Biology 2

BIOLOGY NOTES ( Semester 2 )
CHAPTER 1- BIODIVERSITY
1.Taxonomy-Science of naming and classifying organisms.

2. Scientist: Carolus Linnaeus- Developed Binomial nomenclature
- Developed Hierachial classification
3. Main taxon: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
4. Ecologist R.H. Whittaker classify living organism: Level of cell organization, level of
organization of eukaryotic organism, and
mode of nutrition.
5. Biodiversity- The variety of living organism on the earth
6. Types of Biodiversity: Genetic diversity- the genetic variation within a species
Species diversity- the number of different species within a community
Ecosystem diversity- the variety of ecosystems found on Earth
7. Kingdom Monera
Unique Characteristics
-DNA not enclosed in a nuclear envelope
-NO membrane-bounded organelles
-Unicellular
-Prokaryotes
-DNA is not associated with histone protein except Archaebacteria
-Reproduce asexually with histone protein
Eubacteria (e.g. E.coli) Archaebacteria (e.g. Sulfolobus sp.)

Cell wall composed of peptidoglycan Cell wall lack of peptidoglycan
DNA is not associated with histone protein DNA is associated with histone protein
Membrane lipids contain unbranched Membrane lipids contain branched hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon chains connected to glycerol by chains connected to glycerol by ether linkages
ester linkages
-Diversity of Bacteria
. Cell shapes
. Gram stain
. Position of flagella
Gram-positive bacteria Gram-negative bacteria

Cell wall composed of thick peptidoglycan layer Cell wall composed of a thin peptidolycan layer
and an outer membrane with lipopolysaccharides
Retain crystal violet on alcohol Do not retain crystal violet on alcohol treatment//
treatment//appears purple or violet under the appears red under the microscope
microscope
-Gram-negative bacteria are more virulent to host organisms because
.The lipopolysaccharides on the walls are toxic
. Procted by the outer memberane( which prevents lysozyme digestion towards peptidoglycan
. More resistance towards antibiotics/ penicillin.
Classification of bacteria based on the position of flagella:
Atrichous monotrichous lophotrichous lophotrichous amphitrichous peritrichous
IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA
-Nitrogen fixation ( Rhizobium sp.)
-Symbiotic (E.coli)
-Pathogenic ( Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
-Research and technology ( Pseudomonas sp. )
-
8. Kingdom Protista
UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS
-unicellular or multicellular
-autotrophic or heterotrophic
-reproduce sexually or asexually
-Advance than K.Monera because ehave nucleus/ membrane-bound organelle.
Unique characteristics of Algae

-Autotrophic/photosynthetic
-Has chloroplast/ contain chlorophyll
-exhibit alteration of generations in life cycle
Phylum Chlorophyta-Chlamydomonas sp.

Phylum Phaeophyta-Fucus sp.
Unique characteristics of Protozoa

-Heterotrophic
-Motile
Phylum Euglenophyta
-locomotion: flagella
-e.g: Euglena sp.
Phylum Rhizopoda
-locomotion: Pseudopodia
-e.g: Amoeba sp.
Phylum Ciliophora
-locomotion: cilia
-e.g: Paramecium sp.
Phylum Apicomplexa
-e.g: Plasmodium sp.
Importance of Protista
1.Roles in biosphere ( CO2 fixation )
-algae and phytoplankton carry out photosynthesis
-zooplankton obtain the carbon source by feeding on the phytoplankton
2.Food source
-as dietry supplements
-spiruline sp. And chlorella sp. promote growth and repair body tissues
3.Eutrophication
-a process by which nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) become highly concentrated in the water
bodies
-leading to algal bloom (increased growth of photosynthetic organisms such as algae and
cyanobacteria)
4.Red tide
-caused by dinoflagellates which colour the coastal water red
-toxins contained in some dinoflagellates ae concentrated in the shellfish that feed on them and can
cause fatal poisoning in humans who eat the shellfish
5.Human health
-Plasmodium sp. is an apicomplexan that cause malaria; lives in two hosts, mosquitoes and humans
-human suffer from malaria through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito
9. Kingdom Fungi
Unique characteristics
-multicellular
-eukaryotes
-chitinous cell wall
-body structure consists of a network of hyphae
-stores carbohydrate as glycogen
-reproduction via spores
Phylum Zygomycota
-spore-bearing structure: Zygosporangium
-e.g: Rhizopus sp.
Phylum Ascomycota
-spore-bearing structure: Ascus
-e.g: Penicillium sp. and Saccharomyces sp.
Phylum Basidiomycota
-spore-bearing sturcture: Basidium
-e.g: Agaricus sp.
-Fungi are not classified as plants because fungi are not autotrophic/ photosynthetic
Importance of Fungi
1.Decomposers
-saprophytic fungi
-secrete hydrolytic enzymes to degrade/ break down complex polysaccharide and proteins
2.Symbionts
-Lichen: a mutualistic association between fungi and a photosynthetic partner (algae or
cyanobacteria)
-mycorrhizae: a mutualistic association between plant roots and fungi
3.Pathogens
-parasitic fungi
-cause diseases in humans and plants
e.g: ringworm, athlete's foot, corn smut
4.Commercial importance in food production (fermented food)

-Saccharomyces sp. in baking bread and the production of alcohol/ wine/ beer
-Aspergillus sp. in making soy sauce
-Rhizopus sp. in making tempe
5.Pharmaceutical
-Penicillium sp. in the production of antibiotics (penicillin)
10. Kingdom Plantae
-multicellular
-eukaryotes
-cellulose cell wall
-Autotrophs
-food storage in starch
-Have waxy cuticle layer to prevent water loss
-Show alternation of generations in life cycle
Groups
1.Bryophytes
Unique characteristic
-absence of vascular tissues
-absence of true roots,stems, and leaves// habe thalius with rhizoids
-absence of lignified tissues
-seedless
-homosporous
-gametophyte generation is dominant
-sporophyte is nutritionally dependent on the gametophyte
Terrestrial adaptions
-Has waxy cuticle to reduce water loss in transpiration
-Has stomata for gaseous exchange
-Gametopyte has a jacket of sterile cells to protect gametes// archegonia has a jacket of sterile cells
to protect embryo
Phylum
1.Phylum Bryophyta
-e.g: Polytrichum sp.
2.Phylum Hepatophyta
-e.g: Marchantia sp.
3.Phylum Anthocerophyta
-e.g: Anthoceros sp.
Sexual life cycle of Polytrichum sp.

-The individual plant is the gametophyte generation.
-The gametophyte generation is dominant.
-Male gametophyte possess antheridium that produces antherozoids by mitosis.
-Female gametophyte possess archegonium that produces oosphere by mitosis.
-Fertilization of antherozoid and oosphere produces zygote (2n).
-Zygote develops into the sporophyte eneration (foot,seta and capsule).
-Sporophyte is nutritionally dependent on the gametophyte.
-Sporophyte produces spores (n) by meiosis (in the capsule).
-Spore germinates into a protonema.
-Protonema develops into the gametophyte.
-Sporophyte degenerate/deteriorate.
-Sporophyte will be formed again after the next cycle of sexual reproduction.
Bryophytes are more advance than green algae

-Has cuticle to reduce water loss in transpiration
-Has stomata for gaseous exchange
-Has hydroid and leptoid for transportation
-Has rhizoids for anchorage and absorption
2.Pteridophytes
-presence of simple vascular tissues
-presence of true roots, stems, and leaves
-presence of lignified tissues
-seedless
-mostly homosporous, some heterosporous
-sporophyte generation is dominant
-gametophyte and sporophyte are nutritionally independent from each other
-dependent on water for fertilization
Pylum
-Phylum Lycopodiophyta (e.g: Lycopodium sp. and selaginella sp.)
-Phylum Pteridophyte (e.g: Dryopteris sp.)
-Homosporous: Plant/ sporophyte that produce 1 type of spore

-Heterosporous: Plant/ sporophyte that produces 2 types of spores (megaspore and microspore)
-Pteridophytes are more advanced than bryophytes because of the presence of simple vascular
tissues and the presence of lignified tissues.
-Pteridophytes are more primitive than higher plants because it has simple vascular tissues and
dependent on water for fertilization.
3.Gymnosperms
-Presence of complex vascular tissues
-Presence of true roots, stems and leaves
-Presence of lignified tissues
-Naked seeds
-Heterosporous
-Sporophyte generation is dominant
-Gametopyte is nutritionally dependent on the sporophyte
-Not dependent on water for fertilization
Phylum
Phylum Coniferophyta (e.g: Pinus sp.)
Phylum Cycadophyta (e.g: Cycas sp.)
Phylum Ginkgophyta (e.g: Ginkgo sp.)
Phylum Gnetophyta ( e.g: Gnetum sp.)
4.Angiosperms
-Presence of complex vascular tissues
-Presence of true roots, stems, and leaves
-Presence of lignified tissues
-Protected seeds
-Heterosporous
-Sporophyte generation is dominant
-Gametophyte is nutritionally dependent on the sporophyte
-Not dependent on water for fertilization
-Produce flowers and fruits
-Undergo double fertilization
Class Dicotyledonae (e.g: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)

Class Monocotyledonae (e.g: Zea Maye)
Monocots Dicots
Seed embryos with one cotyledon Seed embryos with two cotyledones
Flower parts are in multiples of three Flower parts are in multiples of four or five
Leaf veins are parallel Leaf veins are netlike
Vascular bundles in stems are scattered Vascular bundles in stem are arranged in a ring
Fibrous root system Taproot system
Conifers Angiosperms
Reproductive organ is cone/ strobilus Reproductive organ is flower
Do not undergo double fertilization Undergo double fertilization
Seed does not possess endosperm Seed possess endosperm
Seeds are unprotected/ naked Seeds are protected/ enclosed (by the fruit wall/
pericarp)
Vessel elements absent in xylem tissues Vessels element present in xylem tissues
Companion cells absent in phloem tissues Companion cells present in phloem tissues
Cone parts are arranged in spirals Flowerparts are arranged in whorts
Pollination by wind Pollination by several agents
Bryophytes pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Vascular tissues Absent Simple vascular Complex vascular Complex vascular
tissues tissues tissues
True roots, Absent// thallus Present Present Present
stems, and leaves with rhizoids
Lignified tissue Absent present present Present
Seeds production Absent Absent Naked seeds Protected seeds
Spores Homosporous Mostly Heterosporous Heterosporous
production homosporous,
some
heterosporous
Dominance Gametophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte
of gametophytes generation generation generation generation
and sporophytes dominant dominant dominant dominant
Dependance of Sporophyte Both independent Gametophyte Gametophyte
gametophytes dependent on from each other dependent on dependent on
and sporophytes gametophyte sporophyte sporophyte
Water Yes Yes No No
dependance in
fertilization
Size of Larger than - - -
gametophyte gametophyte of
the rest
11. Kingdom Animalia
-multicellular
-eukoryotes
-cells are specialized to perform specific functions
-have diverse body plans
-capable of locomotion/ movement
-have nervous system and muscular system
-reproduce sexually
-undergo a period of embryonic development
Ectoderm Ectoderm
Endoderm Endoderm
Mesoderm
Diploblastic Triploblastic
e.g:Phylum Cnidaria e.g: Phylum: Platyhelminthes, Nematoda,
Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca,
Echinodermata, Chordata
* Porifera show neither diploblastic or triploblastic because lack of true tissue
Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate Coelomate
e.g: Phylum Platyhelminthes e.g: Phylum Nematoda e.g: Phylum: Annelida,

