
,
.
, ,

the h eat that h as been app li ed h as been used to increase t h e sen

s i ble heat o f th e water .
v

Th e H eat of th e Li q ui d
is t h e term appli ed to thi s h eat whi c h ,
°
is use d to h eat a uni t wei ght Of water from 32 F to the temperature .

O f vapori zation The area representing t h e h eat O f the l i qui d i s

.

a bm m
l Fi g 2b Wi th furth er addition of h eat it will n ow be
,
. .

found that t h e vo lume is increased very much and that the temper
ature remains constant until some state 6 is reached T h e water .

has now all been evaporated and exists in t h e form Of dry saturated
,

steam An y further add i t i on of heat wi ll cause i t to become super

.

heate d and any abstraction of he a t wil l cause i t to be part i ally

,

condensed The heat whi ch was necessary to vapori ze thi s poun d

.

of water under thi s pressure is represen t ed by the a rea be u m1 a n d ,

i s cal l e d the laten t heat of vap ori zati on or l atent heat of steam ,
.

Th e Total H eat of Dry S atur ated S team is equa l to the h ea t of

t h e liqui d plus th e l aten t h e a t of vaporizat i on and is equal to th e
area abcn m Fig 2b ,
. .

Th e S aturati on Curve any di agram is the curve wh ic h S how s

on

the two coord inate values of dry saturated steam for the entire
range o f scales on that d i agram Thus i n F i g 2a the specific volume . .

o f dry satur a ted steam may be determ i ned for any pressure by
 F UND AMEN TAL P RI N CI P LE S

means of the sat ur ation c urv e c 01 02 Th e sat ur ation curv e ma y

,
.

also be seen f or o th er coor dinates a s in F ig 2b P late l b or Pla te 8a .

, ,
.

Wet S team Quali ty an d .

—D uring th e f orma tion
of a p oun d o f

dry saturate d steam in t h e manner j ust outlined i t might h ave ,

been poss i ble to stop t he addition o f h e at before all t h e w a ter was

ev aporated an d the resu l tant mi xture of water and steam would be
what i s known as we t steam Th at p orti on by wei gh t o f thi s mix
.

ture whic h is dry v apor woul d be kn own as th e Quali ty o f the

steam . Th us if x represents quali ty and if nine tenths o f the -

poun d of water h av e been vaporized t his f act would be expresse d ,

by t h e equat i on x I n F ig 2b t h e qua lity at c is unity and

.

a t b t h e q uality is zero % or x c 1 00% an d X% , 0 I t is i m .

port ant to no t e t h at thi s interpretation of quali ty is t h e mos t

useful one in us ing the TqS c h art In t his c h art it is un d erstoo d th a t
.

a uni t we i ght of substance is being considered un l ess i t be defi

n i tely stated O t h erwise and it is sometimes neces sary to carry thi s
,

unit weight of substance through out the extreme range of qua lity
in order t o analyze a cyc l e or t o un d erstan d many imp ortant
th ermodynamic rel ations .

O n th e other h and ste a m co mi n g from a boi l er o f ten carries

,

with it a considerable amoun t o f moisture I f a sample of thi s .

mixture be Obtai ned then the weight o f t h e d ry steam present

,

divided by t h e weigh t of thi s entire mixture wou l d be the quali ty

of the steam coming f rom t h e boiler the weight of water st i l l r e ,

main ing in t h e boil er no t bein g consi d ered a t all in t h is determi

nation Of quali ty .

Th e Total H eat of Wet S team is e qual t o the h ea t

t h e li qui d of

p lus th e qua lity mu l tip lied by the l atent h eat of vaporization or ,

h x L w h ere h represent s t h e h ea t of t h e li qui d and L t h e l atent

,

h e at I f c Fig 2b represents t his s tate o f th e st e am th en t h e

.
’
,
.
, ,

are a abc n m is e qual to th e t ot al h ea t a t c

’ ’ ’
.

S up erh e ated S team .

—I i h eat is add ed t o d ry satur ate d s te a m
,

t h e pressure remai ning constant a s before t h e vo lume an d t emper ,

a t ure will be found to increase %and the steam is sai d to be super

h eated Superh eated steam m ay theref ore be d e fine d as any
.

steam regardless of h ow formed h aving a temper a ture higher tha n

, ,
 F UND AMEN TAL PRINC IP LE S

t h e temper a ture of saturated steam of the same pressure The .

di fference between these two temperatures is called the D egrees of

s up er heat and i s nearly always represented by the l etter D
, F or .

the state d F i g 2b D
,
Td . Tc , If the sp eci fic heat of sup er
.

heated s te am at constant pressur e be represented by c, th en 0, D ,

i s equal to t h e area cdn l n and is called by e i t h er of th e t erms heat ,

of su p er heat heat of sup er heati n g or su p er heat

,
.

The value of the spec i fic heat O f superheat s t eam is va riab l e ,

an d depends upon both the pressure and t h e degrees o f superh eat .

Th e Total H e at of S up e rh e ated S te am is equal to th e t otal h eat

of dry saturated steam plus the heat of superheat Thus for t h e .

state po int d Fig 2b t h e total h eat at d i s equal to t h e area abcdn l m

,
.
,
.

Total H eat may now most conveni ent l y be defined in the manner
-

in whic h it is used by engineers that i s a general d efini t i on w hic h

, ,

wi ll h o l d f or we t dry or superheated steam

, , .

Total H eat of S team i n an y Gi ven S tate i s t h e a mount of h eat

requ ired to heat at constant pressure a unit wei ght of water from
the temperature o f melt ing ice to t h e state under consi d erat i on .

Thus referring to F i g 2b .

Total Heat area abc n m h x c

’
L

Total Heat area abc n m h L

Total Heat area abcdn l m h L c .

I n t h e United S tates the uni ts are almost always B t u per . . .

pound Al l values O f total heat whi ch are l ik ely to be needed w ill

.

be f oun d on Plates 1 t o 7 inc l us ive .

Extern al Work at Con s tan t Pr es s ure the perio d of .

—D uring

vapori zat i on the vo l ume of a pound of water is changed to t he ve ry

much larger vo l ume of dry saturated steam as from V 5 to V0 , ,

F i g 2a
. .

If th i s volume i s represented i n cub i c f eet by V a nd the pressure

10 F U N D AM E N TA L PRI NC IP LE S

in pounds per square foot by P the work done duri ng vapori zat i on ,
is
C

Work j
b
P
[ VG Vb
] ft .
-
lbs . are a b a h /c ,

or AP (Vc V b) B t u . . .

A being t aken as th e reciprocal of th e mec ha nical equ i val ent of

1 1
heat or A
575
,
777 5

AP (V 0 V5) is commonly known as the ex tern a l laten t

vap ori zati on .

D uring superheating t h e ex t ernal work done i s

d
Work
1 P
[ vd vc
J ft 1b s .
-
. area cdh l h

or AP (V d V 0) B . If . 11 .

°
F orth e en tire process start ing wit h water at 32 w h en i ts
spec i fic v o l ume woul d accord i ngly be 01 6 cub i c fee t per pound .
,

the external work done in order to reach some s tat e suc h as c or d ’

wou l d be

E
c

Work
] P VJ — Va
j ft lbs = AP
[ Vc 01 6
J B t u
’
-
. . . . . .

Work
l [
P v d Va ft 1bs
.
-
.

[
AP y d 01 6
] B . t u . .

T his is w h a t i s call ed the con s tan t p r ess ure ex tern al work a n d is ,

giv en for al l condition s O f s t eam by Pl ates 8a and 8b .

Thi s work h a s been d one upon t h e p i st on s o that after some ,

s t ate suc h a s d h as been reac h e d t h e piston an d a ll weights resting ,

upon i t have more potential energy by th e amoun t o f AP [ V d Va] —

B t u t h an t h ey h ad at t h e beginn i ng O f app licat i on of hea t
. . .

to th e water in cond i tion a Thi s i ncrease in potent i al energy Of

.

the p i ston and its weigh ts h as come from the h eat w hich was n eces
sary t o form t h e pound of ste a m a l ong t h e constant pressure pat h
abcd . N ow i f from t h e to t al a mount of h ea t whi c h h as been
,

added t o a subs t ance in or d er to re a c h a certain s t a t e by going

along a certai n pat h all of t h e h e at whic h h as been used t o do
,

ext ernal work be s ubtracted the amount l e ft wou ld be th e g ai n in

,

intrins ic energy of th e subs tance provi d e d th ere w ere no l os s e s ,

12 F UNDAMEN TA L PRI NC IP LE S

The specific volume may be read di rectly from P l ates 1 to 8 i n clu

S ive .

E ntrop i e s .
— For conven i ence entropy o f water at 32° is taken as
,

zero . Hence the en tr op y o f the li q ui d per pound o f w ater from ,

Fig . 2b is
,

b dH 0, dT
T T
Where cp the spec i fic heat of water at const ant pres sure T hi s .

v alue depends upon the temperatur e so the integrat i on is n ot ,

often made but i nstead the entropy of t h e li qui d i s usually obtained

,

from t he s team tables .

Th e E ntrop y of Vap ori zati on is from Fig 2b , .

,

c dH L L atent h eat
i n: ¢b b T Tb [
a bs Temp . .

Th e E ntr op yS up e rh e at of or t h e c hange of entropy due to

superheating is from F i g 2b ,
.

d dH 0, dT
Pd
( P
( C
T T
where cp represents t h e constant pressure specific heat of super
heated steam .

S te am in any s tate means the total entropy up

Th e E ntr op y of

to that s tate measured above the assumed zero o f entropy

,
.

For Wet Steam Total Entr op y i s equal to

th e
E ntropy Of the li qu i d (Q ual i ty ) (E ntropy O f vaporiza t ion )
For S up e rh e ate d S team th e Total En trop y i s equal t o
E ntropy of the l iqu id E ntropy o f vapori zation E n t ropy of

Superheat

Th e Total E ntr op i es are plotted on Pl ates 1 to 7 inc lusive an d

these should serve nearly every purpose for w hic h the engi neer
has need of the ir numeri cal values .

Ranki n e an d Claus i us Cycles The most useful cyc l e in power —

plant work i s the one represented by abfe F i gs 5 and 6 Problem 29 ,
.
,
.

Thi s cyc l e is some times known as the C laus ius Cycle and some
times as the R ankine C yc l e bu t S ince t h e an alysis O f this cyc l e w a s
,
 F UND AMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S

first pub lished by e a c h of these men at t h e same time there wil l ,

prob ably always be a di ff erence of opinion a s to whi ch n ame shoul d

be used .

If instead of a ll owing th e adiab at i c exp ans i on to cont inue unt i l

,

the back pressure i s reached as at f the expans i on had been

, ,
“ ”
stopped at the po in t 0 thus cutt ing off the toe in eac h di agram
, ,

there would be another cyc l e abode whi ch is preferred by many

, ,

engineers as a bas i s of compari son for the performance of r eci p ro

cat ing engines T his latter cycle i s oftent imes called the Rank i ne
.

and the other the C laus ius thus making a convenien t di st i nct i on
,
.

“
They are also spo ken of as the complete expans i on and the
“ ”
incomplete expans i on cycles These latter terms wi ll be used in
.

the prob lems Of t hi s book i n order that there may be no poss ible
confusi on o f th e two cyc l es by us ing the terms Ranki ne and
C l aus ius .

Av ai lable En ergy is a term that may h ave many meanings but ,

wh en used in connect i on with s t eam cyc l es i t means the energy of

the steam whi ch would be converted into work by an i deal mec h
ani s m that would carry out exactly the theoret i cal cycle Thus .
,

in us ing Table IV the engineer would cons i der the term to represent
,

the net area of the complete expansion cycle by assumi ng that all ,

of t hi s energy i s ava i lable for the product i on of veloc i ty i n the

ideal nozzle Then with an i deal turb i ne all of thi s veloc i ty energy
.

could be transformed into work When des i gni ng a mult i stage.

-

turb ine however i t i s necessary to find the energy available for

, ,

each stage Thi s amount of energy is affected by the reheat ing in

.

each Of the preceding stages as we ll as the drop in pressure i n t he

,

stage being consi dered .

F or any steam prime mover th e avail ab l e energy i s a small

,

part of the heat suppli ed to it S ince a very large p art O f this he at

,

must nece ssarily be given up t o t h e exh au st .

P RE PARATI O N AND US E OF THE S TEAM CHARTS AND
TABLE O F VELO CI TIE S

T he general i d ea of the mai n di agram whi c h consi sts O f P lates

,

1 to 6 i nclus ive may be rea di l y obta i ned from the index chart
, , .

I t is seen to be divi ded into twelve equal parts the top and b ottom
,

h alves Of each sect i on being indicated by the subscri pts a and b ,

respect ively These two halves wi ll be found fac ing each other S O
.
,

th at wh erever thi s c h art i s opened a complete sect i on may be seen

, .

The same total heat scale i s used throughout but the volume
,

s cale for each sect i on i s changed so that the general relati on of

each family of curves to on e another will remai n about the same .

H aving establi shed the scale of volumes and total heats con ,

s tant pressur e l ines were then plotted from the values given by the
s team tables of M arks and D avi s I n the superheated regi on these
.

li nes are sli ghtly curved but i n t h e wet regi on they are strai ght
, .

