1

Ij :i{
APPROACH TO THE DEFINITION OF RAIN EROSIVITY
AND SOIL ERODIBILITY IN WEST AFRICA

E.J. ROOSE
ORSTOM
France

S UMMAR Y

RESUME

Introduction
R a i n f a l l e r o s i o n i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of e r o s i v i t y , t h a t
i s t h e p o t e n t i a l a b i l i t y of r a i n s t o c a u s e e r o s i o n , and t h e
e r o d i b i l i t y o f t h e s o i l . I n t h i s paper we l i k e t o e x p l a i n
b r i e f l y how t h e French o v e r s e a s r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s ( l ) t r i e d
t o approach t h e prob,lems of c l i m a t i c a g g r e s s i v i t y and s o i l
e r o s i b i l i t y i n West-Africa where d a t a a r e few and t o propose
new o r i e n t a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h on t h i s s u b j e c t i n West-
Af r i c a.
( 1 ) ORSTOM = O f f i c e d e l a Recherche S c i e n t i f i q u e e t Technique
Outre-Mer,
Gerdat = Groupe d'Etude e t d e Recherche en vue du Dévelop-
pement d e 1'Agronomie T r o p i c a l e .

153 Fonds Documentaire

0.R.S.T-O.M.
No : 2 9 4 90," @ d
Cote 3 B
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154

1 . Rainfall erosivity
Every soil movement needs energy. With regard to rain-
fall erosion, there are simultaneously the kinetic energy
of raindrops which destroy the aggregates on the top of the
soil, and the runoff which carries out detached particles.
On the old eroded surfaces of the African shield, as on the
American Corn Belt, it is the impact energy of raindrops
that is the main erosion source. But when the slope is in-
creasing, runoff also becomes itself an abrasive agent and
its energy may exceed that of raindrops if the slope steep-
ness exceeds sixteen percent (WOODRUFF, 1948).
The studies on runoff plots with natural or simulated
rainfalls emphasized three complimentary ideas :
a) raindrop energy causes a splash crust which modify the
infiltration process and increases the importance of
the runoff on the fields,
b) the rainfall intensity determines, in most cases, the
proportion of rain that cannot infiltrate into the soil.
This runoff starts as a thin trickle of water and picks
up energy if the slope is steep and long enough,
c) the notion of a threshold value and duration below which
erosion does not occur : a threshold of minimum intensity
explained in the erosivity index developped by HUDSON
(1973) and a threshold of duration of high intensity and
a duration of the rainfall which causes soil saturation
and the disintegration of the soil structure.
Figure 1 (from rainfall simulator trials on bare plots
of ferrallitic sandy soils) shows well that with high inten-
sity (120 mm/h), runoff starts only after a few minutes and
increases with increase in soil moisture and soil structure
.
degradation The concentration of solid material reaches
a first maximum at the beginning of the runoff when this
carries away particles detached but not removed by precee-
ding rainfalls, and a second maximum when the splash crust
is liquefied after a certain duration and energy of the
rainfall.
These three parameters (energy, intensity and duration)
are included in the rainfall index (R) of WISCHMEIER and
SMITH (1960), and manyresearcherstried to analyse their
accordance, distribution and relation to soil loss. We show
already (Ibadan, 1975; Purdue 1976) how, in West-Africa, it
is possible t o simplify the computation of recorded rain-
gauge charts. Kinetic energy can be substituted by the rain-
fall amounts which are strictly correlated (CHARREAU in
Sénégal, 1969; GALABERT, MILLOGO et PIOT in Upper-Volta in
1972-1974; DELWAULLE in Niger, 1973; LAL in Nigeria, 1975
and AALDERS in Bénin, 1976).
(R = 0,0157 H x 130 - 1,179) (CTFT, 1974).
 I55

120. I

Rainfall erosion
Runoff g /seclha
mm'h 100.
3600
80. 3200
2800
60. 2LOO
2000
1600
LO
1200