Arthropoda, Mollusca,
Echinodermata, Chordata
 Significant of body cavity in animals: as a hydrostatic skeleton so that the muscles can act
against it.
Asymmetry Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry
e.g: Phylum Porifera e.g: Phylum Cnidaria e.g: Phylum: Chordata,

Mollusca, Platyhelminthes,
Nematoda, Annelida,
Arthropoda, Echinodermata
a)Phylum Porifera
-lack true tissues
-asymmetry
-body wall perforated by numerous pores
-possess choanocytes/ collar cells that generate water current
e.g: Sponges( Leucosolenia sp.) - suspension feeder because traps/ phagocytizes food particles in
the water that passes/ circulates through its body.
b)Phylum Cnidaria/ Coelenterata
-radial symmetry
-diploblastics
-gastrovascular cavity has single opening which serves as both mouth and anus
-dimorphism/ polymorphism// polyp and medusa
-tentacles with cnidocytes that discharge nematocysts.
Classification
-Class Hydrozoa ( Hydra sp. and Obelia sp.)
-Class Scyphozoa (Jellyfish)\
-Class Anthozoa ( sea anemone)
c)Phylum Platyhelminthes
Unique characteristic
-Bilateral symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Acoelomate
-Unsegmented
-Dorsoventrally flattened body
-hermaphrodite
-incomplete digestive tract with mouth but no anus
-nephridia/ dlame cells for osmoregulation/ excretion
-no circulatory system
-exhibit cephalization
Classification
-Class Cestoda (Tape worm -Taenia sp.)
-Class Trematoda ( Flukes- Fasciola sp.)
-Class Turbellaria (Planaria sp.)
-Class Monogenea (Dactylogyrus sp.)
d)Phylum Nematoda
-Bilateral Symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Pseudocoelomate
-Unsegmented
-Body with tapered/ pointed ends
-Dioecious
-Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
-No circulatory system
-Have longitudinal muscles only
-Body covered with a tough/ thick cuticle
e.g: Roundworm ( Ascaris lumbricoides )
e)Phylum Annelida
-Bilateral symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Coelomate
-Segmentation/ metamerism
-Body with blunt ends
-hermaphrodite and dioecious
-complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
-nephridia for osmoregulation/ excretion
-closed circulatory system
-have longitudinal and circular muscles
-have setae/ chaetae for locomotion ( except leeches/ Hirudinae )
Classification
Class Oligochaeta ( Earthworm- Pheretima sp.)
Class Polychaeta ( Ragworm- Nereis sp.)
Class Hirudinea ( Leech- Hirudo sp.)
Platyhelminthes Nematoda
Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate
Dorsoventrally flattened body Body with tapered/ pointed ends
Hermaphrodite Dioecious
With nephridium Without nephridium
Incomplete digestive tract with mouth but no Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
anus
Platyhelminthes Annelida
Acoelomate Coelomate
Unsegmented body (Metameric) Segmented body
Dorsoventrally flattened body Body with blunt ends
Hermaphrodite Hermaphrodite and dioecious
Incomplete digestive tract with mouth and no Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
anus
No circulatory system Closed circulatory system
Without setae/ chaetae With setae/ chaetae except leeches/Hirudinae
Nematoda Annelida
Pseudocoelomate Coelomate
Unsegmented body (Metameric) Segmented body
Body with tapered/ pointed ends Body with blunt ends
Dioecious Hermaphrodite and dioecious
Without nephridium With nephridium
No circulatory system Closed circulatory system
Have longitudinal muscles only Have longitudinal and circular muscles
Without setae/ chaetae With setae/ chaetae except leeches/ Hirudinae
f)Phylum Arthropoda
-Bilateral symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Coelomate
-Segmentation/ metamerism
-Segments are fused to form tagmata
-Dioecious
-Chitinous exoskeleton
-Jointed appendages
-Open circulatory system
-Variety of respiratory organs
-Highly developed sensory organs
-Exhibit cephalization
-Undergo metamorphosis
-Undergo ecdysis/ moulting
Classification
-Class Crutacea ( Macrobrachium sp.)
-Class Chilopoda ( Scolopendra sp.)
-Class Diplopoda ( Iulus sp.)
-Class Insecta ( Valanga sp.)
-Class Arachnida ( Nephila sp.)
-Class Merostomata ( Tachypleus sp.)
Characteristics that allow them successfully conquer various types of habitat

-Chitinous exoskeleton: Allow free moving and protection from dehydration
-Jointed appendages: Allow efficient locomotion/ flexible movement
-Segmentation/ Metamerism: Specialization of functions
g)Phylum Mollusca
-Bilateral symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Coelomate
-Soft body covered by a shell ( except Cephalopoda )
-Muscular foot for locomotion
-Visceral mass containing internal organs
-Mantle drapes over the visceral mass and secretes a shell
-Radula for feeding ( except Bivalvia )
-Open circulatory system ( except Cephalopoda )
Classification
-Class Gastropoda ( Achatina sp.)
-Class Cephalopoda ( Sepia sp.)
-Class Bivalvia ( Anadara sp.)
h)Phylum Echinodermata
-Larvae: Bilateral symmetry
Adult: Pentaradial symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Coelomate
-Dioecious
-Calcareous endoskeleton
-Water vascular system branching into tube feet for locomotion, feeding and gaseous exchange
-Simple nervous system without brain
Classification
-Class Asterodea ( Starfish )
-Class Holothuroidea ( Sea cucumber )
-Class Crinoidea ( Feather star )
-Class Echinoidea ( Sea urchin )
-Class Ophiuroidea ( Brittle star )
 Functions of water vascular system in echinoderms: Locomotion, feeding, gaseous exchange

 Role of crown-of-thorns: Threaten the coral reef
i)Phylum Chordata
present in certain stages of their life cycle
-Presence of notochord
.a flexible rod dorsal to the gut/ primitive gut
.give rises to the vertebral column
-presence of pharyngeal clefts// slits in the pharynx

.Connect the pharynx and esophagus/ food filter tool
.In some species, this is retained as respiratory openings/ pharyngeal pouches
-Presence of dorsal nerve chord

.which is hollow
.usually more specialized at the anterior end of the brain and spinal cord
-Presence of post-anal tail

.Extends posterior to the anus
-Presence of myotomes
.Muscle organized into segments
Sub-Phyla
-Urochordata ( Sea squirt )
-Hemichordata ( Acorn worm )
-Cephalochordata ( Lancelet )
Classification
-Class Chondrichthyes ( ray- Raja sp. )
-Class Osteichthyes ( Ikan selar- Selar sp. )
-Class Amphibia ( Frog- Rana sp. )
-Class Reptilia ( Crocodile- Crocodilus sp. )
-Class Aves ( Pigeon- Columba sp. )
-Class Mammalia ( Rat- Rattus sp. )
Phylum Level of Germ layers Body plan Body cavity Segmenta

organization (symmetry) tion/
metameri
sm
Porifera Lack of true - Radial - -
tissue symmetry
Coelentrata/ Have true Diploblastic Bilateral - -
Cnidaria tissue symmetry
Platyhelminthe Have true Triploblastic Bilateral Acoelomate -
s tissue symmetry
Nematoda Have true Triploblastic Bilateral Pseudocoelomate -
tissue symmetry
Annelida Have true Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate /
tissue symmetry
Arthropoda Have true Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate /
tissue symmetry
Mollusca Have true Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate -
tissue symmetry
Echinodermata Have true Triploblastic Larvae: Coelomate -
tissue Bilateral
symmetry
Adult:
Pentaradial
symmetry
Chordata Have true Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate /
tissue symmetry
* segmentation/ metamerism is important in the evolution of animals because to allow

specialization of body regions for specific functions.
CHAPTER 2-ECOLOGY
Ecology: Study of relationship between organisms and their environment
Niche: The role of an organism in its environment
Habitat: The natural environment in which an organism lives
Organism: Any living system consisting of one or more cells
Population: All the organism of the same species that live in the same area
Community: All the populations of differrent species that live and interact in the same area
Ecosystem: A community of organisms iinteractiong with the abiotic factors in the environment
Biome: A large, relatively distinct terrestrial region that has similar climate, soil, plants and animals
Biosphere: The entire portion of earth that is inhabited by all living organism
-Main source of energy is from the sun
-Energy transfer along a food chain in a one-way direction. Energy loss as it is transferred from one
organism to another. Therefore, energy cannot be rcycled.
-Sustain the ecosystem by the efficiency of energy and biogeochemicalcycles
-Biotic components:producers, consumers: herbivores,carnivores,omnivores,detrivores,

decomposers
-Abiotic components:Atmosphere(The gaseous envelope surrounding earth),

hydrosphere(the water on the surface of the Earth),
lithosphere(the soil and rock of the earth)
-Interaction between biotic components:

Interaction Competition Predation Mutualism Commenalism Parasitsm
S.A:predator S.A:Commensal S.A:Parasite
S.B:Prey S.B:Host S.B:Host
Effects on - + + + +
species A
Effects on - - + 0 -
species B
Zonation- the separation of the lake into distinct zones of biological communities linked to 2
physical criteria.
a)Light penetration
Zone Description Biotic components
Photic Light penetration sufficient for Phytoplanktons(e.g. Algae)
photosynthesis Zooplankton(e.g. Protozoa)
Fishes
Profundal Insufficient light for Decomposers(e.g. bacteria)
photosynthesis
b)distance from shore and water depth

Zone description Biotic components
Littoral Well-lit shallow water close Rooted plants(e.g. Hydrilla sp.)
from the shore floating plants(e.g. duckweeds)
Limnetic Well-lit deeper water further Phytoplanktons(e.g. Algae)
from the shore Zooplanktons(e.g. Protozoa)
Fishes
Structure of lake ecosystem
Structure of terrestrial ecosystem

Food chain- the series of organisms through which energy flows in an ecosystem
Food web- a complex interconnection of all food chains in an ecosystem
Trophic level- each level in a food chain/food web
Ecological pyramid- a graphic representation of the no. of organisms/biomass/energy value at each

trophic level
food chain does not consist of more than 5 trophic level:
-this maybe insufficient to support more trophic levels thus limiting the members in a food chain
-as energy is transferred along a food chain, large losses of each energy transfer both within and
between organisms
-each trophc level therefore receives less energy than trophic level below it.
-after the 4th and 5th level only a small amount the energy is left.
Types of food chain

-detritus food chain
-predatory/grazing food chain
-parasitic/grazing food chain
LAWS
-The First Law of Thermodynamis states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be
converted from one form to another
-The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that when energy is converted from one form to
another, some energy is lost as heat
Types of ecological pyramid
 Pyramid of numbers- total no. of organisms at each trophic level
 Pyramid of Biomass-total biomass(dry mass) of organisms at each trophic level
 Pyramid of energy- total energy content of organisms at each trophic level

Pyramid of number Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of energy
Advantage The number of organism A more accurate indicatopr Shows clearly the total
can be counted easily of the mass of organisms at quantity of energy at each
each trophic level trophic level in the food
chain/ ecosystem
Disadvantage -Changes in size of the -difficulty in determining -difficulty in obtaining
organisms during its life the biomass because it energy data because it
cycle or juvenile forms involves killing and drying requires even more
are not taken into of organisms before dry measurements
consideration mass is obtained
-sometimes two oranisms
-Problems of classifying -the biomass may change may have the same mass
the organism that feed at eith time and different but different amount of
different trophic levels organisms energy
-The difficulty in -comparison of wet mass is

counting small organiss inaccurate because the
that are very large water content of organisms
numbers may fluctuate
-a typical pramid shape -it does not show the

may not be produced productivity
Biogeochemical cycle: cycling of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components in the
biosphere.
Two components of biogeochemical cycle: Reservoir cycle(abiotic) and cycling cycle(biotic)

Sustainahle development-The development that fulfills the current needs without compromising
the needs of the future generation
Sustainable forestry- aims to maintain and enhance our forest systems for the benefit of the
present and future generations of living organisms (e.g. Reforestration and cutting limit)
Sustainable agriculture- integrates all elements of agriculture management for the benefit of the
present and future generations of living organisms (e.g. control the use of pesticides and biological
control)
sustainable fishery- the wise management of fisheries for the benefit of the present and future
generations of living organisms. (e.g. aquaculture)
in situ conservation- The conservation of components of biodiversity in their natural habitats.