—
F or those pressures not given i n the steam tables all fract i onal
ressures and those g i ven i n inches of mercury — the volumes and
p
t o t al heats were determined i n two ways F or t h e wet regi on ,
.

s pec i al auxi li ary curves were drawn by comput ing for certai n
quali ti es the total h eats and volumes for those pressures given by
th e steam tables From such auxi li ary curves the des ired values
.

could then be determined and the curv es plotted i n their correct

,

relat ive posi t i ons In the same manner the corresponding values
.

w ere f ound for all fract i onal pressures above on e pound i n the
s uperheated region F or t hose pressures less th an one pound the
.

v olumes i n the superh eated field were f ound from Linde s equat i on ’

and the total h eats were determined by addi ng c to the total

h eat of the dry saturate d steam . The values O f the spec i fic heat
for these low pressures were determi ned by assumi ng as correct
th e spec i fic heats use d by M arks and D av i s for the pressures from
on e to f o ur poun d s. A curve of spec ifi c h eats was then constructed
through t h ese points and extended into the regi on of l ower pres
s ures F rom suc h a curve the spec i fic h eats were rea d Thi s was
. .

th e be st met h o d by whic h th e li ne s in th e s uperh e ate d region of

14
 ST EAM C H ARTS AND T ABLE O F V ELOC ITI E S

P l ate 6a could be dr awn s o that they would all conti nue as smooth

F or t h e regi on of very l ow pressures suc h as those giv en on ,

P l ate 6 a i t was found that constant temperature li nes woul d almost

,

coinc i de with t h e li nes of constant total heat when in t h e super

heated regi on I t was therefore consi dered worth whi le to pu t
.
, ,

on the scale of approx imate temperatures as g iven on the upper

ri ght hand corner of thi s sheet They will be found to be of service

-
.

when i t i s desired to determi ne the pressure corresponding to a

certai n temperature and spec i fic volume F or a large part of thi s .

superheat ed regi on thi s temperature scale agrees wi th the temper

ature as Ob tai ned from the degrees of superheat and the temper
ature o f vapori zat i on It i s not i ntended however to be used as
.
, ,

an accurate m eans of obtaining the temperature as the error in ,

using i t may easi ly be one degree .

Entrop i e s — To
dr aw accurately the lin es of constant entropy
i t was necessary to construct a large total heat entropy di agram -

from whi ch could be obtai ned the values of total heat for the vari ous
pressur e lines and any entropy li ne In the superheated regi on .

t hi s was done for each entropy li ne but for the wet regi on only ,

every fifth li ne was Obtai ned in thi s m anner as t h e others coul d be ,

put i n by div i ders .

—
Quali ti e sThe li nes of cons t ant qua lity were obtai ned by com
puti ng the total heats for such quali t i es as 70 80 and 9 0 per cent , , .
,

and after these were p lotted t he intermedi at e ones w ere Obtaine d

,

by divi ders .

Th e H eat of th e Li q ui d Cur ve — It
was desired to h ave t h e hea t
.

of the l i qu i d for all pressures i f i t coul d be obta i ned w i thout i nter

,

feri n g wi th the other li nes of the chart The lower left hand port i on
.
-

of each sect i on was the only space avai lable and i t was found by ,

tri al that thi s curve would fit there very conveni ently S ince it .

i s important to be able to read the heat of the li quid j ust as accu

r ately as the total heat these values should n atur ally be plotted
,

on scales of equal magnitude T hi s has been done by supplying

.

the numbers in parentheses thus establ i shi ng t h e h e at of th e li qui d

,

scale .
16 S TE AM C HA RTS AN D T ABLE OF V ELOC IT I E S

Te mp erature of Vap ori zati on — S i nce

the temperature o f dry
.

saturated steam i s the same as th at of wet steam havi ng the same

pressure i t i s possib le to co n struct a scale on any li ne i ntersect ing
,

the constant pressure li nes i n the wet regi on S O that such a scale ,

will represent the temperatures of vapori zat i on Inasmuch as the .

heat Of the li qui d i s Often des ired for some defini te temperature i t ,

i s natural to try to place these two curves as close together as pos

s ible They were therefore comb i ned by merely graduati ng the
.

heat of the li qui d curve already drawn so that i t woul d also giv e
, ,

the temperature of vapori zat i on for each pressure .

In order to find the temperature of the superheated stea m it i s ,

merely necessary to add the degrees of superheat to the temper

ature Of vapori zat i on .

Plate No 7 i s a spec i al addi ti on to the main h eat vo l ume c h art

.
-

in order to enable on e to work wi th unusually hi gh superheats for

pressures rangi ng from 1 0 to 4 5 pounds per square i nch ab solute ,

such as are used when reheat ing steam to superheats of 500 or

as i s done i n the Ferrant i turb i ne It was not thought wort h whil e
.

to S how thi s plate on the Index C hart .

Plate No 8 gives the extern al work i n B t u done by a pound of

. . . .

steam duri ng i ts format i on at constant pressure from water at

32 F unt i l i t reaches the state under cons i derat i on For Plate 8a
°
,
. .

there are two volume scales and for 8b four are used The small .

drawi ng in the upper ri ght— hand corner i s i ntended to give the

external work for the low pressures when the quality i s relat ively
hi gh so that the volumes become too great for the mai n part of 8b
, .

For pressur es below one pound absolute there i s a regi on for whi ch ,

no values are given but it will seldom if ever h appen that such
, , ,

values wi ll b e des ired .

—
Tabl e of Veloci tie s Any body hav ing a wei ght Of on e pound
and a veloc i ty of v feet per second wi ll have kineti c energy due to
,

thi s veloc i ty equal to

ft .
-
lbs .

whi ch i s equal to
B t u
. . .
 S TE AM C HARTS AN D T ABLE O F V ELO C ITI E S

Calling t his kinetic energy in B . t . u .

,
E, the equat i on becomes

VE
Then for a nozzle whi ch transforms the avai lable heat energ y i nto
,

veloc i ty wi thout any losses the veloc i ty i s ,

V 223-7 Vav ai lab le energy B t ,

. . 11 .

Table IV was prepared by usi ng thi s equat i on .

The av ai lab le energy i n a steam nozzle i s usually taken as th e

total heat at entrance to the nozzle mi nus the total heat for the nozzle
b ack pressure and the same entropy as at entrance
,
Thi s neglects .

the small di fference between P I l and P 2 n wh ere P r ep r e

sents pressure and VW the volume of the water Thi s difference i s .

usu ally far too s m all to be cons i dered i n actual cases Thus taking .
,

.01 7 as the average volum e i n cubic f eet of a pound of hot water ,

thi s difference i s equal to

. 01 7 X 1 44
7 78
(p l p g) 0031 5 (p % p z) B . t . 11 . per lb .

a drop of 1 00 pounds per square i nch i n passi ng through t h e

F or
nozzle thi s difference would therefore become onl y
, ,
B t 11 , . . .

per pound .

Us i n g th e Ch arts — Whenever any two of the propert i es of super

h eated steam are gi ven that i s sufficient to locate the state po i nt
,

on the chart from whi ch all Of t h e other values may be determi ned

at once Thi s i s also true for wet steam except for the case i n whi ch
.
,

the two values given are pressure and temperature These two .

alone are not suffici ent to determi ne the state po i nt s ince the tem ,

p er atur e of wet steam i s i ndependent of i ts quali ty The problems .

will supply many i llustrat i ons of the use of the charts and tables .
 ATM O S P HERI C PRE SS URE AND B AR O METRIC
C O RRECTI O N S

Th e av erage p re ssur e o f t h e at mosp h ere at sea l ev e l i s abou t

pounds per square inch and for many purposes thi s v a lue is all ,

that is neede d O n the other h and it is Often necessary to determi ne

.
,

carefully the atmospheri c pressure at t h e ti me and place desired .

T his is usual ly done by measuring t h e h eigh t o f a column of mercury

whi c h is j ust balance d b y the atmosphere Pressures l ess than .

atmospheri c are also O ften determined by mean s of merc ury col

un m s All such measurements may be accurately made if care is
.
,

exerc i sed in Obtaini ng the readings and i n applying t h e proper corre o

tions .

Th e S tan dard Atmos p h eri c Pres s ureis equ ival ent to th e

h ei ght of a column Of mercury 760 milli metres hi gh at a temper ,
° °
ture Of 0 C at sea l evel and 4 5 l at i tude Reduc i ng thi s to the
.
,
.

inc h b as i s the standard atmosp h eric pressure become s

76 0 X 039 37 inc h es .

at at se a l evel and lat i tude of Si nce the engineer is n ot

.

concerned wit h any readi ngs of pressure c l oser than the thousandth
of an inch o f mercury and ve ry often only to the nearest hundre d th , ,

thi s is e quival ent to t h e value us u ally gi ven v i z inches a t ,

.
,

32 F
°
.

—
Th e Thi rty In ch B arometer Wh en measuring t h e pressure in
-
.

a condenser engineers often spe ak of the vacuum referred t o a

,

t hirty inc h barome t er T h e meaning of thi s express i on may not

-
.

a lways be the s ame a s it may be interpreted differently However ,

.
,

a l ogi cal meaning an d on e quite general ly used Ti s that 30 in c h es

act al ad pt d f i t a ti al
Th e ex v ue b y th Thi d G al C f c
o e or W i gh ts d
n ern on us e e r e n er on ere n e on e an

M asu s is tha t f a c l m
e re f m c y 7 6 0 m ill im t s h i gh th m c y b i g a t a t m p
o o u n o t
er ur f e re e er ur e n e era ure o

d th a c l a ti f g a vity b i g ti m t s p s d d
,

0 C
°
an e ce er c on o c p c
r S V l XII e n en e re er e on er se on ee o

p 6 6 f th T a au t Mem i s d B I t a ti al d P ids t M s s “
.
. . ,
“ ”
o e r v x e or u ureau n ern on es o e e ure

St m P w P l t E gi i g p 4 63 4 th diti Al s S t m Tablés f
. , .

”
1 S G h dt
’ '
ee en ar s ea o er an n n ee r n e on o ea or

d E gi i g C mp y p g 5
. .
, .

C d
on enser W k by th Wh l C d or e ee er on enser an n n eer n o an . a e .

18
20 ATM O S P H E RI C P RE S S U R E AN D BAR OME TRI C CO RREC TI ON S

for those cases i n whi ch a non expans ive scale i s used and may also -
, ,

of cour s e be used indirectly to correct to any other temperature

,

des ired say ,

Wh en a Full Len gth B rass S cale i s used to measure the hei ght
-

Of a column of mercury of some cons i derable magni tude such as ,

a barometer and the temperature of thi s scale i s not close to

,

the correct i on should be made to the scale as wel l as to the mercury .

Thus for barometers havi ng such scales i t may be des ired to

, ,

reduce the reading to 32 for the mercury and 6 2 f or the brass ° °

scale The following values gi ve thi s correct i on f or a column 30

.

i nches high Hence for any other co l umn say h it is onl y necessary
.
, , ,

1
to mul t ip ly by (3
)
—
3

CO ON IN INCH ES p F CO ON IN INCH ES
i c h s) i ch s)
R R ECTI R R EC TI
Tem p 0
F Tem
(F or 30 (F or 30
:
n e n e

S ub t r ac t 031

Vari ati on of Atmos p h eri c Pr es s ure —

with Alti tud e I t may hap .

pen that i t i s n ot conveni ent or pract i cab le to have a bar ometer at

the same place at whi ch i t i s desired to measure the pressure of the
atmosphere It does n ot require much Of a difference i n elevat i on i n
.

F
rom T abl e 1 , C i c la F
r u r , U S
. . We ather B ure a u N O 4 72
. .
 ATMO S PH E RI C PR E S S U RE AND BAR OME TRI C CO RR EC TI ON S

order to mak e qui te a vari ati on i n atmospheri c pressure TO Ob tai n .

the true pressure at some elevat i on whi ch is not extremely diff erent
from that at whi ch a b arometer i s read i t i s only necessary to ,

Observe the temperatur e O f the atmosphere and Obtai n the alt i

tude of each place Then by means Of Plate 9 b thi s correcti on
.
, ,

may b e readi ly Ob tai ned Thi s plate was i ntended to serve o nl y

*
.

i n those cases i n whi ch the change i n alt i tude mi ght be 1 00 feet or

less B u t after complet i on i t was found to agree wi th the corre e
.

t i ons Ob tai ned from the ab ove tab le for vari at i ons i n alt i tude of as
much as feet The average alt i tude i s to be used when oh
.

t aI n I n g the correct i on from t hi s plate .

Re duction to Stan dard Gravi ty When i t i s des ired to mak e a —

.

true compari son of pressures determined by hei ghts of mercury

column s i t i s necessary to reduce them to a common standard of
,

grav ity The standard usually adopted for thi s i s that at s ea level
.

and a lat i tude of Table 1 Twi ll give these correct i ons for the
vari ous lat i tudes .

The vari at i on of grav i ty due to change in alt i tude i s usually muc h

too small to require correct i on of mercury colun m s Thi s corre c .

t i on i s proport i onal to the hei ght Of the mercury and for a 30 inc h -

column amounts to ab out 001 8 inch for each feet above .

-

sea level It i s of course to be subtracted It i s important n ot

-
.
, ,
.

to confuse thi s correct i on with the vari at i on of the pressure of

the atmosphere itself due to change in alt i tude as ha s alrea dy
, ,

been given .

Corr e cti on Due to Cap illari ty T h e cap i ll ary act i on between —

.

mercury and glass will cause a depress i on of the column i f the

pressure i s constant so that the mercur y becomes stat i onary The .

correct i on to be made for thi s act i on may be very large i n case

the tube or the mercury is dirty or i f a very small tub e i s used .

The hei ght Of the meni scus and the di ameter of the tube are the
two most i mportant factors requi red to determine the amount O f
thi s correct i on Table II will give these correct i ons for nearly
.

all cases .

a df
P re p re ro m T ab l e 21 V ol II R ep or t hi f
Of th e C e of th e We a th er B ure au 1 9 00—1 9 01
TAb i d g d f ab l S m i ths i a Ta b l s
.
, , , .

”
r e r om T e 1 01 of th e on n e .
22 ATMO S P HE RI C P RE S S UR E AND B AR OME TRI C C O RRE CTI O N S

Reducti on of M ercury Column to P ound s p er S q uare Inch — For

t h e mos t i mp ortan t w ork i n connec t ion wi th th e meas urement of
stea m press ures by means o f mercury co l umns i t i s not usually ,

necessary to convert the reading to any o ther uni t T hus the .

absolute pressure in a condenser being measured by the difference

i n the he i ghts of t wo mercur y col umn s it i s conven i ent and proper ,

to use the inch of merc ury as the un i t to express such pressures .