20. 800
400
-
O
F i g u r e 1 : Runoff, t u r b i d i t y and e r o s i o n d u r i n g a
simulated r a i n f a l l .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t o s t u d y s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e R-
index w e need v a l u a b l e mean v a l u e s e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r more
t h a n 20 y e a r s . There i s a d i f f i c u l t y of having o n l y v e r y
few r e c o r d e d d a t a on r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y and where w e have
i t , t h e r e c o r d e r h a s been working o n l y a v e r y s h o r t t i m e .
Meanwhile, w e have i n West-Africa a r e l a t i v e l y dense n e t -
work of measuring s t a t i o n s of t h e amount of d a i l y r a i n f a l l
d u r i n g 20 t o 50 y e a r s which a l l o w s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f re-
p r e s e n t a t i v e a v e r a g e s . W e t h e r e f o r e have s t u d i e d i n d e t a i l
t h e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e amount o f d a i l y r a i n f a l l and t h e
i n d e x of r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y (R). The r e s u l t s show t h a t
(ROOSE, 1973) :
- t h e r e i s a l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n (R = 0.577 H - 5.766) between
t h e R-index and t h e r a i n f a l l amount (H) f o r r a i n f a l l of
Monsoon t y p e t h a t i s s u s t a i n e d r a i n f a l l d u r i n g t h e month
of J u n e t o August,
- t h e r e a l s o e x i s t s a c u r v i l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n f o r s h o r t dura-
t i o n high i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l very s i m i l a r f o r a l l s t a t i o n s
s t u d i e d between t h e r a i n y f o r e s t of Abidjan t o S a h e l i a n
savannah of Ouagadougou i n Upper-Volta.
From long series of d a i l y r a i n f a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s i t is
p o s s i b l e t o f i n d s a t i s f a c t o r y monthly and y e a r l y a v e r a g e s
of t h e r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y i n d e x .
 J

156

It h a s been s t a t e d t h e r e f o r e t h a t a s i m p l e e m p i r i c a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between t h e y e a r l y a v e r a g e e r o s i v i t y
i n d e x (Ram) over 5 t o 10 y e a r s and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g annual
a v e r a g e o f r a i n f a l l amount (Ham).

Ram/Ham = 0.50 -
+ 0.05

T h i s r a t e h a s been v e r i f i e d a t twenty r e c o r d i n g s t a t i o n s
i n West-Africa from I v o r y Coast t o Niger and from Senegal t o
Tchad, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of s t a t i o n s l o c a t e d around t h e
mountains and n e a r t h e s e a s i d e . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s p e r m i t -
t e d u s t o s k e t c h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h i s i n d e x i n I v o r y
Coast (1973) , Upper-Volta (1974) and f o r whole West-Africa
(1972) ( f i g u r e 2 ) .
T h i s s k e t c h must b e c o n s i d e r e d as a working document
s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e USLE-equation
b u t i t must b e c o r r e c t e d w i t h new d a t a on l o n g d u r a t i o n
c l i m a t i c measurements. T h i s s k e t c h shows t h a t t h e r a i n f a l l
e r o s i v i t y i s v e r y h i g h i n t h e humid t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s and
d e c r e a s e s almost p a r a l l e l t o t h e i s o h y e t s between Abidjan
(Ham = 2100, Ram = 1200) and Ouagadougou (Ham = 830, Ram =
430). T h i s h a s not'always been w e l l a c c e p t e d by geographers
who o f t e n confounded t h e e r o s i v i t y p o t e n t i a l of an a r e a
w i t h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e c l i m a t i c a g g r e s s i v i t y and
t h e development o f t h e p l a n t c o v e r .
T h i s map of e r o s i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n assumes t h a t t h e
r a i n f a l l s a r e o f t h e same type i n a l l t h e s e zones. F u r t h e r
i t i s no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y t o i n c l u d e b o t h t h e i n t e n s i t y of
t h e r a i n f a l l and t h e amount i n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e ave-
r a g e r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y . T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e c o r r e l a -
t i o n e x i s t i n g between t h e a n n u a l a v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n
t h i s r e g i o n , t h e amount o f t h e t e n y e a r r a i n f a l l and t h e
" i n t e n s i t y x d u r a t i o n " c u r v e s (BRUNET-MORET,1963-1967).