(Taman negara)
Ex situ conservation- The conservation of components of biodiversity outside their natural
habitats(zoo)
CHAPTER 3- POPULATION ECOLOGY
Biotic potential(r)-The ability of the individuals in a population to reproduce at the maximum rate
under optimal environmental conditions
Environmental resistance-The biotic and abiotic factors that oppose the achievement of biotic
potential by a population
Carrying capacity(K)-The maximum population size that can be supported by the environmental
resoures
Natality-The rate of births in a population over time
Mortality-The rate of deaths in a population over time
Natality(N) Immigration(l)
Population
Mortality(M) Emigration(E)
Stable population in equilibrium: N+l = M+E

Population that is shrinking: N+l < M+E
Negative feedback system on population growth that is limited bu density-dependent factors:

-When the number of individuals in a population increases, density-dependent factors cause a
decline in the population.
-When the number of individuals in a population decreases, a relaxtion of density-dependent factors
allow the population to increase.
Z
Carrying capacity(Y)
800 Environmental
Exponential resistance
growth curve (X)
(P) Logistic growth curve(Q)
Population
size (N)
0 Time (t)
P: Growth at biotic potential ( dN/dt = rN ) (e.g. Human population)

Q: Growth with environmental resistance( dN/dt = rN(k-n/k) ) (e.g. Paramecium sp.)
X: (k-n)/k
The relationship between natality rate and mortality rate of the population Q at region Z:
The natality rate is equal to the mortality rate
Population Q phases:
1.Lag phase: rate of population growth is minimal and population adapt to new environment
2.exponential growth phase: rate of population growth is maximal/ exponential, abundant

resources lead to members utilising their full biotic potential, and environmental resistance is absent
3.deceleration phase: environmental resistance starts to take effect as population approaching the
carrying capacity and due to limited space, food, competition and etc.
4.Stable equilibrium phase: population size remains constant/ stabilised/ in equilibrium// zero
population growth, population achieve the carrying capacity of the ecosystem, environmental
resistance limits further population growth, and birth rate = death rate
The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is not consant:

-affected by environmental condition
How to increase the carrying capacity of an ecosystem:

-provide more food
-produce more/larger space
-reduce interspecific interactions (competion/predation)
Types of limiting factors affecting the population size:

a) density-independent factors: are environmental factors whose effects on a population change as
population density/ size changes. Tend to retard population growth as population density/size
increases and allow population growth as population density/ size decreases.
i) Competiton for resources

-when population density is high/ resources are limited, the competition increased
-intraspecific competition occurs between individuals of the same population
-interspecific competition occurs between populations of different species.
ii) Territorial behaviour

-There is little or no overlap between neighbouring territories of the same species.
-Species without territories often die from predation/ starvation
iii) Predation/ predator-prey interaction

-an interspecific interaction which results in cyclic flunctuations in population size
-an increased in the prey population support an increases in predator population
-lead to a drastic drop in the number of prey population
-followed by a decline in the predator population
iv) Overcrowding
-occur at high population densities
-cause excessive stress leading to abnormal behaviour
-some populations shows a decline in health/ survivorship/ natality
-hormonal changes may occur which cause inferlity/ parental neglect
v) Parasitism disease
-Parasitic infections/ desease spreads more easily in a high density populations
-increase mortality
vi) Accumulation of toxic waste
-as population grows, waste products from metabolic reactions accumulate
-and become toxic to the members of the population
b) density-dependent factors: are environmental factors that affect the density/ size of a population
but is not influences by changes in population density.
i)climate
-Temperature: All organisms live within a specific temperature tolerance range
-Light intesity: The energy source. Light intensity controls the entire ecosystem through its effects
on the primary producers.
-Precipitation and humidity: Total rainfall determines the condition an ecosystem
-Wind: Influence the temperature and humidity of a specific area
ii)Natural disaster
-Forest fire, flood, drought, earthquake, tsunami
iii)Natural disaster
-pesticides
Logistic growth curve

CHAPTER 4: BIOCATALYSIS
Enzyme: A biological catalyst that speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy.
Level of protein structure that forms enzyme: Tertiary/ quaternary structure
Enzyme-catalysed are usually reversible, they can catalyse reactions in both directions.
Enzyme are required in small amount. Enzyme activities are affected by temperature, pH,
substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration.
Certain enzyme requires cofactors for them to function efficiently. The rate of enzyme-catalysed
reaction is reduced by the presence of inhibitors.
Activation energy: The minimum energy
required for a chemical reaction to take
place.
- Enzyme speeds up the rate of reaction by
lowering the activation energy.
-enzyme substrate binds to active site.
-location of organelle in the synthesis of
enzyme: ribosome
-The active site or the formation of
enzyme-substrate complex can reduce the
activation energy by bringing the substrates
together into correct orientation, close to
each other.
-To facilitate the breakage of old bonds.
After the formation of products by enzyme,the enzyme will be reused// free to catalyse the
reaction of more substrates.
If there is no enzyme,the biochemical reactions in cell would occur very slowly, thus cannot
sustain life.
lock and key model Induced fit model
 The differences of lock and key model and Induced fit model is the active site of lock and
key model's enzyme is exactly complementary to the substrate while the induced fit model's
enzyme is not exactly complementary to the substrate.
Factors that affects the rate of enzymatic reaction
1.Temperature
-When temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases.
-When temperature decreases, the enzyme-catalysed reaction takes place slowly.

- Hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions which helps to hold the specific 3D shape of
enzyme are not flexible enough.
-Induce fit mechanism is not optimum.
-The movement of substrate molecules in solution is slow and the chances of substrate binding to
active site of enzyme is low.
-As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the reactants increased.

-The collision of enzyme and substrate increases and the chances of the substrate binding to active
site of the enzyme is increases.
-The formation of enzyme-substrate complex increases.
-Thus the reaction between substrate and enzyme increases.
-For every 10°C rise in temperature, the rate of reaction doubles until it reaches an optimum
temperature.
-At optimum temperature, the rate of reaction is at maximum.
-Beyond optimum temperature, the rate of reaction decreases this is due to to the denauration of
protein structure which resulting from the breakdown of the weak ionic bonds/ hydrogen bonds/
disulphide bridges/ hdrophobic interactions/ van der Waals forces.
-Substrate can no longer fot into the altered shape of active site.
2.pH
-Optimum pH is the pH at which the maximum rate of reaction occurs.
-Different enzyme, different optimum pH.
-can be in excess H+ or OH-
-Alters the acidic and basic groups of amino acids in enzyme causing ionic bonds to be broken.
Changes the conformation of active site.
-Substraate cannot bind to active site to form enzyme-substrate complex.
-Rate of reaction decreases.
3.Substrate concentration
-Low substrate concentration, rate of enzyme reaction increases with increasing substrate
concentration.
-The active site of enzyme molecule can only bind with a certain number of substrate molecules at
given time.
-At high substrate concentration, there is a saturation of active sites and the rate of reaction reaches
the maximum.
4.Enzyme concentration
-At low enzyme concentration, the rate of reaction is directly propotional to the enzyme
concentration.
-At high enzyme concentration, The rate of reaction continues to increase if the substrate are
present in excess concentration and no other factors are limiting.
-If the substrates are present in limited concentration, the rate of reaction becomes constant after
reaching the max.rate.
ENZYME-CATALYSED REACTION
Cofactor
-A non-protein substance which is required by certain enzymes to function efficiently.
-Types of cofactor:
i)Coenzyme: Organic molecules that loosely and temporarily bound to the enzyme.
(e.g. NAD+//FAD)
ii)Prosthetic groups: Organic molecules that tightly bound to the enzyme on a permanent basis.
(e.g. haem)
iii)Metal ions: Inorganic ions that loosely and temporarily bound to the enzyme in order to change
the enyme into a shape tht allows an enzyme-substrate complex to form easily.
(e.g. Mg2+//Zn2+)
Inhibitors
-A substance which decreases the rate of enzyme-catalysed reaction.
-2 types of inhibitors:
Reversible Inhibitor Irreversible Inhibitor
Loosely and temporarily bound to the enzyme Tightly and permanently bound to the enzyme
- 2 types of reversible inhibitors:

Competitive inhibitor and non-competitive inhibitor
Enzymatic reactions
Competitive inhibitor Non-competitive inhibitor

Similarity
Both bind loosely and temporarily to the enzyme
Differences
Has shape similar to the substrate to bind to the Does not have a shape similar to the substrate
active site site of the enzyme
Competes with substrate to bind to the active Binds to the allosteric site of the enzyme
site of the enzyme
Its effect can be reduced/ overcome by Its effect cannot be reduced/ overcome by
increasing the substrate concentration increasing the substrate concentration
Active site Allosteric site

A specific site of an enzyme that allows the A site on an enzyme other than the active site
binding of substrate and catalyses a chemical that allows the binding of allosetric regulators
reaction and changes the conformation of the enzyme
-In the presence of competitive inhibitor, the rate of reaction decreases because the inhibitor
prevents the substrate from binding to the active site of the enzyme. While the quantity of products
is the same because the substrate continue to bind with any other enzymes that are unaffected by the
inhibitor.
How to determine whether an inhibitor is
competitive or non-competitive?
-By increases the substrate concentration
-If the rate of reaction increases, it is a
competitive inhibitor and vice versa
-Irreversible inhibitor can cause permanent damage to enzymes. The binding of inhibitor at the
active site, induces conformational change of the active site, and substrate can no longer bind to the
enzyme.
-for example; Cyanide
Class of enzyme Type of reaction catalysed Example(s)