Dens i ty of M ercury — When it i s necessary to convert inches of

.

merc ur y to pounds per squ are in ch Table III may be used , . Thi s
table was prepared by us ing t h e following equat i on
One cubic i nch a t 32 F is equal to °
.

1 (t 32) cu in a t t F . .
°
.

The density ,
poun d s per cubic inc h at 32 F was obtained °
.
,

from the equ ival en t gr ams per c c at 0 C

,
*
Then these . .
°
.

values f or al l t empera ture s were afterw ar d comp ared and found to

agree wi t h Table 76 of t h e Smit h sonian Tables .

T h is is th al u g i
e v e v en b y Tabl e 19 of Lan dol t an d B ern ste in Ph ysik al is ch - Ch mis ch
e e a b ll
T e en .
 IN D E X C H A R T

1 359 B t u
. . .

1 285 B t u
. . .

3
1 1 21 5 B t
. . u .

1 1 45 B t u
. . .

S p e cifi c . V o l um e
( 4)
2 PLATE 1A
Sp e ci fi c Vol u m e, C u Ft p
. . er Lb .

Sp e cif i c Vo lum e , C u F t p e r Lb
. . .
(26 ) PLATE 2A
Sp e c i fi c V o lume , C u Ft p e r
. . Lb .

S p e ci fi c V o lume , C u F t p e r
. . Lb .
PLATE 2B

S p ec ifi c V o lum e , C u ft p e r lb
. . .

8
S p e c if i c Vo l u m e , C u ft p e r lb
. . .
(28) PLATE 3A

20 22 24 26 28 30
S p e c if i c ,
Volum e , C u F t p er
. . Lb .
S pe c i f i c V o lu m e, C u Ft p e r L b
. . .

Sp i Vo lum e
e c if c , C u F t p er
. . Lb .
Sp ec i fi c V olum e , C u Ft p er
. . Lb .

70 so 90 1 00

70 80 90 1 00
Sp e c i fi c Vo l um e ,
Cu F t p
. . er Lb .
 (31 )

70 80 90
Sp e c i fi c Vo lum e , C u ft p
. . er lb .
(32) P LATE 5A
Sp e ci fi c V o lu m e , C u Ft p
. . er Lb .

S p e ci fi c Vo lu m e , Cu F t p er Lb
. . .
(34 ) P LATE 6A
S p e c i fi c Volum e , Cu F t p
. . er Lb
900 1 000 1 1 00 1 200 1 300 1 800 2000 2200

l
S p e cifi c V o um e , C u F t p e r
. . Lb .
PL ATE 6B (35)
Sp ec i fi c l
V o um e , C u F t p e r
. . Lb .

900 1 000 1 1 00 1 200 1 300 1 400 1 600 1 800 2000 2200

Sp e ci fi c Vo l um e , C u F t p e r Lb
. . .
(36 ) PLATE 7
S p e d fi c Vo l um e , C u F t p e r L b
. . .

26 28 30

26 28 30
Sp ec i fi c V o l u m e , C u Ft p e r
. . Lb .

TH I S P LATE I S To S U PP LEMENT P LATE S 3A A N D 4 A F OR T HOS E

EXCE PTI O NAL CA S E S I N WHI C H EXTR EMELY HI G H S U P E RH EA T
IS U S ED F O R C OM PA R ATIV ELY L OW PR E S S U R E S .
( )
38 PLATE 8A
c _ - S p eci fic Volum e , Cu F t p
. . er Lb .

S p e c ifi c V o lum e, Cu Ft p
. . er Lb .
P LATE SE (39 )

Sp ec if i c Vo l um e, C u Ft p
. . er Lb .

60 70 80 1 00

Sp ec if i c V o lu m e , C u Ft p e r Lb
. . .
S how i ng correct i on of M ercury C o l umn d ue t o T emperature w h en s c al e ,

i s correc t at th e ob s erv e d t emp er at ure

O bs er v e d i
r e ad n g in I n ch e s Of Me r cu ry
15 20

O bse rv e d i
r e ad n g in In ch e s O f Me r c ur y

P LATE 9B

S how i ng correction of Ba rome t ric Re ad in g d ue t o c ha n g e in El evation

l
A ti t ud e i n Fe e t

A l t i t ud e i n Fe e t
 Th e v e l o cities are g i v en in fee t p er s e con d for e a ch B t u
. . . up to 59 9 .

t
. 11 . p er lb
.

0 224 31 6 38 7 447 500 54 8 59 2 6 33 671

7 07 74 2 7 75 806 8 37 86 6 89 5 9 22 949 9 75
1 001 1 026 1 050 1 07 3 1 09 7 1 1 20 1 1 41 1 1 63 1 1 84 1 205
1 226 1 24 6 1 26 6 1 28 5 1 304 1 323 1 34 2 1 36 1 1 379 1 39 7
1 41 5 1 4 33 1 4 50 1 467 1 4 84 1 501 1 51 7 1 533 1 550 1 56 6

1 582 1 59 8 1 61 3 1 6 28 1 64 3 1 6 58 1 6 73 1 6 88 1 7 03 1 71 8
1 7 32 1 74 7 1 76 1 1 7 75 1 7 89 1 8 03 1 81 7 1 831 1 84 4 1 8 58
1 87 2 1 88 5 1 89 8 1 91 1 1 9 24 1 9 37 1 9 50 1 9 63 1 9 76 1 9 88
2000 201 3 2026 2038 2050 206 2 2074 208 6 209 8 21 1 0
21 22 21 34 21 4 6 21 58 21 6 9 21 8 0 21 9 1 2202 221 4 2226

2237 224 8 2259 227 0 2281 229 2 2303 231 4 2325 2336
234 6 2356 236 7 237 8 2389 239 9 24 09 24 1 9 24 30 24 4 0
24 50 24 6 0 24 7 0 24 8 0 24 9 0 2500 25 1 1 2521 2531 254 0
2550 256 0 2570 258 0 259 0 26 00 26 09 26 1 9 26 28 26 37
26 4 7 26 57 26 6 6 26 75 26 84 26 9 4 27 03 27 1 2 27 21 2730

27 4 0 27 4 9 27 58 27 6 7 27 7 6 27 85 27 9 4 28 03 281 2 28 21
28 30 28 39 284 8 2857 28 6 6 28 7 4 28 82 29 00 29 08
29 1 7 29 25 29 34 29 4 2 29 5 1 29 6 0 29 6 8 29 7 6 29 84 29 9 3
3001 301 0 301 8 3026 3034 304 2 3050 3059 306 7 307 5
3083 309 1 31 00 31 08 31 1 6 31 24 31 32 31 4 0 31 4 8 31 56

31 6 4 31 7 2 31 80 31 88 31 9 6 3204 321 1 321 9 3227

324 1 324 9 3257 326 5 327 3 328 0 328 8 329 6 3303 331 0
331 8 3325 3332 334 0 334 8 3355 336 3 337 0 337 7 3384
339 2 34 00 34 07 34 1 4 34 22 34 30 34 37 3444 34 5 1 34 58
34 6 5 34 7 3 34 8 0 34 8 7 34 9 4 3501 3508 35 1 6 3523 ,
3530

3537 354 4 355 1 3558 35 6 5 35 7 2 357 9 35 8 6 359 3 36 00

36 07 36 1 4 36 20 36 27 36 34 36 4 1 36 4 8 36 55 36 6 2 36 6 9
36 7 6 36 8 3 36 8 9 36 9 6 37 03 37 1 0 37 1 7 3723 37 30 37 37
37 4 3 37 50 37 5 7 37 6 3 37 7 0 37 7 7 37 8 3 37 9 0 37 9 6 38 03
381 0 38 1 7 38 23 38 29 38 35 38 4 2 38 4 9 38 55 38 6 1 38 6 8
 Th e v elo ci t ie s a re g i v en in f ee t p er s e con d for ea ch B . t u
. . up to 59 9 .

300 387 4 8 88 1 38 8 8 38 9 4 39 00 39 07 39 1 3 39 20 39 26
31 0 39 39 89 4 6 39 52 39 58 39 6 4 39 7 0 39 7 6 39 8 2 39 89
320 4 002 4008 4 01 4 4 020 4 027 4 033 4 039 4 04 5 4 051
330 4 06 3 4 07 0 4 07 6 4 08 2 4 088 4 09 4 4 1 00 4 1 07 41 1 3
4 1 25 4 1 31 4 1 37 4 1 43 4 1 49 4 1 55 41 61 4 1 67 4 1 73

350 4 1 85 41 9 1 41 97 4 203 4 209 4 21 5 4 221 4 227 4 233

360 4 24 5 4 25 1 4 257 4 26 3 4 26 8 4 274 4 28 0 4 286 4 29 1
370 4 302 4 308 4 31 4 4 320 4 326 4 332 4 338 4 344 4 350
380 4 36 1 4 36 7 4 37 2 4 37 8 4 38 3 4 38 9 4 39 5 4 4 01 4 4 07
39 0 44 1 8 4 4 24 4 4 30 4 4 35 4 44 0 444 6 4 4 51 4 4 57 4462

400 4 4 73 4479 44 8 5 449 0 4496 4 502 4 508 4 51 3 4 51 9

41 0 4 5 30 4 536 4 54 1 4 54 7 4 5 52 4 558 4 56 3 4 56 9 4 57 4
4 20 4 585 4 59 0 4 59 6 4 601 4 6 07 461 2 461 7 4 6 23 4 6 28 4 63
4 30 4 6 39 4 64 4 4 650 4 6 55 4661 4 666 467 1 4 677 4 6 82 468
44 0 4693 4698 4 7 03 4 7 09 471 4 471 9 4 7 24 4 7 29 4 7 35 4 74

4 50 4 74 5 4 7 50 4 755 4 76 1 4 766 4 77 1 4 776 4 781 4 7 87 479

4 60 4 79 7 4 8 02 4 808 4 81 3 4 81 8 4 823 4 8 28 4 833 4 839 4 84
4 70 4 84 9 4 8 54 4 8 59 4 86 5 4 87 1 4 875 4 880 4 88 5 4 89 1 4 89
480 4 9 01 4 9 06 49 1 1 49 1 7 4 9 22 4 9 27 4 9 32 4 9 37 4942
'

494
490 4 9 52 4 9 57 4 9 62 49 67 4 9 72 4 9 77 4 9 82 4 9 87 4992 499

500 5002 5007 501 2 501 7 5 022 5027 5 032 5037 504 2 504
51 0 5 052 5057 506 2 5 06 7 5 07 2 5 07 7 5082 508 7 509 1 509
520 5 1 01 5 1 06 51 1 1 51 1 6 51 21 5 1 26 5 1 31 5 1 36 51 4 0 51 4
530 5 1 50 51 55 51 6 0 51 64 51 6 9 51 74 51 79 5 1 84 51 8 8 51 9
54 0 51 9 8 5203 5208 521 2 521 7 5222 5227 5232 5236 524

550 524 6 525 1 5256 526 0 526 5 5270 527 5 5280 5284 528
56 0 529 4 5 29 9 5 303 5308 5 31 2 5 31 7 5322 5 327 5331 533
57 0 534 1 534 6 5350 5 355 5359 536 4 5 36 9 5 373 537 8 538
580 5 38 7 539 2 539 7 54 01 54 06 54 1 1 54 1 6 54 20 54 25 54 2
59 0 54 34 54 39 54 4 3 54 4 8 54 52 54 57 54 6 1 54 6 6 54 7 0 54 7
 P R OB LE MS
1 F ind t h e t otal h eat vol ume en tro p y a n d t emp erat ure o f a
.
, , ,

pound of ste am having a n absolute p re ssure of 75 p ounds per

,

square inc h and s uper he at ed 280 F

,
°
.

Soluti on : Referring to th e in d ex chart i t will be s een t h at for ,

t hi s pressure Pl at es 2a and 2b 1 sh ould be u se d .

F rom Plate 2a we read di rectly : ,

Total h eat B t . . 11 .

Volume cu ft . .

E ntropy
From P late 2b we read from t h e temperature
, of vaporization
curv e near t h e bottom of the P l ate :
Temp of vapori zation for 75 l bs per s q in abs
. . . . . F .

Hence for 280 superheat

,
°
,

Temperature 280 F .

2 F ind th e total h e at volume entropy t emp era ture and h eat

.
, , , ,

of the li qu i d of a pound of s te am h aving a n abso l ute pressure of

1 80 pounds p er s quare i nch and a quality of

S oluti on : From P late 1 b, we read d irectly °

T ot al heat B t u . . .

Vo lume cu ft . .

E ntropy
Temperat ure F .

H eat o f th e liquid B t u
. . .

3 E igh t
poun ds o f s t e a m are confined in a space o f 800 cubic
.

f eet If the quality of th i s steam is

. find its pre ss ure and
temperature .
46 P R O BLE MS

S oluti on
Spec i fic v o lume 1 00 cu . ft per l b
. .

Turning to Plate 4 b an d fo ll owing up thi s s p eci ficvo lume line

-

1 00 cu ft un t il we intersect the qual i ty of

. .
,
we read :
Pressure pounds per sq i n absolute . .

B y running down thi s pressure li ne wh i ch i s approximately h alf ,

way between the pressure li nes marked and pound s per

square inc h unt il we intersect the curve gra duated to g ive temper
,

a tures of vapori zation we read ,

Temperature F .

4 The barometer re a ds
. inches of mercury at a tempera
ture of 9 1 F The mercury column attac hed to the conden s er reads
°
.

°
i nches at a temper a ture of 1 1 0 F Find the absolute pressure .

i n inc h es of mercur y in t h e condenser a t th e standard temper ature

° *
of 58 1 F .

S oluti on : B y ref erring to Pl ate 9 a, we read

F or at 9 1 correct i on i s 10
°
.

H ence barometer readi ng a t 58 1 F 10

°
. .