2. E r o d i b i l i t y of t r o p i c a l s o i l s
S o i l s c i e n t i s t s and agronomists know t h a t some s o i l
t y p e s a r e more r e s i s t a n t t h a n o t h e r s t o t h e r a i n f a l l ag-
g r e s s i v i t y . So p e o p l e l i k e CHARREAU and FAUCK (1970) i n
Senegal, COMBEAU and QUANTIN (1962) i n C e n t r a l - A f r i c a ,
MARTIN i n Congo, DE BLIC and MOREAU i n Ivory-Coast have
shown t h a t a f t e r c l e a r i n g t h e f o r e s t t h e a g g r e g a t e s t a -
b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s r a p i d l y , t h e n s t a b i l i s e s a t a lower
l e v e l under c r o p s . A t t h e same t i m e t h e i n f i l t r a t i . o n
r a t e of t h e plough h o r i z o n d e c r e a s e s , and t h e r a t e of
d e c r e a s e i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e s o i l t y p e , c r o p s and c u l t i -
v a t i o n techniques.
Some r e s e a r c h e r s t r i e d t o compare t h e s p l a s h resis-
 o .O0 300 Dress& par Roose 1 E.J.1
I : % : : : I
200 600 IWOlm

Figure 2 : Mean annual erosivity index ( in Western and Central-Africa.

Location of runoff plots.
158

t a n c e of d r i e d and s i e v e d s o i l samples (HUDSON, 1973;

COMBEAU and QUANTIN, 1962; NGO CHANG BANG, 1967; LAL, 1977. .)
b u t i t seems t h a t no s i n g l e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t on s i e v e d
samples can g i v e a good e s t i m a t i o n of t h e s o i l e r o d i b i l i t y ,
which i s depending p a r t l y on s p l a s h r e s i s t a n c e and a l s o
on s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e when r i l l e r o s i o n o c c u r s a f t e r a
certain length of slope.
T h e r e f o r e , w e i n s t a l l e d a t many s t a t i o n s t h e s t a n d a r d
r u n o f f p l o t s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d e f i n e d by Wischmeier : a
b a r e c u l t i v a t e d f a l l o w p l o t , 75 f e e t l o n g and 9 2 s l o p e ,
w i t h o r g a n i c m a t t e r d e s t r o y e d . The s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s
must b e m o d i f i e d because i n A f r i c a t h e l e n g t h and t h e
s t e e p n e s s of t h e s l o p e a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of toposequences
and many e r o d i b l e s o i l s n e v e r g e t 9 X of s l o p e ; moreover,
s o i l l o s s e s are much d i f f e r e n t from one y e a r t o a n o t h e r i n
r e l a t i o n w i t h r a i n f a l l and c u l t i v a t i o n p e r i o d . The e r o s i o n
f a c t o r s which are g e n e r a l l y exposed s e p a r a t e l y are n o t i n -
dependant i n n a t u r e .
So, w e s e l e c t e d s t e e p b u t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l o p e s f o r
each s o i l and l a n d s c a p e t y p e and we c o r r e c t e d t h e s o i l
l o s s e s w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e topographic f a c t o r of Wischmeier.
The r e s u l t s of a b o u t 50 a n n u a l d a t a show t h a t f e r r a l -
l i t i c s o i l s a r e v e r y r e s i s t a n t (K = 0.02 t o 0.20) and
f e r r u g i n o u s t r o p i c a l s o i l s are much less r e s i s t a n t a f t e r
3 y e a r s of c u l t i v a t i o n (K i s i n c r e a s i n g from 0.03 t o 0.20-
0 . 3 0 ) . The nomograph of WISCHMEIER, JOHNSON and CROSS
(1971) g i v e s i m i l a r r e s u l t s e x c e p t f o r g r a v e l l y s o i l s
which need a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r g r a v e l and rocky d e b r i s
t h a t may a c t a s a n a t u r a l p r o t e c t i v e mulch. T h e i r r o l e i n
t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t r o p i c a l s o i l s i s very i m p o r t a n t (DUMAS,
1965; SEGINER, MORIN, SHACHORI, s . d . ) . A t Korhogo f o r
example, n o t o n l y t h e K-value i s v e r y low (K = 0.02) b u t
i t diminishes proportionateLy a s t h e gravel concentrates
i n t h e upper h o r i z o n .