Oxidoreductase Catalyse redox reaction/ biological oxidation and reduction -dehydrogenase
-oxidase
Hydrolase Catalyse the hydrolysis of substrate// breakdown of substrate -peptidase
by the addition of water -lipase
Transferase Catalyse the transfer of functional group of atoms from one -transaminase
molecule to another -phosphoylase
Iomerase Catalyse the rearangement of atoms within a molecule by -isomerase
converting one isomer to another// isomerisation -mutase
Lyase Catalyse the breaking of chemical bond without the addition decarboxylase
of water// group elimination to form double bond
Ligase Catalyse reactions in which new chemical bonds are formed Synthetase
and uses ATP as energy source
CHAPTER 5: CELLULAR RESPIRATION
-Living organism need energy to carry out life processes such as anabolism, movement, active
transport, cell division and bioluminescence.
-Role of respiration in living cells:

To convert the chemical energy stored in organic molecules to chemical energy stored in ATP.
-Location of energy stored when ATP molecule is formed is the Phosphate bond.
-ATP molecule releases its stored energy by hydrolysis of ATP, when the phosphate bonds are
broken, energy will be released.
-3 mechanism in cell which produces the ATP molecule:

i)Substrate-level phosphorylation
ii)Oxidative phosphorylation
iii)Photophosphorylation
-Cells uses the ATP molecule as an energy currency during cell metabolism for:
i)Hydrolysis of ATP is rapid thus energy can be provided instantaneously
ii)ATP released only a small amount of energy when required thus reduce wastage of energy.
iii)Only one enzyme ATPase is required to hydrolysis ATP.
-Aerobic respiration: The complete oxidation of glucose into carbon dioxide and water in the
presene of oxygen.
-Anaerobic respiration: The incomplete oxidation of glucose into ethanol or lactate in the absence
of glucose.
Aerobic respiration
-Condition for cellular respiration to occur: In the presence of oxygen

-Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6O2 + 6H2O + energy
-From equation:
i)Major respiratory substrate: glucose
ii)Final electron acceptor: oxygen
iii)Reactant that becomes oxidised: glucose
iv)Reactant that becomes reduced: oxygen
v)Oxidising agent: oxygen
vi)reducing agent:glucose
-example of active cell: liver cells//kidney cells//heart cells
-ATP produce: 38 ATP
Glycolysis in liver cell (cellular respiration)

-Glycolysis:The breakdown of one molecule of glucose in a series of enyme catalysed reactions to
form 2 molecules of pyruvate.
-Location: Cytoplasm/ cytosol
-Function of ATP: To increase the energy level of substance A/ glucose-6-phosphate and substance
C/ fructose-1,6 biphosphate
-one molecule of glucose produce 4 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
-3-Phosphoglycerate produce 1 ATP, 1 Pyruvate
-Role of NADH: Act as reducing agent
-Enzymes involved in phosphorylation: Hexokinase and Phosphofructokinase
-Enzyme for oxidation: NAD+. Act as oxidising agent
-If oxygen is absent in pyruvate, pyruvate will be reduced by NADH and produces lactate
-If oxygen is presence in pyruvate, pyruvate will be transported into the mitochondrial matrix and
will be converted into acetyl carbon oxidative decarboxylation
Oxidative decarboxylation
-Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
-byproduct: CO2 and NAD+ (+H+)
Krebs cycle
-NADH is produced during oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate into α-ketoglutarate.

-NADH is produced during oxidative decarboxylation of α-ketoglutarate into succinyl CoA.
-GTP is produced during conversion of succinyl CoA into succinate.
-One molecule of GTP is transformed into one molecule of ATP.
-Transformation of GTP into ATP occurs through substrate-level phosphorylation.
-FADH2 is produced during oxidation of succinate into fumarate.
-NADH is produced during oxidation of malate into oxaloacetate.
-NADH and FADH2 enter the electron transport chain to be transformed into ATP. One NADH is
transformed into 3 molecules of ATP. One FADH2 is transformed into 2 molecules of ATP.
-Since 2 molecules of acetyl CoA enter Kerbs cycle, thus all products must be multiplied by 2.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Steps involved High ATP production Net

energy Substrate-level Oxidative production
molecules phosphorylation phosphorylation of ATP
production
Glycolysis glyceraldehyde-3- 2 NADH 0 6 10-2=8
phosphate 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
3-phosphoglycerate 2 0
phosphoenolpyruvate 2 0
pyruvate
Link reaction Pyruvate acetyl CoA 2 NADH 0 6 6
Krebs cycle isocitrate 2 NADH 0 6 24
α-ketoglutarate
α-ketoglutarate
succinyl CoA
2 NADH 6
succinyl CoA
succinate.
succinate fumarate 2 FADH2 4
malate oxaloaetate 2 FADH 6
Total ATP production: 38

Fermentation/ anaerobic respiration
-Fermentation: the incomplete oxidation of glucose into ethanol (in plant cells) or lactate (in animal
cells) in the absence of oxygen.
-condition to occur: in the absence/ lack of oxygen
-location: cytoplasm
-ATP produced: 2
-examples: baking bread and making/manufacturing fermented food/beverages such as
tapai/dadih/soy sauce
-role of NADH in glycolysis: acts as a reducing agent
-process that produces ethanol in plant cell: alcoholic fermentation
-process that produce lactate in animal cell: lactate fermentation
Alcoholic fermentation Lactate fermentation

Similarities
Both occur in the absence of oxygen
Both produce 2 ATP (per glucose molecule)
Both occur in the cytoplasm
Both involve glycolysis ( to produce pyruvate)
Both use only substrate-level phosphorylation to produce ATP
Differences
Final electron acceptor is acetaldehyde/ ethanal Final electron acceptor is pyruvate
End products are ethanol and CO2 End pyruvate is lactate. No production of CO2
Occurs in plant cell Occurs in animal cell
-examplein lactate fermentation: muscle cell, occurs during strenuous exercise when there is lack of
oxygen supply in muscle cells.
-2 significances of process in lactate fementation in animal cells:
i)to continue the production of energy/ ATP molecules even in the absence of oxygen
ii)to regenerate NAD+ from NADH to ensure glycolysis can continue to occur
-changes taking place in the muscle cells for the following when a person carries out strenuous
exercise:
i)glycogen level:decrease
ii)lactate level:increase
iii)pH level:decrease
Aerobic respiration Fermentation

Similarities
Both produce ATP
Both involve glycolysis ( to produce pyruvate)
Differences
NAD+ and FAD are the oxidising agents that NAD+ is the oxidising agent that accept
accept electrons from food electrons from food
Final electron acceptor is oxygen Final electron acceptor is pyruvate/ acetaldehyde
Produce 38 ATP Produce 2 ATP
Involves glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative Involves glycolysis only
phosphorylation
Occurs in the presence of oxygen Occurs in the absence of oxygen
Occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm only
End products are carbon dioxide and water End products are lactate in animal cells or
ethanol and carbon dioxide in plant cells
Fermentation pathways under anaerobic condition that occurs in plant and animal cells.
-In anaerobic condition, plant cells undergo alcoholc fermentation.
-Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde ethanal with the release of carbon dioxide.
-The acetaldehyde/ ethanal is reduced by NADH to produce ethanol.
-NADH is oxidised to NAD+ .
-In anaerobic condition, animal cells undergo lactate fermentation.

-Pyruvate is reduced by NADH to produce lactate/ lactic acid without the release of carbon dioxide.
-NADH is oxidised to NAD+.
-The lactate/ lactic acid is oxidised back to pyruvate in the liver.
CHAPTER 6: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
-Photosynthesis-conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in sugars or other

organic compounds.
-overall equation for photosynthesis by indicating only the net consumption of water:
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
-Photosynthesis is a redox reaction because it involves both the reduction of CO2 to glucose and
the oxidation of water to oxygen
-Photosynthetic organ in plants-Leaf
-Organelle: Chloroplast (e.g: plant cell: mesophyll cell// guard cell)
-Photosynthetic pigments- The pigments that absorb light energy for photosynthesis
-Accessory pigment and the role in light dependent reaction:

Chlorophyll b and carotenoids. To absorb and pass the light energy to chlorophyll a in the reaction
centre.
-Specific part of a chloroplast in which these pigments ae

embedded: Thylakoid membrane
-Organic solvent such as acetone and not water is used in
the extration of photosynthesis because the pigments are
found in thylakoid membrane, the pigments are insoluble in
water, the acetone dissolves the lipid in the membrane and
releases the pigments from the membrane.
-Absorption spectrum: A graph that shows the relative

absorption of different wavelengths of light by a
photosynthetic pigment.
The absorption of white light is not uniform:

-The absorption peaks are not uniform
-Blue light and red light are strongly absorbed
-Little/ no absorption of green light
Leaves of plant are usually green colour: green light is

not absorbed but is reflected
-Two stages of photosynthesis:

1.Light dependent reaction
-Location in Chloroplast:Thylakoid membrane
2.Light independent reaction/ Calvin cycle

-Location in Chloroplast:Stroma
-Location in chloroplast to find PS l and PS ll: Thylakoid membrane
-Enzyme to catalyse the conversion of substance NADP+ to H2O: NADP reductase
-Reaction centre of PS l: P700 and PS ll: P680
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation Cyclic photophosphorylation

Similarities
Both involved in light dependent reaction
Both produce ATP by chemiosmosis
Differences
Involves PS l and PS ll Involves PS l only
Electron flow is non-cyclic Electron flow is cyclic
First electron donor: Water/ H2O First electron donor: P700
Last electron acceptor: NADP+ Last electron acceptor: PS l/ P700
Photolysis of water occurs No photolysis of water
Products are ATP, NADPH and O2 Product is ATP only
-Role of light in the process of light dependent reaction: To excite the electrons from PS l/ P700
and PS ll/ P680 to a higher energy level
-The reduced coenzyme and its role: NADPH which act as a reducing agent
-Process that replaces the electrons ejected from PS ll:Photolysis of water

Location:Thylakoid membrane/ lumen
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
-Light energy/ photon is absorbed by a accessory/ antenna pigments of PS ll.
-The energy is then transferred to the reaction centre P680.
-P680 becomes photoactivated and the electrons in P680 are excited to a higher energy level and
ejected.
- This creates an electron deficiency in PS ll.
-Photolysis of water occur whereby a manganese-containing enzyme called Z protein helps to split
up water molecule and electrons are released to replace the electrons ejected from PS ll.
-One molecule of oxygen will be released after 4e- have been removed from every 2 molecules of
water.
-The P680 in PS ll returns to its reduced/ stabilized state.
-The electrons ejected from PS ll are accepted by primary electron acceptor ( phaeophytin) and
passed along the ETC (plastoquinone cytochrome complex plastocyanin) and then to
PS l.
-The energy released is used in chemiosmosis to produce ATP.
-When PS l absorbs light energy/ photon, the high energy electrons in P700 are ejected and accepted
by primary electron acceptor and passed along the ETC through ferredoxin.
-Ferredoxin then transfers the electrons to NADP+ in the presence of the enzyme NADP+
reductase.
-NADP+ receives protons/ 2H+ from photoysis of water to form NADPH (+H+), which is then
released into the stroma.
-The products of non-cyclic photophosphorylation are NADPH, ATP, and O2
Cyclic photophosphorylation
-Light energy/photon is absorbed by a accessory/ antenna pigments of PS l.
-The energy is then transferred to the reaction centre P700. P700 becomes photoactivated and the
electrons in P700 are excited to a higher energy level and ejected.
-The electrons ejected from PS l are accepted by primary electron acceptor and passed along the
ETC (ferredoxin cytochrome complex plastocyanin) and then back to PS l.
-The energy released isused in chemiosmosis to produce ATP.
-The product of cyclic photophosphorylation is ATP only.
Products from light dependent reation that will be used in Calvin cycle: NADPH and ATP
Calvin cycle
-Location of chloroplast: Stroma

-Enzyme which catalyses the fixation of carbon dioxide in the cycle: RuBP carboxylase/
Rubisco
-Role of ATP in the cycle: Act as a source of energy// phosphate donor
-Role of NADPH in the cycle: Act as a reducing agent
-Requirement to synthesis one molecules of glucose:
i)CO2 = 6
ii)ATP = 18
iii)NADPH = 12
-Turns of the cycle required to synthesis:

i)one molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate = 3
ii)One molecule of glucose = 6
Poison that ceases the cycle will also inhibits the light dependent reaction because the light
dependent reaction requires Al and NADP+ which would not be formed regenerated if the Calvin
cycle ceased.
Carbon fixation in C3 plants.