Li kewise the correct i on for t h e vacuum readi ng of at 1 10

°

F i s seen to be
.

°
Th erefore vacuum readi ng at 58 1 28 6 . 28 4 5 . and
abso lute pre s sure Hg at .

5 One pound o f steam expands at const an t entropy of

.

unt il condenser pressure is atta ined The m anometer on thi s .

condenser reads i nches Of mercury at a temperature Of 9 2 F °

.
,

and the barome t er readi ng I S 30 04 inches Of mercury a t 38 F F ind .

°
.

the total heat vo lume qual i ty and temperature Of th i s steam

, , ,
.

T hi s is th t m p a t
e e ure a t wh i ch 30 i ch s f m c y
n e o ur are e q al t a s a da d atm sp h whi ch is
u o t o e re ,
p a g 1 8 f f th di c ssi f th i s
er er n r

defin e d as b i g q al t
e n e u o ni ch s f m c y at 32 F
e o er ur
°
. S ee e or ur er s u on o
 P R O BLEM S
1

S oluti on : It is fir s t necess ary to obt ain t h e ab s o lu t e con d ens er

pressure measured in inc h es of mercury a t t he temperature
,

wh i ch i s the temperature for which the mercury readings are given

on the steam chart .

From Plate 9 a we read ,

B arometer a t 38,
06 or at °
.

58 1 F
°
.

Vacuum ,
at 9 2 1 0 or at °
.

58 1 F
°
.

Therefore absolute pressur e i n condenser must be

i nches of mercury at 58 1 F °
.

N ow referri ng to Plate 6 b we read for an en tropy of

, ,
and a
pressure of i nches of mercury the foll o win g val ue s : ,

Total heat 89 1 B t 11 . . .

Volume 74 5 cu ft . .

Quali ty
68 6 F
°
Temperature .

6 How many pounds of steam are con t ained in a s t e a m pipe

.

whi ch i s 1 2 i nches in d i ameter and 200 feet long if the av er age p re s ,

sure i n thi s pipe i s 1 00 pounds per square inc h ab s olute and t h e ,

average temperature i s F ? .

S oluti on : B y referr ing to Plate 1 b we find that the tempera ,

ture Of vapori zation of steam having an absolute pressure Of 1 50

pounds per square i nch i s F .

Hence degrees of superheat 75 F Then °

.

from the same plate for a pressure of 1 50 pounds per square inc h
,

and 75 superheat we read

°

Spec i fic volume cu ft per pound

. . .

Hence weig h t of steam i n th i s p ipe must be

volume o f p i pe 1 X 78 54 X 200 .

spec i fic volume Of s team 462 p oun ds .

7 F ind the number of B t u whi ch are required t o do th e

. . . .

ext ern al work during the formati on of a pound of s te am at a con

48 P R OBLE MS

stant pre ssure o f 60 pounds per square inc h absol ute from wa ter
at 32 F until it is superheated 21 0 F
°
.
°
.

S oluti on : Turni ng to Plate 8a at the i ntersect i on , of the 60

pound l i ne and the 21 0 superheat l i ne we read
°
,

E xternal work done during t his constant pressure c h ange

1 05 B t u. . .

8 Find the intrinsic heat o f t h e ste am in the final state given

.

in th e previ ous problem .

S oluti on : F or a n absolute pressure o f 6 0 pounds per square

i nch and 21 0 super h eat from P late 2a we read
°
,

Total heat 1 28 1 B t u . . .

Th en since the intrins i c heat i s merely that h eat contained

,

wit hin the steam i tself we may Obtai n it eas i ly by s ub t rac ting
,

from the tot al h e at t h e external work done by the steam during i ts

constant pressure format i on from water at 32 F This extern al °
.

work from previ ous problems i s 1 05 B t u

, ,
. . .

Hence for thi s case

, ,

Intrins ic h eat 1 28 1 1 05 1 1 76 B t u. . .

9 .I f a poun d of dry s aturated steam is heated a t a constant

pressure of 200 pounds per square i nch absolute unt il i ts total heat ,

i s i ncreased by find how many degree s i t has been s uperh eated

and the per cent i ncrease i n i ts volume
. .

S oluti on : From Plate 1 b we find ,

Ini tial total heat B t u . . .

Init i al vo lume cu ft . .

Hence final total heat l 1 98 2 x . 1 31 8 B t u

. . . From
Plate l a, for thi s total heat and a pressure of 200, we read
Fi nal volume cu ft . .

F i nal superheat 221

°

Th erefore per cent increase in vo lume

.
50 P RO BLEM S

I f one p oun d of s team expan ds a diabatic ally from an ab

s o lute pressure of 1 00 pounds per square inc h and 1 4 5 s uperheat °
,

t o an absolu t e pr essur e of inc h es o f mercury fin d : ,

a
() Final quality .

b
( ) Final volume .

(c ) Ratio O f expans ion .

()
d Work d one .

S oluti on : From Plat e 2a, for th e 1 00 p ound li ne and 1 45

°

superh eat we read

,

In iti al t o tal h eat B t . . 11 .

Initi al entrop y 1 69
Ini tial vo lume cu f t
. .

Th en turning to P late 5b and running al ong t h e entropy line

,

1 6 9 until i t inter s ec ts th e pres sure line inc he s o f mercury we ,

re ad
Fina l total h e at 9 25 B t u . . .

(a) Final qu ali ty 83 4 %

(b ) Fin al volume 39 7 cu ft . .

From t he s e resu lt s we h av e :
Fi na l v o l um e 39 7
( ) R at i o
0 of expansi on
Ini t i a l v olume
“

51 5

I n or der t o obtain the work done during t his expansion it i s ,

necess ary t o obtain t he intrinsic h eats for t h e ini t i al and final

s tates S ince t he work done during adi ab at i c expans ion i s equal
,

to t h e loss o f intrinsic heat T h e intrinsic heat for any state may

.

be obtained by subtracting the external work as obtai ned from ,

P late 8 from the to t al heat

, .

For t he in itial pres sure of 1 00 pounds and superheat of

from P late 88 we re ad :
,

The cons tan t pres sure ext ernal work 1 00 3 B . t . 11 .

Hence
Ini tial in trinsic he at 1 1 62 B . t u . .
 P R O BLEMS
I
For t he final p ress ur e of H g an d a qu ali t y of . we
read from the upper right han d corner of Plate 8b z
-

The constant pressure ext ernal w ork 50 B t 11 . . .

Hence
Final intrins ic he at 9 25 50 875 B t u . . .

d
() Work d one during adi a b at ic e xp a nsion 1 1 6 2 875
287 B t u or 223300 ft lbs
. . . . .

V s c al e on a p ressure v o lume dia gr am t h e lin e

1 2 P lbt to r ep
.
, ,

resent ing the adi ab atic e xp ans ion for th e p reviou s p roblem .

1 00 1 25 1 50 1 75 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400

Vo l um e , cu . ft .

FI G 3 . .

S ol uti on : This curv e is e as il y ob ta ine d by reading th e volume s

determined by the constant entropy line 1 69 cut tin g the various , ,

pressure lines a ssumed as desire d Thu s

, .

Pl ate us e d P ressure
2a 1 00
2b 60
2b 40
52 PR O BL E M S

/13
l
. A closed metalli c tank having a cubic al content of 30 cubic
fee t contains 3 pounds of steam having an absolute pressure of
75 pounds per square inch .

I f h eat is now abstracted from t his t ank by pouring co l d water

ov er it until the pressure of the steam wit hi n h as fall en t o 4 0pounds
p er sq uare i nch absolute find
, :

(a ) The in i ti al superheat .

( )
b '

The final q ual i ty .

(c ) The heat ab strac t e d .

3
—0
S oluti on : Specifi c Vo lume 1 0 cu . f t per lb
. .

3
H ence by tur ning t o Pl ate 2a and runni ng al ong the 75 pound
,
-

l ine unt il it in t ersec ts t h e 1 0 cubic fee t sp eci fic vo lume line we -

,

fin d
()
a I nitia l super h eat 4 90 F °
.

Init i al total heat 1 4 21 B t u per 1b . . . .

()
b Th is mu s t be a constant volume abs t raction of heat since
the steam is con fin e d in a closed t ank Hence for a spec i fic volume
.

of 1 0 cubic feet per pound and an absolute pre ss ure of 4 0 p ounds

per squ are inch we may read from P late 2b :

F inal qua lity
Final t otal heat 1 1 26 B t . . 11 . p er lb .

(0) T h e heat abstracted dur i ng any constant vo lume process -

is equal to the loss of intrins i c heat s ince no work i s done during

,

such a process .

The intrinsic heat for any state may be obt aine d by subtra c ting
t he external work as obt ained from Plate 8 from the t o tal he at
, ,
.
 P R O BLE MS

At the i n t ers ection of the 1 0 cubic fee t sp ecific volume line -

and the 4 9 0 super hea t line on Plate 8a we read :

°
,

The con stan t p res sure external work B t . . 11 . per l b .

Hence
I ni ti al intrinsic heat 1 4 21 B t 1 1 per lb . . . .

,
f —
From the s ame plate at the i ntersect i on o the 4 0 pound pressure
line and the 1 0 cub i c feet sp eci fic volume line we read :
-
,

The constant pressure ext ernal work B t u p er lb . . . .

Hen ce final intrins i c energy must be

1 1 26 B t 1 1 per lb . . . .

Therefore for the 3 pounds of steam cooled at const an t v o lume ,

J

we have
H e at abstracted 3
3 B t 11 . . .

14 . A pound Of steam h aving a pressure of 6 2 pounds per s quare

inch absolute and a temperature of 34 0 F i s heated i sotherm all y
°
.

unti l its pressur e becomes 20 pounds per s quare inc h absolu t e .

F ind
(a) In iti al and final superheats .

b
( ) I ni t i al and final entrop i es .

(0) Init i al and final total heats .

d
( ) In i t i a l and fin a l volumes .

(e) Initi al and final intri ns i c heat s .

f
() Heat requ i red to e ffect the change .

g
() Work done du r i ng t hi s expansi on .

S oluti on : From P l ates 2b and 3b respect ively we may rea d ,

Temperature of vaporizati on for 6 2 lbs . 29 5

°
F .

Temperature of vapori zati on for 20 lbs . 228

°
F .

Therefore
(a ) In i ti al superheat
°
34 0 295 45 F .

Final superheat 34 0 228 1 12

°
F .

Then from Plate 2b ,

for the pressure of 62 pounds and 45
°

superheat we may read :

 P RO BLEM S

(bl ) I nitial entropy

(cl ) I niti al total he at 1 201 B t u. . .

( l ) I niti al vo lum e
d cu ft . .

Also from Plat e 3a for th e , p r ess ure of 20 pounds an d 112

°

s uperh eat w e m ay re a d :
(bz) F inal entropy
( )02 Fina l t otal he at B t u . . .

(dz) F in al v ol ume 23 7 cu f t . . .

From Pl ate 8a for the p re ss ure of 6 2 p ounds an d the sup erheat

,
°
of 4 5 w e read :

T h e con stant pressure extern al work 85 B t

. . 11 .

From P l ate 8b f or t he , p re s sure o f 20 pounds and the s uper

°
h e at of 1 1 2 we rea d :
T h e constant pre ssure ext ernal work B t . . 11 .

Then we may obtain :

8 ) Initia l intrins i c h e at B t u
( 1 201 85 1 116 . . .

F inal intrinsic h eat 1 1 22 B t u . . .

Th e h e at re quire d t o go al ong a const an t tem perature l ine is

e qual to t he c h ange in en tropy mult ip lie d by t h e abso lu t e t em
p eratur e .

H ence f or thi s c as e
(f ) He at requ ire d (34 0 4 60)
B t u given to the steam . . . .

Represent i ng th e ini t ial and fin al s tat es by t he subscripts 1 an d

2, we t h en h ave from the fundamen tal e q uation Of thermo dyn amic s :
,

Work 2
Heat G ain in

d one 1 supp lie d in t rin sic he at

[ 1 1 22 1 1 1 6]
6
B t u . . .

N O T —Th is p b l m i s f m c h m imp ta c as a d ill i th m dy am i cs tha as a p a cti cal

q sti %b ca s it is v y diffic l t t a a g t h c ssa y ap p a at s t p m it st am t p a d i th
E ro e O u ore or n e r n er o n n r

m ally wh i l i t h s p h a t d fi l d
ue on e u e er u o rr n e e ne e r r u o er e o ex n so er

Th s wh t h i k t ha t t h h a t q i d t ff ct th is cha g sh l d b q al t th d ff c i t t al
e n e u er e e e .

f d t th m a i g f tha t t m as giv i th i t d ct i
o e o n e e re u re o e e n e ou e e u o e i e re n e n o
b t e a s are re erre o e e n n o er en n e n ro u on .
 The p ress ure in a s te am pipe is 1 05 p oun ds p er square inc h
a bsolute an d in a throt tli ng calorimet er whic h i s connec t ed t o
, ,

this p ipe the p ressure is 1 5 pound s per s quare inc h absolute I f

,
.

°
the temperature in th e c al orime ter is 238 F fin d th e quality o f .
,

the ste am .

S oluti on : From Plat e 3b, f or a press ure of 15 poun ds w e

rea d :
°
T emp er atur e of vaporiz ation 21 3 F .

23
°
Superh eat in cal orimeter 8 21 3 F
25 .

Then from the oppos ite page Plat e 3a f or a , , p ressure of 15

°
poun ds an d 25 s uperh eat w e rea d
Total heat 1 1 63 B . t u . .

Th e thrott ling in a cal orimeter takes p l ace wit h ou t a ny ap

p r eci ab le l oss of h eat by conduction or r ad i at ion s o th e tot al ,

h eat remai ns constant .

Hence by running along this t o tal h e at line o f 1 1 63 B t u . . .

until we intersec t th e 1 05 pound p ressure line w e m ay re ad from

-
, ,

P late 2b
Q ua l ity

16 I f th e t emper atur e in t h e c al orimet er of th e p revious prob

.