T a b l e 1 : E r o d i b i l i t y of v a r i o u s t r o p i c a l s o i l s .

K-value

- ferrallitic soils : - from t e r t i a r y sand 0.05 to 0.10

- from g r a n i t e 0.10 to 0.15
- from s c h i s t 0.15 to 0.20
- gravelly 0.01 to 0.03
- f e r r u g i n o u s t r o p i c a l s o i l from g r a n i t e :
- a f t e r clearing old 0.03 t o 0.15
fallow
- a f t e r 3-4 y e a r s of 0.20 t o 0.30
c u l t i v a ti on
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1"

It i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t K-values v a r y w i d e l y w i t h
s e a s o n s (K i s h i g h e r d u r i n g r a i n y p e r i o d s ) and from one
y e a r t o a n o t h e r y e a r : a f t e r c l e a r i n g t h e f a l l o w , t h e K-
v a l u e i s i n c r e a s i n g d u r i n g 3 t o 5 y e a r s of c u l t i v a t i o n be-
f o r e i t l e v e l s o f f . So i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o i n d i c a t e t h e or-
g a n i c matter c o n t e n t of t h e s o i l a t t h e moment i t s e r o d i -
b i l i t y i s measured o r determined. The K-value i s a l s o
v a r y i n g w i t h t h e l e n g t h and p e r h a p s w i t h s t e e p n e s s of t h e
s l o p e and t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y i s d i f f e r e n t from one s o i l t o
another .
So t h e K-value d e t e r m i n a t i o n needs a t l e a s t 5 y e a r s ,
a p e r i o d t o o long f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e map of e r o s i o n
h a z a r d s . To remedy t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , ORSTOM h a s b u i l t
i n I v o r y Coast a s t r o n g r o t a t i n g r a i n f a l l s i m u l a t o r
(SWANSON, 1 9 6 5 ) . It can i r r i g a t e a c i r c u l a r s u r f a c e of
200 m2 on which two runoff p l o t s of 5 by 10 meters are
i n s o l a t e d . One of t h e p l o t s i s t r e a t e d as a b a r e f a l l o w
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e method of Wischmeier; s o i l l o s s e s are
c o r r e c t e d by t h e t o p o g r a p h i c f a c t o r of Wischmeier.
T h i s s i m u l a t o r i s used s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o r agronomic,
p e d o l o g i c and h y d r o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s . The program i n c l u d e s
t h r e e r a i n f a l l s of 60 "/hour on d r y , w e t and v e r y w e t
s o i l s ( l i k e i n USA) and t h e n a dozen r a i n f a l l s of dura-
t i o n ( 3 0 t o 120 m i n . ) ; i n t e n s i t y (30-60-90-120 "/hour)
and s o i l m o i s t u r e v a r i a b l e s (Ta = 1 hour t o 1 week between
2 r a i n f a l l s ) . Three t o s i x s t a t i o n s of t h e same topo-
sequence a r e t r e a t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d u r i n g one month where
t h e p l o t s receive about 600 m i l l i m e t e r s of r a i n .
A t Adiopodoumé, LAFFORGUE, VALENTIN and ASSELINE
( 1 9 7 7 ) a p p l i e d twelve s i m u l a t e d r a i n s (R-index : 485
f o o t . t o n s / a c r e . i n c h ) on runoff p l o t s of b a r e ploughed
s o i l ( a f t e r p a s t u r e ) w i t h 6.5 % s l o p e i n o r d e r t o s t u d y
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s l o p e l e n g t h on r u n o f f and s o i l l o s s e s .