-A molecule of CO2 reacts with ribulose bisphosphate/ RuBP to form an unstable six-carbon
compound.
-The process is catalysed by the enyme RuBP carboxylase/ Rubisco.
-The six-carbon compound immediately splits into 2 molecules of 3-phophoglycerate/ PGA
-Each 3-phophoglycerate/ PGA receives an additional phosphate group from ATP to form 1,3-
biphosphoglycerate.
-1,3-biphosphoglycerate is reduced by NADPH to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate/ G3P/ 3-
phosphoglyceraldehyde/ PGAL
-5 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are rearranged in a series of complex reactions to
regenerate ribulose bisphosphate/ RuBP and 1 molecule is used to make the glucose and other
sugars. 6 molecules of CO2 are needed to produce one molecue of glucose.
In most plants, CO2 reacts with RuBP in the Calvin cycle to produce sugar molecules. The
process is catalysed by the enzyme Rubisco. When their stomata close on hot, dry days, these
plants undergo photorespiration.
-Photorespiration: A process by which O2 is fixed to ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP ) insteade of

CO2 thus lowers the efficiency of photosynthesis. (type of plants undergo carbon fixation process:
C3 plants )
-Hot and dry condition afffects the photosynthetic output for plants by photorespiration
increases and RuBP binds with O2.
-Photorespiration is regarded wasteful to plants consumes ATP, no sugar produced, and
decreases photosynthetic output.
Mesophyll cell Bundle sheath cell
-Type of plants undergoes the process: C4 plants.(e.g: maize)

-Importance of Hatch-Slack pathway:
i)increase the CO2 in bundle shearh cells
ii)thus inhibits photorespiration
-Enzyme that catalyses the fixation of CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate/PEP and the advantage
obtained by plants in C4 plant from using this enzyme in terms of atmospheric CO2
concentration:
PEP carboxylase. It has high affinity towards CO2 even when the atmospheric CO2 concentration is
low.
-After malate is formed,malate is shunted to bundle sheath cell through plasmodesmata then
converted to pyruvate and CO2.
-Calvin cycle is catalyses by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/ Rubisco
-After sugar was formed, it is transported to phloem tissues (e.g: cactus)
-Type of plants that fix CO2 into organic acids at night and carry out light dependent reaction
during the day:CAM plants
-Cactus plants need to be store the substance C in the vacuole at night to prevent the decrease
in pH of the cytoplasm.
-Source of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis:

during day- malate
at night- atmosphere
C3 Plants C4 plants
CO2 fixation occurs once, only in mesophyll CO2 fixation occurs twice, first in mesophyll
cells cells and then in bundle sheath cells
Carbon dioxide acceptor: ribulose bisphosphate/ Carbon dioxide acceptor:
RuBP phosphoenolpyruvate/PEP abd ribulose
bisphosphate/ RuBP
Enzyme involved: RuBP carboxylase/Rubisco Enzyme involved: PEP carboxylase and RuBP
carboxylase/ Rubisco
First product formed: 3- Firt product formed: oxaloacetate/ OAA
phospholycerate/PGA/glycerate-3-phospate
Less efficient photosynthesis// Yields usually More efficient photosynthesis// Yields usually
lower higher
Photorespiration occurs at low CO2 Photorespiration is inhibited by hugh CO2
concentration concentration
One type/ form of chloroplast Two types/ forms of chloroplast
Krantz anatomy absent Krantz anatomy present
C4 plants CAM plants

CO2 fixation occurs twice, both occur during the CO2 fixation occurs twice, first occurs at night
day and the second occurs during the day
CO2 fixation occurs twice, first in mesophyll CO2 fixation occurs twice, both in mesophyll
cells and then in bundle sheath cells cells
Krantz anaotmy present Krantz anatomy absent
-CAM plant is the most suitable plants which can grow well in hot and dry conditions because
fix CO2 at night when the stoma is open and the stoma is closed during daytime to reduce water loss
through transpiration
Carbon fixation in C4 plants.

-C4 plants undergp Hatch-Slack pathway.
-In mesophyll cells, CO2 reacts with phosphoenolpyruvate/PEP to form oxaloacetate/OAA.
-The process is catalysed by the enzyme PEP carboxylase.
-Oxaloacetate/OAA is reduced by NADPH to malate.
-Malate is transported to bundle sheath cells.
-Malate is oxidised to pyruvate and releasing CO2.
-CO2 reacts with ribose bisphosphate/RuBP in the Calbin cycle to produce sugar molecules.
-The process is catalysed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/ Rubisco.
-Pyruvate is transported back to mesophyll cells.
-Pyruvate is phosphorylated to regenerate phosphoenolpyruvate/PEP.
Carbon fixaton in CAM plants.

-CAM plants undergo CAM pathway.
-Stomata are open at night.
-CO2 reacts with phosphoenolpyruvate/PEP to form oxaloacetate/OAA.
-The process is catalysed by the enzyme PEP carboxylase.
-Oxaloacetate/OAA is reduced by nADPH to malate.
-Malate is stored in the cell vacuole.
-Stomata are closed during the day.
-Malate is oxidised to pyruvate and releasing CO2.
-CO2 reacts with ribulase bisphosphate/RuBP in the Calvin cycle to produce molecules.
-The process is catalysed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/ Rubisco.
-Pyruvate is phosphorylated to regenerate phosphoenolpyruvate/PEP
\
CHAPTER 7: GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND ITS CONTROL
-Haemoglobin is a globular protein with quaternary structure.
-Consist of four subunits: 2 α-chains and 2 β-chains.
-Haemoglobin is a conjugated protein.
-Each polypeptide chain contains a prosthetic group, the haem group with an iron atom at its centre.
-The hydrophobic groups facing inwards/ towards the centre of haemoglobin.
-Haem group is located at the hydrophobic region of each popypeptide chain.
-The hydrophilic groups facing outwards to increase its solubility in water.
-Each haemoglobin can bind loosely and reversibly to 4 O2 molecules to form oxyhaemoglobin.
-haemoglobin has a high affinity towards O2 at high partial pressure of O2 as in the lungs.
-Haemoglobin has a low affinity towards O2 at low partial pressure of O2 as in the respiring
tissues.
-Haemoglobin shows cooperativity in O2 binding.
-When the first O2 molecule binds to a haem group, it causes a slight change in the shape of the
haemoglobin such that the affinity of the other haem group towards O2 increases.
-Haemoglobin can carry O2 and CO2 at the same time because O2 binds to haem group and CO2
binds to amino group of haemoglobin.
Chemical reaction of carbon dioxide transport in blood
-Adaptation of erythrocyte:
a) Has biconcave shape to increase the surface area for effective gaseous exchange
b) No nucleus to provide more space for haemoglobin storage
c) Has extra membrane to change the shape easily/ease the movement in blood capillary
d) Generates ATP by anaerobic mechanism// lack of mitochondria to prevent the transported O2
to be consumed.
-3 ways how CO2 is transported in blood:

As dissolved CO2, in plasma carbaminohaemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions/ HCO3
-Enzyme that catalyses the formation of carbonic acid,water and carbon dioxide: Carbonic
anhydrase
-Process of chloride shift. The movement of chloride ions from plasma into the erythrocyte due to
the movement of bicarbonate ions in the opposite direction.
Significance: to maintain the electrochemical neutrality.
-Haemoglobin:role as the pH buffer in the erythrocyte.
-Significance of haemoglobinic acid: To prevent a decrease in blood pH// To prevent the blood from
becoming acidic.
-Carbon dioxide diffuse into or out of the capillary is determined by the differences in partial
pressure of Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide diffuse from a region of a higher partial pressure to a
region of lower partial pressure.
The transport of Carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs in human
-Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in 3 ways.

-7% of the carbon dioxide dissolved in blood plasma.
-23% of the carbon dioxide combines with the amino group of haemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin.
-70% of the carbon dioxide transported in the plasma in the plasma in the form of bicarbonate ions.
-Carbon dioxide from respiring tissues diffuses into the blood plasma and then into erythrocyte.
-The carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
-The reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase.
-The hydrogen ion combines with haemoglobin to form haemoglobonic acid, thus preventing a
decrease in blood pH.
-The bicarbonate ion diffuses out of the erythrocyte into the blood plasma and to be transported to
lungs.
-As bicarbonate ion diffuses out of erythrocyte, chloride ion diffuses into the erythrocyte to
maintain the electrochemical neutrality.
-The process is known as chloride shift.
-In lungs, bicarbonate ion diffuses from blood plasma into the erythrocytes, combines with
hydrogen ion released from haemoglobin to form carbonic acid.
-Carbonic acid is then converted back to carbon dioxide and water.
-The reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase.
-The carbon dioxide formed diffuses from erythrocytes into the plasma.
-Carbon dioxide concentration in the alveolar space is lower than that of plasma.
-Carbon dioxide diffuses from plasma into the alveolar space down its concentrated gradient, from
which it is expelled during exhalation.
Oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin
-Bohr effect-The reduction of affinity of haemoglobin towards oxygen due to an increase in carbon
dioxide concentration and a decrease in pH of the blood.
-what happen in oxygen dissociation curve if-

i)Partial pressure of carbon dioxide in blood increases: shifts to the right
ii)Blood pH decreases: shift to the right
-Bohr effect help deliver oxygen to metabolically active tissues by causing the haemoglobin to
releases more oxygen at lower pH, which normally occurs in metabolically active tissues with high
rates of respiration a carbon dioxide release.
A woman who is heavy smoker become pregnant. She need to quit smoking because:
-carbon monoxide in the smoke acts as competitive inhibitor with oxygen to binf with haem
iron// carbon monoxide binds with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin.
-Less haemoglobin available to bind with oxygen// oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin
reduced
-insufficient oxygen is supplied to the fetus (via placenta)
The effects of partial pressure of carbon dioxide towards oxygen dissociation curve of
haempglobin:
-When the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases,carbon dioxide reacts with water and
forming carbonic acid.
-The concentration of hydrogen ion produced from the dissociation of carbonic acid increases,
which causes the blood pH to decreases.
-Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release haemoglobin, which then binds with the hydrogen ion to
form haemoglobinic acid (Hhb).
-Thus, increase in partial pressure of carbon dioxide reduces the affinity of haemoglobin towards
oxygen, which results in the phenomenon called the Bohr effect.
-The Bohr effect shifts the oxygen dissociation curve haemoglobin to the right.
The oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin and myoglobin.
-Haemoglobin has a high affinity towards O2.
-The higher the partial pressure of oxygen, the higher it its percentage of saturation with O2.
-At higher partial pressure of oxygen, more ham groups bind to O2 by cooperativity// cooperative
binding.
-At very high partial pressure of oxygen, haemoglobin is highly saturated with O2 as all the haem
groups bind with O2.
-At low partial pressure of O2, the oxyhaemoglobin easily dissociates and O2 is released.
-Myolobin has a highe affinity towards O2.