°
l em had been 276 F and the pressure in th e calorimeter had been
.
,

1 6 pounds per square inch absolute fin d t h e qua lity of t h e steam

,

in the main h aving a pressure of 1 87 pounds per square inc h ah %

solute .

S ol uti on : Procee di ng as before from Pl at e , 3b we fin d th e

superh e at in t h e calorimeter to be
°
276 59 7 F
. .

Then from P l ate 3a for the

, ,
16 pound line and superheat
we re a d :
Total heat 1 1 80 B . t . 11 .

From Plate 1 b, at the intersection Of th e 1 1 80 t o tal

- -
h eat line
56 PR O BLEMS

and the 1 87
poun d pres sure line whic h is rea dily foun d b y th e
- -
,

eye between t he 1 85 and 1 9 0 pound lines we re ad : -

,

Quali ty 9 8%

17 Th e pres sure in the seventh stage of a twelve s tage turbin e

.
-

i s 1 0 5 pounds per square i nch absolute and its quality i s estimated

.
,

to be Suppos ing that a fair sample of the steam in thi s ,

stage might be obtained what pressure would h ave to be main ,

tai n ed i n a thrott ling calor imeter in order th at i t migh t be used to

determine t hi s quality prov ided t hat th ere S h all be at l east 1 0
,
°

s uperh eat in t h e calor imeter ?

S oluti on : From Plate 3b for an abso lu t e pressure o f ,

pounds and a qual ity of 9 4 % we read :

Total h eat 1 08 5 B . t u . .

T hen running along t his total heat l ine unt il we intersect

,
-

t h e 1 0 superheat l ine we read from Plate 6a z

°
,

Pressure i n calor imeter lbs per sq in abs . . . .

N O T —Th i s t m ly l w p ss q i d i th c al i m t is y diffi c l t t b tai d th

t th f a v y p act i cal
E ex re e o re u re r e u re n e or e er v er u o o n an e
s ch m
e e 18 n o ere ore er r on e .

18 If steam h aving a quality o f 99 % is generated in an auto

.

mobile bo i ler at a pressure of 4 00 pounds per square inch ab solute ,

and is then throttled down to an absolute pressure of 1 00 pounds

p er sq u are inc h find : ,

a
() F i nal super h eat .

b
( ) D rop in temperature due to t h rott ling .

c
() Increase i n volume due to t hrottl i ng .

S oluti on : From P late 1 b for the pressure of 4 00 poun ds and ,

the quali ty of 9 9 % we read

Initi al total h eat 1 200 B t u per poun d . . .

I n itial temperature 4 4 5 F (a lmost )

°
.

I nit ial spec i fic volum e cubic feet per pound

T hen from P late running al ong the
2b , 1 200 t ota l
- -
he at lin e
until we inter s ect t he 1 00 pound line we rea d :
-
,
58 PR OBLEM S

Soluti on : T h e h eat ofthe li qui d at feed temper ature is

80 32 48 B t u . . .

From P late 1 b, for the pressure of 1 20 poun ds and a qu al ity of

9 8% we read :
Total h eat 1 1 72 B . t u . .

T h en by d e fini tion we h ave

, ,

Heat absorbed per lb Of steam

(a ) Fac t or o f ev aporat i on
.

L atent heat of steam at 21 2 F °

.

1 1 72 48

(b ) E quivalent ev apor ation is the amount of water t hat wou l d

be evaporated from and at 21 2 F by the same amount of heat as is
°
.

actually ab s orbed p er poun d of fuel The equival ent evaporat i on .

in this case will therefore be

10 X pounds

21If for e
. ach pound Of fuel the boil er of the prev i ous problem
, ,

had deli vered pounds of steam hav ing a superheat Of 1 75 °

and at the same pressure as before find th e f actor of evapora tion ,

and equival en t ev apor ation .

S oluti on :
From previous problem
Heat of the l i quid 4 8 B t 11 . . .

From P late 2a for pressure Of 1 20 pounds and a superhea

,
t
of 1 7 5 we read
°

To t al h ea t 1 282 B t u . . .

T hen a s before
, ,

1 282 48
(a ) Factor of evaporation 9 70 4

( )
b E quiv al ent evaporation X pounds .

22 A steam mai n i s s upp li ed w it h steam from two boil ers on e

.
,

of whi ch furnis hes pounds of steam per hour the quali ty ,

b eing while the other b o iler furnishes pounds of steam

per hour t h e superheat bei ng 9 5 F Ass uming that both b o ilers
,
°
.

deliver t h e st eam at a pressure of 1 90 pounds per square inch

 PR OBLEM S

ab solute an d negl ect ing al l losses find t h e con di ti on of the steam

, ,

in the main .

S oluti on : From Plate 1 b for the pressure o f ,

1 9 0 pounds and
the qual ity of 9 8% we read
Total heat 1 1 80 B t u . . .

From the same Pl ate for same pressure and

,
for a superheat of

95
°
we read
Total heat 1 253 B t u . . .

%
Then the mixture w e h ave
for ,

1 1 80 X 6 000 1 253 X 4 000

Total heat 1 209 B . t u
. .

6 000 4000
.

Hence for the pressure of 1 9 0 pounds and a total heat Of 1 209 ,

“

from Plate 1 b we read :

18 F
°
Superheat in main .

23 Assuming
. no loss by radiat i on conduction or leakage what
, , ,

would have b ee n the cond it i on Of the steam in the steam mai n

of the prev i ous problem had there been a l oss of pressur e due to
,

fr i ct ion in the p ipes so that the pressure i n the main w as only

,

1 75 pounds per s quare inch abso l ute ?

S ol uti on : Since there i s no l oss of heat the total heat of the , .

mixture must be the same as in the prev iou s problem From .

1 ,
—
Plate b we may follow th e 1 209 to t al heat l ine unt il it intersects
-

the 1 75 pound li ne where we read :

-
,

Superheat in the main 20 F

°
.

24
Two b o ilers A and B are connected to the same steam mai n
.
, ,

and the following observat ions were made :

Total steam passing through the mai n 1 2000 lb s per hr . .

Average pressure in the main 1 9 5 lb s per sq i n ab s . . . .

Average press ure leaving bo iler A 200 lbs per sq i n ab s . . . .

Average pressure leav ing bo iler B 21 0 lbs p er s q in abs . , . . .

Average superheat in the mai n 56 F

°
.

Average superheat l eaving boiler A 33 F

°
.

Average s uper h e a t le aving boil er B 84 F

°
.
60 PR OBLE MS

F ind the wei ght of steam coming from eac h boiler assuming ,

no losses by radi ati on or conducti on .

S oluti on : From P l ate 1 b we read ,

For steam from boil er A havi ng th e p res sure of

, 200 poun ds
and superheat of
Total h eat 1 220 B t u . . .

For steam from boil er B h aving t he p ress ure of

,
21 0 poun ds and
superh eat of
Total h eat 1 250 B t u . . .

steam i n t he main having t h e pressure

F or ,
of 1 95 poun ds and
superheat of
Total heat B t ii . . .

L et WA lbs o f s team per hr coming from bo il er A

. .

L et W3 lbs o f steam per hr coming from bo iler B

. .

L et H A the total heat of steam B t u per lb from bo i ler A

. . . .

Let H 3 the tota l heat o f steam B t 1 1 per lb from bo iler B

. . . .

Let H m the total h eat o f steam B t 1 1 per lb in main

. . . . .

Since t h ere h as been no 1088 of heat we may wr ite

,

WA H A WB H B (WA WB ) Hm

From the condi tions of the problem

W3 1 2000 WA
C ombin ing these two equat i ons we h ave
WA H A [ 000
1 2 WA] H3 1 2000 H m

[H A H3] WA 1 2000 [ H m H 3]
Hm H3
WA 1 2000
EH A H3 ]
1 250
1 2000
1 220 1 250

1 2000

7 000 pounds per hr .

H ence W3 5000 poun ds per hr .

 P R OBLEM S

25. T he eich aust s team from an engine is deliv ere d t o the h eating
system of a buil ding If the pressure in t his system is maintained
.

constant at 1 7 pounds per square inch abso lute and if t h e quali ty ,

of the steam exhauste d by the engine is find the amount of

heat that would be given up by thi s system when the engine i s
usi ng pounds of steam per hour The water in t h e ret urn .

°
p ipes i s del ivered to the boi ler room at a tempera ture o f 21 0 F .

S oluti on : From P late 3b for t h e pressure ,

of 17 poun ds and
quali ty of 88% we read :
Total heat 1 037 B t i i . . .

The h eat ret ur ned to the bo i ler room i s equal to

Heat of the li qui d 21 0 32 1 72 B t i i . . .

The h eat gi ven up by the tota l wei gh t of ex haust steam therefore is

3000 (1 037 1 8 7) 2577000 B . t u per hr
. . .

l/ .26 A — h orse power steam turbine required

-
pounds o f
s t eam per horse power hour wh en suppl ied wi th steam hav ing a
-

pressure of 1 75 pounds per square inch absolute and 1 32 degrees

of superheat .I f the exh aust pressure were 2 inch es of mercury
absolute find
,

V a Hea t s upp lied per h

() p hr . . .

(b ) D elivered therma l efficiency .

(c ) C ycle effic iency

v .

(d) Theoreti cal water rate .

(e ) E ffi c iency rat i o .

S oluti on : L et abode F i g 4 represent the cycle upon w hich the

,
.
,

i deal turb ine Operates .

Heat suppl ied per pound Of steam

area mabcdn
Total h eat] d Heat of the l iqu id] ,

1 270 —69 1 201 B t u

. . .

This value of total heat at the po int d i s read d irectly from

Plate 1 b for the pressure of 1 75 pounds an d superheat of
62 P R O BLE M S

The he at of th e li quid for the p oint a is re a d from P la te 5b at ,

the in t ersection of th e h e at of th e li qui d curv e an d th e 2 inch es of

mercury p ressure li n e .

E n tr o p y
FI G 4 . .

Then , s ince th e t urbine re quire s p oun d s of p er h p . .

hour ,

(a) H eat supp lied per h p hr . . . X 1 201 B t 11 . . .

One horse power h our in B t u

-
. . .

(b) D el iv ere d th erm al e ffi ciency Heat suppli ed per h p hr . . .

254 5

Are a abode
(0) C yc l e effi ciency Area mabcdn
Total h eat] d Total h eat] e 1 270 915
1 201 1 201
355
29 55%
1 201

T his v alue of total h eat f or th e point e i s ob t ain ed from Plate

5b , by rea di ng t he total heat at the intersection of th e pressure l ine
 P R O BLEM S

for 2 inches of
mercury an d the entrop y lin e . Thi s en trop y is
obtained from P l ate 1 b f or the state d
,
.

254 5
(d) Th eoretic al w at er r ate N et work per lb . of steam
254 5
pounds p er hp hr
3
. . .

A ctua l thermal efficiency

(e) Effi ciency r atio Cycle effi c i ency
221
74 7 %
29 55
Theoret i cal water rate
or E fficiency r atio
Actual water r at e

27 Suppose th at all the conditions of op er ation remain th e

.

same as in the previous prob l em except t h e wat er rate an d the

,

vacuum I f by reduc ing t h e exhaust press ure to 1 inc h of mercury

.
,

absolute t he water rate was actually reduced to 9 p ounds per h p

, . .

h our fin d (a) (b) (c ) (d) and (e ) as before

, .

S oluti on : Referring t o t he same fi gure modified by t he line

a e and proceedi ng in the s ame manner we have : ,

From P lat e 5b ,

H eat o f the liquid] a = 47 B t u '

. . .

a
() Heat s upp l ied per h r 9 [ 1
. 27 0 4 7] 1 1 007 B t u . . .

254 5
(b ) D el ivered thermal effi ciency
1 1 007
From P lat e 6b
Total heat] % 882 B . t u . .

N et work per cycle 1 270 88 2 388 B . t u

. .

Hence
(0) Cycle efficiency 1 27 0 47
254 5
(d) Theoretical w at er ra t e poun ds p er h p hr
. . .

388
231
(e ) E ffic i ency ratio 7
.

. 31 7
 P R O BLEM S

28 . A st eam turb ine rece ives steam at a pres s ure of 80 p ounds

per squar e inch absolute and a superheat of 77 F If this s team °
.

expands in a S i ngle set of nozzles to a condenser p ressure of lbs .

per s quare inch absolute and i f we assume no nozzle l osses find

, , ,

f or t he st e am leav ing nozzles

a
() Q ua l ity .

(b ) Speci fic vo l ume .

()
c Ve l oc i ty .

S oluti on : From Pl ate 2b for t he initial st at e we read

,

Total heat 1 223 B t u . . .

E ntropy 1 67

From Pl ate 5b f or t h e final pressure and t h e entropy

,
we
re a d :
Total h eat 9 50 B t u . . .

(a) Qual i ty
(b ) Specific volume 204 cu ft per l b
. . .

T h e energy whi c h has been transformed into velocity is equ al

to th e difference in total h eats .

Initi al t otal he at Fi nal total h eat 1 223 9 50 273 B t 1 1 . . .

p er lb.

Then from T ab l e I V we read

, ,

(c ) Veloc i ty 36 9 6 feet per second .

29 T he theoret i cal steam engine operates on the incomp l ete

.

expansion cycle as shown by abode Fi gs 5 and 6

,
The pres ,
. .

sure at the throttle i s 1 65 pounds per square inch absolute and t he

superh eat is 1 4 3 F If the back pressure i s
°
. pounds per square
inch absolute and t he expansion ratio i s 6 find for the ideal cyc l e : , ,

(a) Pressure at rele ase .

2
b
( ) Q u al i ty at release .

(c ) N et work of cycle in B t u . . .

d
( ) C yc l e effic i ency .

e
() Water rate o f an ideal engi ne worki ng on th is cyc l e .
66 PR O BLEM S

Since the exp ansion r atio i s 6, th e sp ecifi c v o lume at r el e as e

must be
Vc 6 Vb 6 X cu ft . .
p er lb .