-Even at low partial pressure of oxygen, its percentage of saturation with O2 is still high.
-Myoglobin only releases O2 when O2 level in the blood is very low (e.g. during strenuous exercise
when the available O2 supply by haemoglobin is used up.)
-Therefore myoglobin acts as an oxygen storage in the muscles.
-It ensures that aerobic respiration continuous for as long as possible before anaerobic respiration
takes over.
-Role of aortic body in the control of breathing: detect

the increase in concentration of CO2 in the blood and
send impulses to the inspiratory centre in medulla
oblongata.
-The main stimulus for inspiration to take place: increase
in CO2 concentration in the blood.
-The breathing rate as we exercise, will increases the
cellular respiration, the increase in concentration of CO2
in the blood is detected by chemoreceptors, the nerve
impulses are sent to the inspiratory centre that wil
increase the rate of inspiration.
-As more CO2 diffuse from the blood to the alveoli, the
level of CO2 in the blood is lowered. When partial
pressure of CO2 returns to the nomal, the breathing rate
returns to normal
-specific location of stretch receptors:alveoli walls
-role of stretch receptors in the control of breathing:
stimulated when the lungs expand during inspiration and
send impulses to the expiratory centre (via vagus nerves)
and inhibit the inspiratory centre.
The role of chemoreceptors in controlling human breathing rate.
-Chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies are sensitive to small changes in the concentration
of CO2 in the blood.
-increase in CO2 concentration in the blood stimulates the chemoreceptors.
-the chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the inspiratory centre in the medulla oblongata.
-The inspiratory centre in medulla sendsout nerve impulses via phrenic nerves to the diaphragm and
via thoracic nerves to the external intercostal muscles, causing them to contract, thus increase the
rate of inspiration.
-As the lungs expand, stretch receptors in the alveoli walls are stimulated.
-Impulses pass along the vagus nerves to the expiratory centre in medulla and inhibit the inspiratory
centre.
-The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax.
-Expiration takes place.
-The lungs are no longer stretched and strech receptors no longer stimulated.
-The expiratory centre becomes inactive and inspiration begins again.
-The function of guard cells:to regulate the opening and closing of the stroma.
-importance of stroma: the regulate/ allow gaseous exchange and to regulate transpiration/water
loss
-adaptations of guard cells to perform its function: has a large number of chloroplasts to undergo
photosynthesis in order to produce sugar/ glucose, large central vacuole to produce turgidity, and
thicker inner cell wall and thinner outer cell to curve at different rates.
-hypothesis that explain the regulation of stomatal opening and closing: starch-sugar hypothesis.
The regulation of the stomatal opening and closing based on starch-sugar hypothesis
-During daytime, the chloroplasts in the guard cells undergo photosynthesis.
-Sugar( glucose ) is produce.
-The sugar is soluble in water and this reduce the water potential of the guard cells.
-As a result, water potential of guard cells is lower than that of the subsidiary cells.
-Water moves from subsidiary cells to guard cells by osmosis.
-The guard cells become turgid and the stoma opens.
-At night, the chloroplasts in the guard cells do not undergo photosynthesis.
-Sugar(glucose) is converted into starch.
-The starch is insoluble in water and this increases the water potential of the guard cells.
-As a result, water potential of guard cells is higher than that of subsidiary cells.
-Water moves from guard cells to subsidiary cells by osmosis.
-The guard cells become flaccid and the stoma closes.
CHAPTER 8: TRANSPORT SYSTEM

The vertical section of the mammalian heart
-Myogenic: cardiac muscle do not require impulse from the central nervous system to start
contraction.
-sinoatrial node is also known as the pacemaker because it initiates the heartbeat (by generating
electrical impulses) and controls the heartbeat.
-The wave of signals are delay at atrioventricular node/AV node to allow the atria to empty the
blood into ventricles.
-The contraction of the ventrical starts at the heart apex so that blood is pumped up and out through
the pulmonary arteries and aorta.
-The left ventricle is thicker and more muscular than the right ventricle
-Importance of:
i)Tricuspid valce:to prevent the backflow of blood into the right atrium
ii)Bicuspid valve:to prevent the backflow of blood into the left atrium
iii)Semilunar valves:to prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles
-Chordae tendineae prevents tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve from inverting into the atria.
Events happen in the heart:

Steps Events
1 SA node generates electrical impulses which spread through both atria; atrial systole
2 Impulses delayed at AV node
3 Impulses conducted along bundle of His towards the heart apex
4 Impulses conducted by Purkinje fibers and spread throughout ventricles;ventricular systole
-The autonomic nervous system controls the heart rate by:

i) Baroreceptors in the walls of blood vessels ae sensitive to changes in blood pressure
ii) When stimulated,baroreceptors and impulse to cardiac centres in the medulla oblongata.
iii) Medula oblongata contains the cardiac inhibitory centre and cardiac acceleratory centre
iv) cardiac acceleratory centre sends impulse to the SA node through the sympathetic nerves
which release noradrenaline to increase the heart rate
v) cardiac inhibitory centre sends impulse to the SA node through the parasympathetic nerves
which release acetycholine to decrease the heart rate.
-The endocrine system controls the heart rate by:
i)at times of stress, adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline to increase the heart
rate
ii) thyroid gland releases thyroxine to increase the heart rate by raising the metabolic rate
The record of the electrical impulses that travel through heart muscle during cardiac cycle
The stages of cardiac cycle
Cardiac cycle-The sequence of events that occur during one complete heartbeat
systole-The stage of the cardiac cycle in which a heart chamber contracts and pumps blood
diastole-The stage of the cardiac cycle in which a heart chamber relaxes and fills with blood
average heart rate of an adult human-72 beats/min
Stage Events
-atria contract and ventricles relax
-pressure in atria is higher than that of the
ventricles
-AV valves open
-semilunar valves remain closed
(0.1 sec) -blood pumped from atria to ventricles
-ventricles contract and atria relax
-pressure in ventricles is higher than that of the
atria
-AV valves close;the first heart sound 'lub' is
produced
-semilunar valves open
-blood pumped from ventricles to aorta and
(0.3 sec) pulmonary arteries
-atria and ventricles relax
-pressure in aorta; and pulmonary arteries are
higher than that of the ventricles
-semilunar valves closed; the second heart sound
'dup' is produced
-AV valves open
-blood flowed from vena cava and pulmonary
(0.4 sec) veins into atria and ventricles
i)I//A and E
-Atrioventricular valves open: atria and ventricles relax; blood fromm pulmonary veins flow into
atria and ventricle
ii)G//C
-semilunar valves open:ventricle contract; pressure in left ventricle is higher than aorta; blood is
pumped front from ventricle into aorta
iii)A and E
-ventricle fills with blood:atrium contracts; pressure in atrium is higher than ventricle; blood is
pumped from atrium into ventricle
iv)C
-ventricle empties its blood:ventricle contracts; pressure in left ventricle is higher than aorta; blood
is pumped from ventricle into aorta
v)B
-ventricular volume remain unchanged:ventricle begins to contract; pressure in left ventricle
increases but does not exceed the pressure in aorta semilunar valves remain closed.
vi)F
-heart sound 'lub' is produced:pressure in ventricle is higher than atrium; atrioventricular valves
close
vii)H
-heart sound 'dup' is produced:pressure in aorta is higher than ventricle; semilunar valves closed
-cardiac cycle takes 0.8 sec.

-factors which affecting the heart rate:
i)pH
ii)temperature
-change in blood pH will affects the heart rate:

when blood pH decreases, carotid body and aortic body detect it and send impulses to stimulate the
cardiac acceleratory centre to increase the heart rate
when blood pH increases, carotid body and aortic body detect it and send impulses to stimulate the
cardiac inhibitory centre to decrease the heart rate
-fever affects the person's heartbeat by the increases of the rate of heartbeat and due to the increase
of body temperature
Part of circulatory system and the lymphatic system in human body
-Fluid lymph is formed by the high blood pressure at the arterial end of the body capillary forces
water and small molecules out through the endothelium and into the intersitial spaces as interstitial
fluid/ interstitial fluid diffuse into the lymphatic capillaries as fluid lymph.
Functions of the lymphatic system in human body

-collects and return interstitial fluid in the blood
-absorbs and tranports lipids from small intestine to the blood
-produces lymphocytes from specific immune response and filter out foreign particles.
Effects of blocked lymphatic vessel on the lymphatic system.

-intersititial fluid/tissue fluid fails to return to the blood circulatory system and it accumulates in the
interstitial spaces between the body cells
The effect of blocked lymphatic system on leg

-the leg will be swollen/oederma
The structure and functions of human lymphatic system relatd to the lipid transportation.
Lipid is digested into fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids and glycerol then enter the
villi of the small intestine by diffusion/facilitated diffusion/ active transport. The fatty acid and
glycerol combine with protein to form lipoprotein. The lipoprotein will enter the lymphatic system
throuhj lacteals. Lacteals are lymphatic capillaries in the villi of the small intestine. The lymph
which contains lipoprotein is known as chyle. The chyle is then transported in lymphatic vessels. In
lymphatic vessels, the backflow of chyle is prevented by the valves. Located at interval along the
lymphatic vessels are the lymph nodes. From the lymphatic vessels, the chyle will drains into larger
lymphatic trunks. The lymphatic trunks will then converge to form thoracic duct and right
lymphatic duct. Which are then empty the chyle into the left subclavian vein and right subclavian
vein respectively. Hence, the chyle is drained back into the blood circulatory system.
The human lymphatic system related to the lipid transportation
The significance of
i)the presence of valves along lymphatic vessels-to prevent backflow of lymph.
ii)the production of large number of lymphocytes in lymph node- to produce antibodies against the
antigens
Lymph Blood
RBC absent RBC present
Clear yellowish in colour Red in colour
Pathway by which water is transported from surrounding soil to the root vasular system.
Celll sap in the vacuole of root hair cells contains high concentration of dissolved
nutrients/sugars/minerals. Water potential in the root hair cells are lower than water potential of the
soil. Water moves from the soil into root hair cells are higher than water potential of the adjacent
cortex. Water moves from the root hair cells cortex by osmosis.
Water moves through cortex via apoplasic, symplasctic and vascuolar pathways. The apoplastic
pathway allows water to move along the cells walls and intercellular spaces betwween adjacent
cells. At the endodermis, the apoplastic pathways is hindered by the casparian strip. The water
movement from apoplastic pathway then continues via symplastic and vacuolar pathways. The
symplastic pathway allows water to move between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells through
plasmodesmata. The movement of water via symplastic and vacuolar pathways continue until
reaches the xylem vessel.
The movement water from surrounding soil to the root vascular system
-root hair cell structural adaptation: hair like extension. The function is to provide a lare surface
area for efficient water uptake. Lack of cuticle. Function so that water and mineral ions can easily
diffuse into the cell.
Casparian strip
-composition: made of suberin whichis impermeable to water.
-significance: to prevent the movement of water and mineral ions through the apoplastic pathway
(in endodermis)
The water movement via xylem by root pressure and transpiration-cohesion-tension

mechanism.
The endodermis actively transport mineral ionsinto the xylem vessel of the root.this
lowers the water potential in the xylem vessel. Water moves from soil into the xylem vessel by
osmosis. As water enters and acumulates in the xylem vessel, it produces a hydrostatic pressure
within the xylem vessel of the root known as the root pressure, which provides a force to push the
water up the stem.
During transpiration, water evaporates from the mesophyll cells. This lower the water
potential in the mesophyll cells. Water is pulled from surrounding/ adjacent cls with a higher water
potential to replace the water lost. This continues until water is pulled from the xylem vessel of the
leaf down a water potential gradient. The removal of water lowers the hydrostatic pressure within
thexylem vessel of the leaf. The water co;umn is under tension ( or negative pressure potential) and
is pulled from the root to the leaf. The pulling force is known as the transpirational pull. Xylem
vessels are narrow and have strong, lignified walls to withstand the tension. Water molecules form a
continuous water column in the xylem vessels due to cohesion. The strong adhesion of water
molecules to the hydrophilic walls of xylem vessels help to resist the gravitional force.
The mineral ion uptake in roots
mineral ions enter the root hairs mainly by active transport, workingagainst the
concentration gradient. This precess requires energy from ATP. Mineral ions may enter the root
hairs by diffusion if their concentration is greater in the soil than in the root hairs.
In roots, the mineral ions dissolved in water are moved by apoplastic, symplastic or
vacuolar pathways. Specific transport proteins are present in cell membranes to regulate the
transport of mineral ions. In the endodermis, mineral ions are transported actively into the xylem
vessel. Once in the xylem vessels, mineral ions dissolve in water are transported to the other parts
through the fforce of transpirational pull.
Translocation in the phloem of a plant ( pressure flow hypothesis)
-translocation: the transport of organic substances in the phloem of plants
-cell which act as a source and sink based on the pressure flow hypothesis:leaf cell and root cell
respectively
-adaptation of companion cell: contains large number of mitochondria. To supply energy to the
sieve tube for active transport. Contains large number of ribosome, RER, and golgi apparatus.
To synthesise carrier proteins and enzymes needed in translocation. Connected to sieve tube by
plasmodesmata. To help in loading the sucrose into the sieve tube.
- adaptation of xylem vessel: mature xylem vessels are continuous hollow dead cells and cell
wall is lignified.
Munch model ( pressure flow hypothesis)
-Low sucrose concentration:root cell
-High sucrose concentration:leaf cell
-Low hydrostatic pressure:sieve tube
-High hydrostatic pressure:xylem vessel
-One-way translocation because the translocation is from leaf cell ( source ) to root cell ( sink )
the pressure flow hypothesis in phloem
the pressure flow hypothesis is used to explain how translocation occurs in the phloem.
The sucrose are synthesised in the leaf cell ( source ) are loaded by companion cell into the sieve
tube by active transport. The accumulation of sucrose lowers the water potential in the sieve tube.
Water from the xylem in the leaf diffuses into the sieve tube by osmosis. Thus, a high hydrostatic
pressure is created in the sieve tube of leaves.
In theroot cell (sink), sucroseare unloaded by companion cells into the tissues by active
transport for cellular respiration, the synthesis of cellulose cell wall or the change into starch for
storage. The water potential in the cell sap of root cell (sink) is lowered. Water is drawn from the
sieve tube with higher water potential into the surrounding/ adjacent cells by osmosis. Thus, a low
hydrostatic pressure is created in the sieve tube of roots.
The hydrostatic pressure in the leaf cell (source) is higher thn that of the root cell (sink).
A hydrostatic pressure gradient built up in the sieve tube. This results in bulk flow of water and
sucrose from the leaf cell to the root cells.
CHAPTER 9- HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis- maintenamce of a constant internal constant internal environment within a living

organism.
Imporatance of homeostasis
-to provide optimum conditions for enzymatic reactions and normal cell activities, thus enables
physiological processes in the body to be carried out at maximum rates.
- to ensure that organism can adjust to changes in the environment, thus able to live in different
habitats with a wider range of environmental conditions.
Types of mechanism explainations

Positive feedback mechanism -a deviation from the normal set point leads to
further increase in the deviation
-leads to unstable conditions and extreme states
-e.g: seretion of oxytocin during parturitioj/ birth
process
Negative feedback mechanism -a deviation from the normal set point leads to a
corrective mechanism that restore the internal
environment to its normal set point
-leads to stable and constant conditions
-e.g: regulaion of blood glucose level
Components that make up homeostatic control system.
components descriptions
Receptor To detect stimulus
Control centre To receive and interpret information from the
receptor
effector To carry out corrective mechanism that restore
the internal environment to its normal set point
Homeostatic control system
stimulus >receptor >control centre >effector >negative feedback mechanism >response
-when the value of the factor returns to its normal set point, negative mechanism will occur
Regulation of blood glucose level by the human pancrease and liver
high blood glucose level

(hyperglycemia) insulin Blood glucose level
Beta cells of the Liver stimulated to
Islet of Langerhans .... (NFM)
Normal blood Normal blood

glucose level glucose level
(PFM)
glucagon
Alpha cells of the Liver stimulated to
Low blood glucose level islet of Langerhans ..... Blood glucose level
(hypoglycemia)
-organs where islet of Langerhans was found: pancrease
-Process involved in the regulation of blood glucose level by the liver:

i)Conversion of glycogen to glucose- glycogenolysis
ii)Conversion of glucose to glycogen-glycogenesis
iii)Conversion of non-carbohydrate source (e.g amino acids and glycerol) to glucose-
gluconeogenesis
-when insulin is secreted, it stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen, stimulates the
conversion of glucose to fat, andstimulates the oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water
through cellular respiration
-when glucagon is secreted, it stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose and stimulates the
conversion of non-carbohydrate source (e.g. amino acids and glycerol) to glucose
cause of diabetes mellitus

-insulin is not secreted in sufficient amount// beta cells fail to secrete insulin// beta cells
dysfunction// pancrease damage/ failure
-insulin does not efficiently induce target cell// insulin resistance
-deficiency of insulin receptors// insulin signal transduction
Functions of:
1.Hepatic vein-carries deoxygenated blood
from liver to the inferior vena cava
2.Bile duct-transport bile juicefrom the liver to
the duodenum
3.hepatic artery-carries oxygenated
bloodfrom the aorta to the liver
4.Hepatic portal vein-carries blood rich in
absorbed nutrients from the gut/ intestines to
the liver
Functional unit of liver-liver lobule

Main blood vessels in human liver
Liver
Functions:
i)Hepatocyte-absorbs food substance and oxygen from the blood as it flows along the sinusoids;
also secretes bile into the canaliculi
ii)Kupffer cell-engulfs and destroys pathogen also involved in the breakdown of old erythrocytes
iii)Sinusoid-carries deoxygenated blood to the branch of hepatic vein
iv)Canaliculus-transport bile juice to the branch of bile duct
Homeostasis functions Process Descriptions

Carbohydrate metabolism Glycogenolysis The conversion of glycogen to
glucose in the liver
Gluconeogenesis The conversion of non-
carbohydrate source to glucose
Glycogenesis The conversion of glucose to
glycogen (which is stored in the
liver and muscle cells
- The conversion ofglucose to
fat( whichis stored in adipose
tissue)
- The oxidation of glucose to carbon
dioxide and water through cellular
respiration
Protein metabolism Deamination The removal of amino group (NH2

from an excess amino acid to
produce ammonia (NH3) and keto
acid
Transamination The transfer of amino group (NH2)
from an amino a keto acid to
produce non-essential amino acid
detoxification - -toxins produced bypathogens/

drugs/alcohol/ poisons are taken up
by hepatocytes
-takes place in the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum found in
hepatocytes
Functions of liver
-production of bile
-formation of cholesterol
-regulation of lipids/ fatty acids
-storage of vitamins and minerals
-synthesis of plasma proteins
-formation of erythrocytes in fetus
-production of heat
Kidney
-function of ureter: to transport urine from kidney to the urinary bladder

-functions of kidney: excretion, osmoregulation, and regulation of blood pH
Functional unit of kidney

-functional unit of kidney: nephron
-process occur between glomerulus and bowman's capsule: ultrafiltration
-characteristics of blood vessels in glomerulus:
i)diameter of afferent artereiole is large than efferent arteriole. It increases the efficient of
ultrafiltration by high hydrostatic blood pressure in the glomerulus
ii)highly coiled glomerulus to increase surface. Can increase the efficient of ultrafiltration by large
area of for filtration.
iii)premeable to water and solutes/ impermeable to blood cells and plasma proteins (due to the
porous walls of the glomerulus and the filtration slits of the podocytes) increases efficiency of
ultrafiltration by high permeability of the glomerulus.
-Major processthat occurs in proximal convoluted tubule is reabsorption

-Adaptations of proximal convoluted tobule:
I) epithelial cells lining the tubule wall have microvilli to increase the surface area for
reabsorption
II) epithelial cells lining the tubule wall contain numerous mitochondria to provide energy for
the active transport of certain substances
III) tubule wall is one-cell thick to provide shorter distance for more efficient transport of
substances
-the protein of small molecular mass which have been forced out of the blood in the proximal
convoluted tubule to be reabsorbed into the blood/peritubular capillaries by pinocytosis/the
formation of pinocytic vesicles.
-osmosisis the movement of water. It moves through the accumulation of reabsored substances in
blood/peritubular capillaries reduces water potential of blood thus facilitates the process of osmosis.
-water reabsorpion occurs in the descending limb ofloop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and
collecting duct.
-glucose is absent in the urine of healthy person because all the glucose is reabsorbed in the
proximal convoluted tubule into the blood/ peritubular capillaries by active transport.
-glucose is present in a diabetes mellitus person because a high concentration of glucose in the
glomerular filtrate will results in some of the glucose not being reabsorbed in the proximal
convoluted tubule by active transport, thus ending up in the urine.
Process in Loop of Henle produce conc.urine