For t he ideal cyc l e t he expans i on line is an a di abatic H ence

, .

by following the entropy line unti l it i ntersects the

S p eci fic vo l ume line we may read from Plate 3b
-
,

(a) Release pressure lbs per sq in abs

. . . .

(b ) Release qual i ty
Total heat] c B t . . ii .

I n order t o find the net work o f the cyc l e we may proceed in

s evera l ways one being to subtrac t the heat rej ected from the heat
,

supp li ed Referr i ng to th e tempera ture entropy diagr am F ig 6

.
,
.
,

w e have
Heat supp l ie d area meabn
Total heat] , H eat t h e liqu id]
of ,

1 274 1 07 1 1 67 B t u per l b
. . . .

Th e h e at of t h e li quid a t the poin t e is Obtaine d from P late 4b

for the 2 8 pounds back pressure l ine
.
-
.

H eat rej ec t e d area odomu .

Intrinsic Intrins i c Work 6

h eat J o h eat l . done J o

69 ] 1 07 11 B . t u per lb
. . .

This intrins i c h eat at c i s Obtained by subtract ing from the

t otal heat f or thi s po int th e constant pressure external work as ob
tai n ed from Plate 8b We know the specific volume at c to be
.

cubic f eet per pound and the quali ty at c has a lready been
,

foun d t o be Therefore we may read from t hi s p l at e th e

v alue of t his external work 69 B t u as above gi ven ,
. . .
,
.

Th e intrinsi c h eat at e i s merely the heat of the l i quid for th e

exh au s t pressure and has already been found to be 1 07 B t i i . . .

Th e work done in go ing from c to e i s the same as that done in

go ing from d to e s ince the work done from e to d i s zero the volume ,

be ing constant B ut the work from d to e may be obtained d irectly

.

from Plat e 8b Thus by runn ing down the constant sp eci fic v olume
.
-
 PR OBLEM S

line until it intersects the

,
poun d b ack p re ss ure line w e -
,

may rea d
Work done
]% 11 B t u per l b
. . . .

Then from t he above values we have ,

c
() N e t work o f cyc l e H eat supplie d H eat rej ec t e d
1 1 67 B t 1 1 p er 1b . . . .

N et work of cyc l e 237 5

(d ) C y cl e e ffi c i ency 20 35%
Heat suppli ed 1 1 67
.

254 5
(e ) I deal water rate
N et work per lb . of steam
lbs per h p hr . . . .

NO —F th cycl b d Fi g 5 w l d c mm ly b d aw wit h a di ff t ati

t h d s ta c p s ti g t h a dmissi p ss w l d b a ly th sam as th d sta c p s t i g
TE or e e a o e, . ou o on e r n eren r

v l m at d I t h s cas h w v it was l d t d aw t scal th ti d a g am i cl di g

e i n e re re e n n e on re ure ou e ne r e e e i n e re r e en n
th
t ha t is why th v l m at d m y s m t b ti ly t sm all f y al gi h m g
e o u e . n i e, o e er , ( oan e o r o e e en re i r , n u n
“ ”
th t fd
a ati f p a si q al t i
e oe c , so e o u e a ee o e en re oo or an re en ne av

d f wa t c c i s a sp ac f l y ab t 01 6 c b i c f t it is vid tly im p ssi bl i Fi g

r o o ex n on e u o s x
Si c a p
.

s t s ch a v l m Wi tp y li th tha t h v l m li Ev Wi t h a s cal fv l m s
n e oun o er o u e e o on ou u ee , e en o e n .

5t
as la g as t hat s d f F i g 7 with P bl m 34 t h v l m f th wa t sca c l y b sh w
o re p re e n u o u e an ne o er n e zer o o u e n e ea. en e o o u e
r e u e or . ro e , e o u e o e er can r e e o n.

Find the net work of cycle in the previ ous problem by the
30 .

method of combining the two cycles aboe and e cdo F i gs 5 a nd 6 ’ ’

,
. .

S ol uti on
To t al Tot al
heat b hea t 0

1 274
B t u per lb
. . . .

T h ese values are Obtained from P lates 1b and 4 b as be fore .

N et work 0

cycle Work
e cde
’

69 11 58 B t u per l b
. . . .

These values may be obtai ned from Plate 8b as before .

Hence the net work of the cycle abode is

58 B t u p er 1 b . . . .
68 PR O BLEM S

31 . the previou s p roblem find the amount of work lost due

For
to incomp l e t e exp an sion and thereby c heck the resul t of p receding
problem .

S oluti on : T h e work l os t due to incomp l ete expansion is rep

resente d by cfd in Fig 5 or 6 . .

B y ins p ec t ion of t h ese figures it will be seen th at

Tot al 0 6

Workl
heat c h
Work
l .
. i

69 11
B t . . 11 . per lb .

The t otal h eat at o is obtai ned from Pl a t e 3b as before The ,

.

total heat at f is f ound from Plate 4 b for the given back pressure ,

of poun ds and th e entropy line .

Work
]: is found from Pl ate 8b as before .

Work
]% is f ound from Pl ate 8b as before .

T o check the net work of the incomplete expansion cycle w e may

“
subtrac t t he toe from the complete expansion c y c l e Thus .

abode abfe cfd

Total Total
B u t the cycle abfe
heat 5 heat
1 274
B t u per lb
. . . .

Hence the cyc l e abode is equal to

B t u
. . .

T his c hecks the results of 29 and 30 .

32Find the rati o Of vol umes o f the cyl inders necessary for the
.

complete and incomplete expansi on cycles of problem 29 and also ,

find the per cen t reduction in the net work due t o t he incomplete
.

expansion .
 P R O BL E M S

Soluti on : From p robl em 31 we have

P er cent reduction in net work is .

From prob lem 29 the specifi c vo lume at e w as cub i c feet

per poun d .

From Pl ate 4 b for t he gi ven b a ck p ress ure o f p oun ds

,
a nd
t h e entropy we obtain
Spec i fic volume at f cu ft per l b . . .

Then since the cylinder volumes for any c ase woul d be propor
,

ti onal t o t he specifi c volumes as thus found for th e i d eal cyc l e w e ,

h ave .

Volume for comp lete expans i on 1 08 2

Volume for incomplete expansi on

33Find the per cent increase in the net work of th e cycl e of

. .

problem 30 for a back pressure of 1 pound per s quare inch absolute

instead of pounds .

S oluti on : B y referring to t h e solution O f p roblem 30 we may ,

see that by changing the back press ure only the solut ion rema ins ,

the same except the value of the work done dur i ng exh aust From .

Plate 8b runni ng down the speci fic volume line

,
whi ch i s the
spec i fic volume at release unt il we intersect the 1 pound back ,

pressure line we Obta in ,

Work
]% B t . . 11 . per lb .

In p roblem 30 the work done against the exhaust pressure wa s

11 B t u per pound Thi s i s an increase of 7 2 B t u per pound
. . . . . . . . .

Hence
P er cent increase i n the net work of the cycl e is
.

7 2 .

OTE a ct al gi p a ti g d th s c diti s m ch l ss gai tha thi s w l d b

—I n an al i d
a cc t f g at l ss d t cyl i d c d sa ti m w k q i d f va c m p m p
. u en n e O er n un er e e on on u e n n ou e re ze
an d m or e
h at q i d t h at t h f d wa t
on oun o re er o ue o n er on en on , ore or re u re or uu u ,
e re u re o e e ee er .

34 di rect acting steam pump operates

. A -
on a non expansive -

cycle as shown by abod F i g 7 ,

. .
70 PR O BLE MS

T h e eng ine is supp lied with steam havin g a p ress ure of 1 20

p oun ds per square inc h abso l ute and a q u al ity of I f th e e x
h aust pressure is 1 8 pounds per s quare
inch absolute find the net work o f th e ,

cyc l e a n d the ideal w ater rat e

, .

S oluti on : From P lat e 8a for th e i n ,

i ti al pre ss ure of 1 20 poun ds and qu ality

of 9 7% we find :

Work
]2 80 B . t . 11 . per l b .

Specifi c v ol ume at b cu ft per l b

. . .

V o l um e
Then running down t his Constant V 01
)
FI G 7
ume line until we inters ec t the back pres
sure Of 1 8 p oun ds we have
,

Work
] c
12B . t u per lb
. . .

Then th e ne t w ork o f th e cyc l e becomes

80 12 68 B t
. . 11 . per lb .

an d th e i d eal wat er rate is therefore

254 5
lbs per
. h p . . hr .

68

35. I n a uni fl ow locomo t ive th e c l ear ance is 1 6 % an d com

-

p re ss ion take s p la ce d uring 9 0% o f th e s troke .

I f t h e back pressure i s 1 6 poun ds p er squ are inc h abso lute and

the qual ity of th e ste am at the beginning of comp ression is
fin d t h e condition of t h e s te am at the en d o f th e stroke as s uming ,

t he compression to be adiabat i c .

S ol uti on : From Pl at e 3b f or t h e pressure

,
of 1 6 p oun ds and
qu ality o f 96% we m ay rea d
E n t ropy 1 69 25
I nitial sp ecifi c vo lume cu ft . .
p er lb .
 PR O BLEM S

We must next find the speci fic volume at the end of compress i on ,

whi ch is equal to the spec ific volume at the beginn ing of com
press i on divi ded by the rat i o of compressi on .

90 + 16
Rati o compression
.

Of
.

16
H ence
F inal specific volume cu f t per l b
. . .

Then by go i ng al ong the entropy l ine until w e inters ect

t hi s specific volume lin e 3 59 we read from Plate 1 a :
.
,

F inal press ure 1 7 5 lbs . per sq in abs . . .

F inal superheat 24 0
°
F .

36 An engine h aving a s team j acke t h as a c learance of 1 5%

.

o f th e p iston displ a cement w hic h is cubic feet I t is f ound .

from t est results that t he wei g ht of steam insid e t h e cylinder dur

ing expansi on is pounds I f relea s e occurs at 9 5% of the
.

s troke at a pres sur e of 1 9 pounds per square inc h ab s ol ut e fin d t h e ,

condition of the s team at rel ease .

S oluti on : A ctual vo lume of t he s t e am in th e cyl in der is e qual

to the clear ance volume p l us t h e piston d is p la cement B u t s ince .

t h e c l ea rance i s gi ven i n terms of t h e piston d i splacement we h ave : ,

Actual volume X cu f t
. .

Spec i fic volume of the s team i n the cylinder is

Actua l volume 3 49
cu ft per lb
We i ght
. . .

0 1 63
.

T hen from Plate 3a for the pressure of

,
19 pounds and a spec ific
volume of 21 4 we find
.

°
Super he at 9 F .

°
37 The tempera ture i n a condenser is
. 87 F and the absolute
.

pressure i s equal t o inche s of mercury . F i nd the wei ght of air

72 P R O BL E M S

w hic h must be removed per pound of exh aus t st eam i f th e steam

entering the condenser has a quali ty Of

S oluti on : From the curve gi ving temperature o f vaporization ,

Pl ate 5b f or ,
we find :
Pressure of we t steam Hg .

and for t his pressure and a quality Of 85%

Spec i fic volume 44 2 . cu ft per l b

. . .

The ai r pre s sure i s equal to t h e to tal pressure l ess the pres sure of

the steam that is , ,

Hg .

°
1 inch o f mercury at 58 1 being equal to pound per square
inch th e air pressure in the condenser i s
,

. 14 X . 49 X 1 4 4 lb . per sq f t . .

T h e ab s ol u t e t emperature i n the condenser i s

T 4 60 87 54 7
°

Hence the weight o f air exi st ing in the same space as each pound
of s te a m i s

PV X 4 9 X 1 4 4 ) 44 2 .

0 1 5 lb
RT 54 7
° °

38 I f t h e temperature of t h e atmosp h ere i s 6 8 5 F and th e

.
°
.

rel at ive hum i di ty is 7 find the pressure due to th i s mo i sture

and the weight of mois ture in each cub i c fee t of the atmosphere .

S oluti on : From the temperature of vapori zation curve

Plate 6b for t h e temperature of 68 5 we may read :
,
°

S aturat i on pressure 0 7 Hg .

relat ive humi di ty i s almost exactly equal to the

S i n ce th e
Actual vapor pressure
i t follows that
Saturat i on pressure
74 P R O BLE MS

B ut i f the diameter of t h e p ipe in inc h es i s d t h en t h e are a in square

,

7: d 2

fee t i s als o e qual t o

4 X 1 44
°

4 X 1 44 X water rate X load X Sp . v ol .

Hence d n X 6 0 X v eloc i ty

1 74 8
water rate X load X sp vol . .

veloc i ty in ft per min . .

X X

Thi s mean s , of course t h at a ,

11 -
inch p i pe would be use d .

40 . Th e P arson s turbine at the Fiske Street Station Of th e

’

C ommonweal t h E d i son Co Chicago h a s an exh aust openi ng to .

, ,

th e con d en s er of 252 square f eet I f the w ater rate for a back .

p re ss ure of 1 inc h o f mercury a n d a l o ad of kw i s .

p oun d s per kw h r fi
. nd-
th e
. ve,
l oci t y th roug h th i s o p ening ass umin g ,

th e st e am has a qu al ity o f

S oluti on : From Pl ate 6b f or th e pre ss ure of 1 inc h ,

of mercury
and qu ality of 80% we find :
Specifi c v ol ume of exhau st st e am 523 cu f t per l b . . .

T h en
V o l ume X X 523
V el oc i ty ft p er mi n
Area
. .