-Na+ are actively transported out from the thick segment of the ascending limb into the peritubular
fluid
-Na+ also diffuse out from the thin segment of the ascending limb into the peritubular fluid
-increase in the Na+ conc.lowers the water potential of the peritubular fluid.
-H2O from the descending limb diffuse out into the peritubular fluid and then into the vasa recta by
osmosis.
-the mechanism involved in the creation of more hypertonic medulla is called countercurrent
multipler mechanism
-desert kangaroo rat has longer loop of Henle because longer loop of Henle create more hypertonic
medulla, more H2O can be reabsorbed into the vasa recta by osmosis, thus produce more hypertonic
urine.
-Proximal convoluted tubule secretes drugs and toxins from blood capillaries occurs
concentration of urine by countercurrent multipler mechanism
The descending limb is permeable to water but relatively impermeable to to Na+ and Cl-.
Water diffuses out into the peritubular fluid and then into the vasa recta by osmosis. The loss of
water concentrates the filtrate in the descending limb. The filtrate concentration of is at its highest at
the bottom of the loop of Henle.
The ascending limb is impermeable to water but is relatively permeable to Na+ and Cl-.
Na+ and Cl- diffuse out from the thin segment of the ascending limb. In the thick segment of the
ascending limb, the Na+ and Cl- are actively transported into the peritubular fluid. This results in a
decrease in the filtrate concentration.
It is 'countercurrent- because the fluid in each limb is moving in opposite directions. It is

'multipler' because the effect increases as fluid movement continues.
The regulation of water contentinblood by ADH
When there is low water intake of water, water content of blood is lower than normal. Causing the
blood volume to decrease. Therefore the concentration of salts dissolved in the blood becomes
higher, causing an increase in blood osmotic pressure.
Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus stimulate the posterior pitutary gland to release more ADH
ADH increase the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct towards water.
More water reabsorption by osmosis
urine volume decreases. Urine more concentrated
This water retention causes the blood osmotic pressure to decrease back to normal
effect on urine formation if the person

i)drinks a lot of alcohol:alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH, less water reabsorped, urine volume
increases, andurine is more dilute
ii)eats too much salted chips:more water is reabsorption, urine volume decreases, and urine is
more concentrated
The regulation of Na+ reabsorption by aldesterone
when there is a drop in the blood Na+ level, less water enters the blood by osmosis, causing the
blood volume to derease. This reduces the blood pressure
a group of secretory cells called the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA), situated between the distal
convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole are stimulated to release enzyme renin
renin passes into the blood and cleave a plasma protein produced by the liver called
angiotensinogen, producing angiotensin 1. angiotensin I is then converted into angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II constricts arterioles and stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone into the
blood. Na+ reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubules into the peritubular cappilaries
increases. Water enters the blood by osmosis.
This causes the blood volume and pressure to increase back to normal
Regulation of Na+ reabsorption by aldesterone

CHAPTER 10: COORDINATION
Nervous system
Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system
Brain Spinal cord Motor neurons Sensory neurons
Somatic nervous Autonomic

system Nervous system
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Nervous system Nervous system
Human nervous system
-Central nervous system: integrate information and initiate all voluntary and involuntary
responses
-Peripheral nervous system: carry out information into and out of the CNS
-Somatic nervous system: control voluntary actions by transmitting nerve impulses from the CNS
to skeletal muscles
-Autonomic nervous system: control involuntary actions by transmitting nerve impulses from the
CNS to the glands cardiac muscle (of the heart) and smooth muscles (of the internal organs).
-Roles of:
i)Sympathetic nervous system- brings about physiological responses to threatening situations, 'fight
or flight' response
ii)Parasympathetic nervous system- Maintains the normal functioning of the body in
non-threatening situation and helps keep the body in a relaxed, unstressed condition.
-The actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are antafonistic because both
innervate the same organ but have opposing effects, usually with one activating and the other
inhibiting the actions of the organ.
- when the rate of heartbeat when someone is scared or excited, the sympathetic nerves trigger
the release of noradrenaline at SA node to increase the heart rate.
Resting potential- the difference in electrical potential that occur across a cell membrane when
there is no transmission of nerve impulse.
-Voltage of resting potential: 70 mV
-Factors on how the membrane resting potential is maintained

i)both voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels are closed
ii)cell membrane is more permeable to potassium ions compared to sodium ions (more potassium
ions channels than sodium ion channels)
iii)sodium-potassium pump actively transport three Na+ out of the cell for every two K+ into the
cell
iv)presence of anions (e.g.proteins) in the cell which are too large to diffuse out
-When resting potential is established, the cell membrane is polarised.
-Action potential: the change in electrial potential that occurs across a cell membrane during the
transmission of a nerve impulse.
-Depolarisation stage is considered as an example of positive feedback because when action

potential generated, more voltage-gated sodium channels opened thus allowing more Na+ to diffuse
into the axon( and cause further depolarisation)
-Suppose a cell's membrane potential shifts from -70mV to -55mV. The changes in cell's
permeability to K+ and Na+ could cause such a shift happens when a decrease in permeability to
K+ and an increase in permeability to Na+
The transmission of nerve impulse along an axon
At the resting potential, voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-gated K+ channels are
closed. The inside of the axon is negative relative to the outside. The axon membrane is polarised.
At stimulus opens some voltage-gated Na+ channels. Na+ diffuse into the axon. The
voltae-gated K+ channels remain closed. The inside of the axon is positive relative to the outside.
The axon membrane is depolarised. If the depolarisation reaches the threshold level, it generates an
action potential. More voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing more Na+ to diffuse into the
axon and causes further depolarisation. This is and example of positive feedback.
at the peak of action potential, the voltage-gated Na+ channels start to close. The voltage-
gated K+ channels open. K+ diffuse out of the axon. The inside of the axon is negative relative to
the outside. The axon membrane is repolarised.
Some voltage-gated K+ channels close slowly. Excess K+ diffuse out of the axon. The
membrane potential is more negative than the resting potential. The axon membrane is
hyperpolarised.
Boh voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-gated K+ channels are closed. The axon
membrane is reestablished to resting potential by the sodium-potassium pumps and facilitated
diffusion through ion channels.
Characteristics of a nerve impulse
Action potentials occur according to the all-or-none lwa. If the depolarisation is less than
the threshold level, no action potential is generated. If the depolarisation reaches the threshold level,
an action potential is generated. The size of the action potential is always same and is not affected
by the intensity of the stimulus.
The axon membrane experiences a short refactory period following an action potential
and unable to response to another stimulus. This ensures that the action potential is transmitted in
one direction along the axon. During the absolute refactory period, no action potential can be
genrated by stimulus, no matter how strong the stimulus is. During the relative refactory period, a
stronger-tan-usual threshold stimulus can generates an action potential.
The intensity of stimulus determines the frequency of action potntials.a weak stimulus
above the threshold level generates a low frequency of action potentials, whereas a stronger
stimulus generates a higher frequency of action potentials/
there are two factors which can influence the speed of transmission. The larger the
diameter of axon, the faster the speed of transmission of the action potential. The presence of
myelin sheath which act as an electrical impulse between any two neighbouring nodes of Ranvier
results in the action potential 'jumping' from node to node by saltatory conduction thus speeding up
the transmission of action potential along the axon.
Synapse
Synapse- the junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector (muscle or gland)
Example of neurotransmitter-acetylcholine// noradreline// dopamine
Function of;
i)calcium ions-cause the synaptic vesicle to fuse with the presynaptic membrane to release
neurotransmitter
ii)mitochondrion-to produce ATP for the resynthesis of neurotransmitter
iii)hydrolytic enzyme found in synaptic cleft-to breakdown/ hydrolyse the neurotransmitter/
acetylcholine
-An impulse can only travel in one direction across the synapse because neurotransmitters are only
produced in the synaptic knob(of the presynaptic neuron) and receptor sites for the binding of
neurotransmitters are only found in the postsynaptic membrane
The transmission of nerve impuse across a synapse.
An action potential arrives at the synaptic knob. The voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in
presynaptic membrane open. Calcium ions diffuse into the synaptic knob.
The influx of Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. The
neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis.
The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to the receptor
site of ligand-gated Na+ channels on the postsynaptic membrane. This causes the opening of the
ligand-gated Na+ channels. Na+ diffuse into the postsynaptic neuron. Depolariation of the
postsynaptic membrane occurs. The new potential generated is known as excitatory postsynaptic
potential/EPSP. When the EPSP reaches the threshold level, an action potential is generated and is
transmitted along the postsynaptic neuron.

Biology 2

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Biology 2

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BIOLOGY NOTES ( Semester 2 )

1.Taxonomy-Science of naming and classifying organisms.

Eubacteria (e.g. E.coli) Archaebacteria (e.g. Sulfolobus sp.)

Gram-positive bacteria Gram-negative bacteria

Atrichous monotrichous lophotrichous lophotrichous amphitrichous peritrichous

Unique characteristics of Algae

Phylum Chlorophyta-Chlamydomonas sp.

Unique characteristics of Protozoa

4.Commercial importance in food production (fermented food)

10. Kingdom Plantae

Sexual life cycle of Polytrichum sp.

Bryophytes are more advance than green algae

-Homosporous: Plant/ sporophyte that produce 1 type of spore

Class Dicotyledonae (e.g: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)

Bryophytes pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate Coelomate

e.g: Phylum Platyhelminthes e.g: Phylum Nematoda e.g: Phylum: Annelida,

e.g: Phylum Porifera e.g: Phylum Cnidaria e.g: Phylum: Chordata,

b)Phylum Cnidaria/ Coelenterata

e.g: Roundworm ( Ascaris lumbricoides )

Characteristics that allow them successfully conquer various types of habitat

 Functions of water vascular system in echinoderms: Locomotion, feeding, gaseous exchange

-presence of pharyngeal clefts// slits in the pharynx

-Presence of dorsal nerve chord

-Presence of post-anal tail

Phylum Level of Germ layers Body plan Body cavity Segmenta

* segmentation/ metamerism is important in the evolution of animals because to allow

Ecology: Study of relationship between organisms and their environment

Niche: The role of an organism in its environment

Habitat: The natural environment in which an organism lives

Organism: Any living system consisting of one or more cells

-Main source of energy is from the sun

-Sustain the ecosystem by the efficiency of energy and biogeochemicalcycles

-Biotic components:producers, consumers: herbivores,carnivores,omnivores,detrivores,

-Abiotic components:Atmosphere(The gaseous envelope surrounding earth),

-Interaction between biotic components:

b)distance from shore and water depth

Structure of lake ecosystem

Structure of terrestrial ecosystem

Food web- a complex interconnection of all food chains in an ecosystem

Trophic level- each level in a food chain/food web

Ecological pyramid- a graphic representation of the no. of organisms/biomass/energy value at each

Types of food chain

-predatory/grazing food chain

-parasitic/grazing food chain

 Pyramid of Biomass-total biomass(dry mass) of organisms at each trophic level

 Pyramid of energy- total energy content of organisms at each trophic level

-The difficulty in -comparison of wet mass is

-a typical pramid shape -it does not show the

Two components of biogeochemical cycle: Reservoir cycle(abiotic) and cycling cycle(biotic)

in situ conservation- The conservation of components of biodiversity in their natural habitats.

Natality-The rate of births in a population over time

Mortality-The rate of deaths in a population over time

Stable population in equilibrium: N+l = M+E

Negative feedback system on population growth that is limited bu density-dependent factors:

P: Growth at biotic potential ( dN/dt = rN ) (e.g. Human population)

2.exponential growth phase: rate of population growth is maximal/ exponential, abundant

The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is not consant:

How to increase the carrying capacity of an ecosystem:

Types of limiting factors affecting the population size:

i) Competiton for resources

ii) Territorial behaviour

iii) Predation/ predator-prey interaction