60 X 252

41 I f in th e s econ d stage of a C urti s t urbine the p re ss ur e at

.
, ,

th e en trance to t h e nozz l e is 56 poun ds p er s qu are inc h ab s olu t e th e ,

sup erh eat an d t h e pre s sure in the next sta ge pounds p er

s quare inc h abso lu t e fin d t h e cros s sect i on al are a of e a c h nozz l e
,
-

for t his s t age in or d er th a t 1 1 2 suc h nozz l es wil l gi ve a fl ow of

pounds of st eam per h our Ass ume t h e coeffi cien t of vel oci ty for
.

thi s condit i on to be
 P R O BLE MS
1
S oluti on : 3From Plate 2b, for a p re ss ur e o f 56 p oun ds and super
°
heat of 64 we find :
T otal h ea t B t u
. . .

E ntropy 1 69

Then by f o ll owing t hi s entropy line until we in t ers ect th e

,

pound line on Plate 3a w e m ay read ,

T otal h e a t B t u . . .

Sp ecifi c v o lume cu f t p er lb . . .

Then t h e t h eoret ic ally availab l e energy t o p ro duce v el ocity in thi s

st age is
35 B t u per l b . . . .

and from Tab l e I V thi s v el ocity is fee t per second .

For th e gi v en nozz l e coefficien t th e v el ocity wou ld t h ere f ore be

96 X . ft per s ec . .

Let A are a in sq in of eac h nozz l e

. . .

Let N number of nozz l e s .

Let v v el ocity in f t per s ec . .

Let V specifi c vo l ume o f ste am a s it p ass e s th e thro at .

Th en t h e fl ow in poun d s per h our is

3, 6 00N A v 25 N A v

1 44 V V
FV X
s q in
25 N v X 1 12 X 1 27 0
. .

25

For this and the f o ll owing p roblem it will be ob s erv e d t h a t

the ratio of p ress ure s between st ages i s considerab l y over 57
which mea ns that th e ma ximum vel ocity occurs a t th e throat o f
the nozz l e an d that th e nozz l e will th eref ore hav e no diverg en t
p ar t
.

42 F in d th e size o f nozz l es and t h e p re ssure s in th e t hir d an d

.

fourth sta ge s for th e turbine of the previous problem i f in each o f

the s e sta ge s th ere are t o be 82 nozzles and t h e theoret i cally avail
ab l e energy i s t o be 35 B t u per stage Assume t h at the nozzle
. . . .
,

bucket and rotation al l o sses amoun t to 25% of this energy N egl ect
, .
76 PRO BLEM S

rad iation l oss and l eakage o f steam and ass ume nozz l e coeffic i ent
to be 9 6 % as before .

S oluti on : The l os s es i n eac h stage go t o reh eat the steam and ,

thi s reheat ing i s assumed to take place at constant pressure after

the expans i on i n the nozzle s ince the nozz l e l oss is very small
, .

Hence from t h e previous problem the s t eam enters t h e third stage

, ,
-

nozz l e in the follo wing condition

Pressure 36 8 lbs .

T ota l h ea t . 25 X 35 B . t . 11 .

T h en from Plat e
, 3a, for t he s e two values we obtain
E n t ropy 1 70+
Superh eat 27
°

Si nce it is desired to gi ve up 35 B t u in thi s stage we

. . .
,
now follow
down t his entropy li ne unt i l the total heat becomes
35 B . t u
. .

an d from P late 3b we find for t his total heat and entropy of 1 7 0+

P ressure 23 5 lb s .

Spec i fic vo lume cu ft . .

The velocity corresponding to 35 B t u is from Table IV equal to

. . .

feet per second Hence usi ng the same notati on a s before

.
, ,

th e area Of the t hroat of the nozzle for the th i rd stage is

FV X
0 632 8 2 1 “
25 N v 25 x 82 x

Then the steam ent er s t h e nozzle of the fourth stage in the following
cond i t i on
Pressure lbs .

Total h eat 25 X 35 .

From these two value s and P late 3a we obtain

E ntropy
 PR OBLEM S

this entropy li ne until t h e tot al h eat become s

and by fo l lowing %
35 1 , I 2G 6 E
. . t u . .

we have from P late 3b

Pressure lbs .

S pec i fic volume cu ft . .

Hence the area of the thr oat Of t h e nozz l e for t h e fourt h s tage is

A4
W X
MW Sq m
NV
' '

25 25 x 82 x x

43. S team
exp ands through a properly shaped divergent
nozzle from an i ni t i al pressure of 1 25 pounds per s quare inc h absolute
and 220 Of superheat to a final pressure of 1 pound per s quare i nc h
°

absolute F ind the proper cross sect i onal areas of thi s nozzle to
.
-

permi t a fl ow of on e pound per s econd assuming a diab atic expansion

,

and no fri ct i on .

S ol uti on : From P l ate 2a for th e pressure , of 1 25 poun ds a nd

superh eat of 220 we may read °

Total heat
E ntropy

and from Pl ate 5b for t his entropy an d a pre ssure of 1 pound w e

find
Total heat 9 55 B t 1 1 . . .

Spec i fic volume 285 cu ft . .

Then the total ava ilable energy is

9 55 350 B . t u per lb
. . .

L et the nozzle be divi ded into sect i ons so that in eac h one t h e ,

expans i on wi ll be suffic i ent to use equal parts of thi s total avai lable
energy I f we compute the veloc i ty for 1 0 such sect i ons we shall
.

have 35 B t u li berated in each on e B y the charts we may now

'

. . . .

follow the entropy l ine until it intersects t h e desi red total

heat line and then read the correspondi ng p re ss ure and specifi c
,
78 P R OBLEM S

volume B y Table IV the veloc i ty i s obtai ned and the area of the
.
,

nozzle at any secti on may then be found from the equat i on

Ar e a 1 1 1 59 “1 (C u ft fl owi ng per sec ) 1 44

. . .

Veloc i ty in ft per sec

° °

. .

Hence the fol l owing values may be at once tab ul ated :

S ecti on En t y
rop
Sq . In .

En tra n ce

If these sect i ons are now lai d off at equal i nterval s so that the
total length becomes equal to the des ired length of the nozzle the
form wil l be such that i t wil l give uni form accel er at i on of the steam .

Th i s is theoretically desirable and i s due to the fact t h at the sect i on s

,

h ave been chosen a t suc h po i nts that the energy transformed i nto
v el oc i ty i n each on e i s constant Such a nozz l e wi ll have curve d
.

elements for its diverg ent pa rt and wil l therefore be expensive to

make It has been found by experi ment that th e divergent par t
.

of t h e nozzle can be made of stra i ght l i ne elements without any grea t

-

l oss in effici ency Si nce there i s a large amount of hand work r e

.

qu ired in maki ng nozzles they are therefore nearly always made

,

wit h the divergent part as the frustum Of a pyr ami d or cone Th e .

thr oat of the nozzle must be approached by a gradually decreas i ng

cross sect i onal area i n order to prevent l oss due to the sudden con
-

vergence Of the stream l i nes .

N o general rule can be given to d etermi ne the best l eng th of

nozzle for all condi t ions The length o f the rounded entrance to the
.
 P R OBLEM S

th roat i s a v ery s mall portion of the total lengt h o f th e nozz l e and i t ,

i s common practi ce for some des i gners t o h ave t he divergent part

of the nozzle taper about one i n twelve w hi l e others make i t only
,

about one i n t wenty .

44 . For t h e expansion of t h e previ ous problem find t h e v alue

n n
of t h e exp onen t n whi ch sat i sfies the equat i on p ov o p v wh ere p
represents the pressure and v the spec i fic volume of the steam at any
time during its passage through the nozzle and p a and v0 re fer t o the
pre ss ure an d s pec i fic volume at th e en t r ance to nozz l e .

S oluti on : Rewri ti ng the equation we have

11
1 0
3
X
p ()
V0

Then by th e aid of a log log s lide rul e or logari thms and t h e resul ts
, ,

of t h e previou s prob l em t h e f ol l o w ing tab l e may at once h e m a de :

Qu al ity or p h at
S u er e

S ecti on
V alu e
U s ed

Thi s tab l e shows th at so long as the steam was superheated the

value of n w as constant but decreased rap i dly after reachi ng t he
,

wet region From Plate 3a i t may be seen that the

.
,
entropy
li ne crosses t h e s aturat i on curv e at a pressure of a litt l e more than
26 pounds .
80 PR OBLEM S

Wit h t h e value o f n
45 . as Ob tai ned from prob l em
44 find the pres s ure at the t hroa t of t hi s nozzle by the foll owing
,

equati on
pt 2 Il
—l wh ere
po ( 11 1 ) n --

p, pressure at t h e thr oat of the nozzle .

p o p re s sure a t entrance to nozzle .

S oluti on

P5 P0
1 325
.

0 325

4 07 5
1
(1 1 6 25 )
1
1 25 -
lbs .

Of p o.

Wit h th e t hroat p ressure as d etermine d from t h e equat i on

46 .
,

given in the previous problem determine the area of the throat ,

an d then fin d by tri al wh et h er t his is t h e minimum section .

S oluti on : T aking pressures each si d e of the thr o a t pressure as

found above and obtaini ng the values nee d e d as in p rob l em 4 3
, ,

w e m ay construc t t h e foll owing tab l e :

Av a ilabl
cti t y
e
Se En P ss e é
zgg
l
égfgigg
gi
on rop re ure n rg y
c. Sq . In .

1 25 . 0
70 .

68 .

Throat 1 71
67 .

66 . 65 .

F or th e d eri v ati on of th i s eq u ati on see an y g oo d b ook on t bi

ur n e n ozz els .
82 PRO BLEM S

Wh en a ny adi abati c expansion or compress i on o f s team i s

plotted on the P V di agram th e resul tant curve will al ways be
-

smooth even though the variat i on i n the exponent may be con

,

s i derable as in t h e above cases Thi s mean s that the exponents

.

chan ge gradually from on e t o the other even wh en crossing the

saturati on curve The reason that the above tabulat i ons do n ot
.

s how thi s more fully is due t o the fact that the des ire to make a
S hort tab l e necessita t ed the sel ection of po i nt s w hi c h are some

di stance apart .

48 In making a turbine tes t th e barometer was read as

.

inche s at a temperature of 50 F T h e diameter of the barometer

°
.

tube was i nch and the h ei ght of the meni scus was
inch The vacuum was determined by reading t h e hei ght of
.

mercury i n a glass tube inc h in diameter the bottom end of ,

wh i ch was rest i ng in a vessel of mercury The hei ght of thi s mer.

cury column was i nches a t a temperature o f 77 F and the °

.

meniscus wa s inch The elevation of the condenser wa s

.

500 f eet above sea l evel and the barometer was i n another building
50 fee t higher than t hi s T h e temperature Of the atmosphere wa s
.

40 F
°
.

F i nd t h e pressure i n the condenser i n inches of mercury .

S oluti on : The barometer corrections are

()
1 D u e to capillarity from Table II
()
2 D ue to temperature from Plate 9 a
()
3 D ue t o change in elevat i on from Pl ate 9 b .

Total . 09 1 in .

T his third correct i on i s obtained by running along the 4 0 tem °

p er atur e l i ne unt il we i ntersect the l ine representing the average

alti tude whi ch for thi s case would be 525 feet where the correct i on
, ,

for 1 00 feet is seen to be 1 1 0 Then for 50 foot change i n elevation

. .
-

the correct i on would be one hal f of thi s or 055 as above

-
, .
,
.

The corrections to the mercury column attac h ed to condenser

 PR O B LEM S

()
1 D ue t o cap ill ari ty from Table II .

()
2 D u e to temperature from Plate 9 a .

Total .

Hence by us ing correction to nearest hundredth

The barometer i s
09 in at 58 1 . .
°

and the vacuum i s

28 84 i n at 58 1
°
01 . . .

and absolute pressure i n condenser i s

0 8 i n Hg . . .

NO —Wi th t m aki g y f t h ab v c ct i s th p ss i th c d s w l d app a t b

TE ou n an o e o e orre on e re ure n e on en e r ou e r o e

i Hg d f m P lat 6 b t h d iff
n c i t tal h ats b tw a p ss
an ro e f e eren e n o e e ee n re ur e o

s m c mm t p y l i is s t b ab t 6 7 B t Th is am t f h at m ight
. .

i d f in or o e o on en r o ne ee n o e ou or u oun o e

as ily m a 2% f th t t al a vailabl gy as m ch as 1 5 20% f th gy av a ilabl i th la t

n . an .
. . .

e e n o e o e e n er or u or o e en er e n e s

L et the area abodefka F i g 8 represent the net work in B t u of , .

,
. . .

*
t h e theoret i cal cycle for the Ferrant i turb ine .

S P w D c m b 30 1 9 1 3 p ag 9 08 f a d s c i p ti f t h i s t b i
ee o er , e e er , , e , or e r on o ur ne.
 P R O BL E M S

I f the s team is received at a pressure of 1 4 5 pounds per s quare

inch absol ute and 360 degrees of superheat then expands adi a , ,

b ati cally to 25 pounds per square i nch absolute and after that i s
, , , ,

reheated at constant pressure to the ini ti al temperature and then

finally expands adi abatically to the back pressure o f
, , inches
o f mercury find ,

a
() N et work o f the cyc l e .

b
( ) Heat suppl i ed per poun d o f s team .

(c ) C yc l e effic i ency .

T h eoretical water r a te .

S oluti on : From Plate 2a, for th e p re s sure of 1 45 poun ds and

°
superhea t of 360 we find
Total h eat
J d
B t u . . .

and from Pl at e 3a for this entropy an d a pressure of 25 pounds we

have
Total heat
] H , B t u
. . .

From P lates 1 b and 3b respect ively we also find ,

356 F
°
Temperature of vapori zat i on for 1 4 5 lbs tb . .

24 0 F
°
Temperature of v apori zat i on for 25 lbs tb . r .

H ence
71 6 F
°
td 356 360 .

and s ince t he temperature after reheating is t o be th e same as this ,

the superheat at f becomes

0
t] by 71 6 24 0 4 76
°
Then from P l ate
,
7, for the pressure Of 25 pounds and 4 76 of

superhea t we have
T otal h eat
l H, 1 386 B t u
. . .

or
 P RO BL E M S

t hi s entropy and the condenser pre ss ure

F or of inches of

mercury we may then Obtai n from Plate 58

,

Total hear
l H, 1 077

an d from Plate 5b the heat of the li quid corre sp on ding t o th e

pre s sure of 1 5 inche s of mercury is
a

Then by i nspect i on of Fig 8 we h ave .

' ' ' '

a
() N e t wor k of cyc l e area b bcdee b efka
—H
d
—H , + Hf — Hk
1 37 7 1 1 95 1 386 1 077
B t u per l b of steam
49 1 . . . . .

b
( ) H eat s u p p l ie d p er lb o f s t e am
. are a labcdefn
Hd H H, , h ,

1 377 1 1 95 1 386 60
1 508 B t u . . .

()
0 C yc l e e ffi ciency

Theoretical water r ate i s lb s per . h p

. . hr .

lb s .
p er kw . hr .

50 .Supposing the ordinary s team turbine cyc l e abod j , Fig .

8, had been fo llowed find (a) (b ) (c ) (d ) as before

,
.

S oluti on : The only addi t i onal numeri cal value needed i s the
total heat at the po int j From Pl ate 5b for the entropy 1 76 and
.
,

the pressure of 1 5 inches of mercury we find

H, B . t u . .

Hence
(a ) N et work of cyc l e H, H, 1 377 B . t u
. .

(b ) Heat suppli ed per pound H , h ,

1 377 B . t u
. .

(0) C yc l e effiCI en c 1 3?
86 PR O B LEM S

254 5
Theoret i cal water rate lbs per h p hr
4 09 7
. . . .

34 1 2
lbs per kw hr
4 09 7
. . .

From the above results i t i s seen that for the theoretical cyc l es
t h e decrease i n water rate due to the reheat i ng is

and the increase i n heat suppli ed i s

1 508 1 31 7 191
1 81 7 1 81 7
or from the cycle effic i enc i es the gai n due t o reheat i ng i s
326 . 31 1 5
. 31 1 5

I n an actual turb i ne bu i lt to operate on thi s cycle there woul d

be t h e di sadvantages of higher first cost more comp licat i ons and
, ,

greater radi at i on l oss O n the other hand by h avi ng t h e steam

.
,

superheated for the enti re passage through the turb i ne or nearly so , ,

the leakage fri ct i on and rotat i onal losses are very much reduced
, ,
.

Wheth er the reduct i on Of these losses and the slight i ncrease i n t h e

cycle effic i ency wi ll be suffic i en t to make t his typ e of tur bine superior
to others cannot yet be to l d .
 I ND E X

l
A, reci p r oca of th e mechan i ca eq uiv a en t Of eat l l h
l
Ab so ut e t emp er at ure , F , cons t an t for , p r ob 8 7
°
. .

h
Abs tr acti on of eat at con s t an t v o um e, p r ob 1 3 l .

h
Ad di ti on of eat at cons t an t p r ess ur e , p rob 9
m
.

Adi ab ati c co p r ess i on , i n s t eam en gin e, p r ob 85 .

t
Of s eam , e xp on en t for p r ob 47 ,
.

Adi ab ati c e p a s i on of s t eam exp on en t for p robs

x n , ,
.

P— V di agr am for p ob 1 9 ,
r .

work d uri n g p rob 1 1 ,

.

Adiab ati cs d efi iti on Of

,
n

Ai r i n con d en s e p r ob 8 7 r, .

Al tit ud e v a i ati on of at m os p h er i c p es s ur e w it h
, r r

Ar ea r ep es en t i n g h eat g en e al dis cus s i o

r ,
r n

s up p li ed t ur b i e p r ob 26
‘
n ,
.

Ar ea ep es en ti n g w or k g en er al di s cuss m
r r ,
n

At mos p h er e r el ativ e hum i dit y of p r ob 38

, , .

At m o p h e i c p es s ur e th e s t an d ar d
s r r ,

va i ati o of w it h altitude
r n ,

Av ailab l e en er gy d efi n iti on of ,

i n s te am n ozz l e
B ack p r ess ur e eff ect of on n et work p ob 83
, , ,
r .

B arom et e th e t hi rt y i n ch s t a dar d
r, -
n

B arom et i c co ecti on s :
r rr

d ue to cap i ll ar it y di s cus s i on ,

Tab l e II
p r ob 48 .

d ue to ch an ge i n elevation dis cus s ion ,

P lat e 9b
p rob .
48
d ue l titud
to a e, d is cuss i o n

Tab l I e

d ue to t emp er atur e dis cus s ion ,

P l at e 9 8
p r obs 4 . and 5
p r ob 48
Bo iler an d furn ace effi ci en cy p r ob 1 9 ,
.

B oilers d et er mi n ati on Of w eigh t of s t e am f om p r ob 94

,
r , .

B r ass s cal es effect of on b a om et ri c correction s

, ,
r

C al or i met er t h rott li g p r obs 1 5 1 6 1 7

,
n , .
, ,

C ap illar it y corr ecti on due to

,
S ee B ar ometri c corr ecti on s . .

Comp l et e e xp an s i on cy cl e p r ob 32 , .
88 I NDEX

C omp ress i oni fl ow en gin e p rob 35

, in un , .

of s team adi ab ati call y p rob 47 , .

Con d en ser d et er mi n ati on Of ai r i n p r ob 37

, , .

C on st an t e t r op y ch an ge s p r obs 5
n 44 45 and 47 , .
, , ,

C on s t an t p r es s ure form ati on of s t eam

C on s t an t t emp er at ure exp an s i on Of s up s t eam p r ob 1 4 .
, . .

C on s t an t v ol um e ab s t r acti on of h eat p ob 1 3 ,
r .

C orr ecti ons Of m er cury v olum es S ee B arometri c correcti ons . .

Cy cle Claus i us or Rank in e di s cuss i on

, ,

d efin ition
effi ci en cy p robs 27 29 49 an d 50
, .
, ,

Ferr an ti p r obs 49 and 50

,
.

for di rect acti n g s t eam p um p p r ob 34

- -
, .

volum es for comp lete an d in comp let e ex p p r ob 32 .

,
.

D alt on 8 law ap p li cati on of p r ob 38

’
.
, ,

D egrees of s up er h eat d efi n ition ,

D eliver ed t h erm al effi ci en cy p r obs 26 and 27

‘

, .

D ens it y of m er cury dis cuss i on ,

Tab l e III
Dir ect actin g s t eam p um p cy cle pr ob 34
- -
,
.

E ffi ci en cy cy cl e p r obs 26 and 27
, , .

d elivered th erm al p r obs 26 and 27 , .

'

of b oi l er an d furn ace p r ob 1 9 , .

Of F err an ti cy cl e p r obs 49 and 50 , .

Rati o p robs 26 and 27

, .
‘

E n er gy avail ab le d efi ni ti on
, ,

I n trins i c d efin ition ,

h ow foun d , p r obs 8 . and 11

of w t
a er , p r ob 29 . .

En trop i es ,
con s an t t , h ow drawn
p r obs 5 , 1 1 .
, 1 2, 35, —
43 45 , an d 47
En trop y defin iti on
,

of s te am d efin iti on

h ow foun d fr om ch ar t p r obs 1 an
,

d 2 ,
.

E q uiv al en t ev ap or ati on p r obs 20 a d 21 , . n

E x h aus t O p en in g i n l ar ge t ur b in e p r ob 40 ,
.

E xh aus t s t eam for h eati n g p r ob 25 ,

E xp an s i o Of s t eam adi ab ati call y exp on en t for p r obs 44an

,
.

n ,
d 45 , , . .

i n s in gl e s t age t ur b i e p r ob 28 n ,
.

work d ur in g adi ab ati c p r ob 1 1 , .

E xp ans i o r ati o of d efi ni ti on p r ob 1 1
n, , , .

E xp on en t fo adi ab ati c com p r s s i on of s t eam p r ob 47

e
r ,
.

E xp on en t for ad i ab ati c exp an s i on Of s t eam p rob 44 and 45 , .

E xt ern al l at en t h eat d efi n iti on ,

E xt ern al w o k at con s t an t p r es s ur e di s cus s i on

r ,

P l at es 8a an d 8b
p roblem 7
F ac t or of evap oration , p r obs 2 . 0a d 21 n
 I NDEX

P -V di agram for s team en gin e cy cle p rob 29 -

, .

Of adi ab ati c ex p an s i on p rob 1 2 , .

P r op erti es i n dep en den t Of p at h

,

P r op er ti es of s t eam
Qualit y at e d Of adi ab ati c exp ans i on p rob 1 1
,
n , .

at e d of co s t a t volum e ch an g e p rob 1 3
n n n
, .

at re ease, l p rob 36 .

li of o t a t h ow d awn
ne c ns n , r

Ob tai d by t h ttli g alo im te

ne ro n c r e r, p r obs . 1 5—1 7
Ratio of xp a io d fi itio p b 1 1
e ns n, e n n, ro . .

Ratio of p u i ozz l p b 41 a d 45
r es s r es n n es , ro s . n

Rati of v olum fo m p l t a d i om p l t p a m y l
o es r co e e n nc e e ex ns n c c es , p r ob 3
. 2
R du tio Of b a om t i adi g to t a d a d g avit y
e c n r e r c re n s s n r r

R du tio of m u y olum to p ou d p qua i h

e c n er c r c n n s er s re nc

R h ati g ff t f i multi t ag t u bi p b 42
e e n ,
e ec O ,
n -
s e r n e, ro .

R l ativ hum idity a d vap o p u p b 38

e e n r ress r e, ro .

R v ibl adi b ati d fi itio

e er s e a cs , e n n

Sa turation cur v e d efin iti o

,
n

S ca l es , s e e cl ti o n Of, for m a n i c arh t

S in gle st age tur b in e p rob 28
-
,
.

S i z e Of t ur b i n e ex h aus t p i p e p rob 40 , .

s up p l y p i p e p r ob 39 ,
.

S p ecifi c h eat of s up erh eat ed s t eam for v ery low p ressur e h ow foun d ,

Sp ecifi c volum e of s t eam d efin iti on ,

Of w at er n um er i cal v al ues
,

S t an dar d at m o p h e i c p ress ur e d efin iti on

s r ,

S t eam p rop er ti es of
,

s up er h eat ed d efi n iti on , .

Sup e h eat at r el eas e p ob 36

r r . .

S up erh eat e d s t eam a d wet s t eam mix ed p rob 2

,

2 n ,
.

S up erh eat ed s t eam i n th e at m os p h er e p rob 38 ,

.

S p er h eatin g due to t hr ott l i g p

u r obs 1 5—18 n ,
.

Tab les I II III , ,

Table IV
Tab le of v elociti es h ow p r ep ar ed ,

Tem p er at u e ab s ol ut e F p r ob 37
°
r , ,
.
, .

Temp er at ur e corr ecti on of b ar om et er

Tem p er at ur e t op y di agr am di s cuss i on
e- n r ,

for Fe an ti cy cl e p r ob 49
rr ,
.

for t urb i n e cy cl e p r ob 26 ,
. .

Temp er at ur e Of s up erh eat ed s t eam for v er y low p r ess ures s cal e of ,

Tem p er at ur e of v ap or i z ati on cur ve of ,

.

Temp er at ur es h ow foun d f om ch ar t p robs 1 and 2

,
r ,
.

use of s cal e of ap p r oxim at e p rob 38 , .

Th ermal effi ci en cy d eli vered p r obs 26 and 27 , ,

.

Thr oat p r ess ur es i n n ozz l es p r ob 41 45 46 ,

s .

Thrott li n g cal ori met er p robs 1 5 1 7 ,

.
-
 I NDEX

l
Thr ott i n g i n s t eam autom ob i e, p rob 1 8 l .

l
Tot a en t r op y of s t eam
lh
Tot a eat , d is cuss i on
Tur b in e , F err an ti , p robs 49 an 50 . d
l
mu ti s t age , p r obs 41 and 42
-
.

i g le s t age p rob 28
s n -
, .

Uni fiow en gi n e com p r es s i o i n p ob 35 ,

n ,
r .

Us i g th e ch art s g en e al m et hod of
n ,
r

Vacuum effect of o w at er r at e p rob 27

, ,
n ,
.

Velociti es jet Table IV , ,

h ow comp ut ed
Velocit y Of st eam at exh aust from t urb i e p r ob 40 , ,
n ,
.

t hrough n ozz le p r obs 28 41 43 — ,

.
,

t hrough p ip e to t urb i e p rob 39 n ,

.

Volum e in c eas e of dur i g s up e heatin g p r obs 9 a d 1 0

r n r n

Volum e of wat er on P —
.
, , ,

V di agr am p r ob 29 ,
.

Volum e sp cifi c de fini tio

,
e ,
n

h ow foun d f om ch ar t p r obs 1 and 2 ,

r ,
.

Volumes for com p let e a d in comp l et e e p an s mn p rob 32 n x , .

Wat er s p ecifi c volum e Of

,

p r ob 29 .

Wat t
er r a e an dv acuum p ob 27 ,
r .

Wat er r at e Of l ar g e t u b i es p obs 26 27 and 40 r n ,

r .
, ,
.

Of F e a ti t ur b i e t h eo eti cal p r obs 49 and 5 0

rr n n ,
r ,
.

Weigh t of s t eam from b oile s h ow comp ut ed p ob 24 r , ,

r .

Weigh t of st eam i p ip e h ow com p uted p ob 6 n , ,

r .

Wet s t eam t ot al heat of ,

Wor k don e d urin g adi ab ati c exp a s io p ob 1 1 n n, r .

d uri g co s t a t p res s u e exp an sion di s cuss i o

n n n r ,
n,

p r ob 7 .

Wo k g e al equatio fo
r , en r n r

los t due to in omp lete exp an sion c , p rob 31 .

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Un iv e rsity of C alifo rn ia Lib ra ry
T
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. ,

Un iv e rsity of C alifo rnia

Ric h mo nd C A 9 4 804 4 69 8
,
-

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