Table 2 : E r o s i o n and K-values of a sandy f e r r a l l i t i c

s o i l (very permeable) i n r e l a t i o n t o s l o p e
l e n g t h of t h e p l o t ( 1 9 7 7 ) .
c

Slope 6 Z Erosion Topographic Erodibility

Length s l o p e Tm/ha index index
(m) K = A
R x SL x 2,2L

1 m 8.044 O . 13433 O . 055

2 m 8.645 O . 18997 0.042
5 m 11.265 0.30036 0.035
IO m 13.744 0.42476 O . 030
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160

On t h i s sandy and v e r y permeable f e r r a l l i t i c s o i l s ,

w i t h the s l o p e l e n g t h i n c r e a s i n g from 1 t o 10 m e t e r s , ' s o i l
l o s s e s i n c r e a s e d from .8 t o 13,7 t / h a . But i f t h e topographic
f a c t o r i s i n c l u d e d , t h e s o i l e r o d i b i l i t y (K) d e c r e a s e s from
K = 0.055 t o 0.030. E r o s i o n does n o t i n c r e a s e p r o p o r t i o n a l
t o s q u a r e r o o t h of t h e s l o p e l e n g t h : (LOa5), b u t E =
f (LO.289).
I n t h e same r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n , a n o t h e r s i m u l a t o r t e s t
e x p e r i m e n t (ROOSE and ASSELINE, 1978) o n r u n o f f p l o t s , b a r e
f o r more t h a n 5 y e a r s , shows t h a t t h e a v e a a g e K - v a l u e on 36
s i m u l a t e d r a i n f a l l s , i s a b o u t 0.08 b u t v a r i e d from 0.01 t o
0.21 i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e r a i n f a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e
m o i s t u r e o f t h e s o i l and t h e s t r u c t u r e d e g r a d a t i o n .
T a b l e 3 : K-value of a sandy f e r r a l l i t i c s o i l i n r e l a t i o n
t o t h e s l o p e s t e e p n e s s and t h e s i m u l a t o r t e s t ;
Adiopodoumé, November 1975.

Slope Slope Topographic Erosion K3 K12

%SA
length steepness factor (Tm/ha) f o r 3 f o r 12
(m) (XI (SL) tests t e s t s

10 4 O. 2346 28.6 950.3 0.020 0.057

10 7 O ,4693 140.2 1046.3 0.132 0.127
10 20 2.3920 364.7 975.9 0.086 0.070

D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a shows t h a t s o i l r e s i s t a n c e
i s b e t t e r when t h e s o i l i s d r y t h a n ~ o na s a t u r a t e d f i e l d .
The s t r u c t u r e of t h e t o p s o i l (which i s l i k e a memory of
p r e c e e d i n g r a i n a g g r e s s i v i t y ) c a n modify s e r i o u s l y t h e f i n a l
s o i l l o s s e s , b e c a u s e i f t h e s p l a s h c r u s t g e t s enough time
t o d r y between two showers, t h e t o p s o i l becomes more resis-
t a n t t o s p l a s h energy. We f i n d h e r e a g a i n t h e n o t i o n o f
t h r e s h o l d above which s o i l movement may b e i m p o r t a n t .

3. Conclusions
A c t u a l l y w e d i s p o s e of numerous d a t a concerning a v e r a g e
c l i m a t i c e r o s i v i t y , t h e i r s p a t i a l and temporary d i s t r i b u t i o n
and a l s o on e r o d i b i l i t y of c e r t a i n f e r r a l l i t i c and f e r r u g i -
nous t r o p i c a l s o i l s which l a c k s w e l l i n g c l a y s . One can a p p l y
t h e e q u a t i o n o f Wischmeier t o o r g a n i s e t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l deve-
lopment o f t h e s e a r e a s .
But many problems remain t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d i n d e t a i l :
1) About c l i m a t i c e r o v i s i t y we must c a l c u l a t e t h e 10 y e a r
o r t h e 100 y e a r d a i l y e r o s i v i t y index d i s t r i b u t i o n because
t h e s e are t h e e x c e p t i o n a l e v e n t s which a r e t h e b a s e f o r
e v a l u a t i o n of h y d r a u l i c work c a l c u l a t i o n s and t o g u i d e
t h e s o i l and water c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t .
 t' ' 4

f
161

I"
2) There are many data available but not utilized in West-
Africa. But it seems now also necessary to begin comple-
mentary studies on rainfall characteristics (energy,
intensity, exceptional storms) of seaside regions (which
are already very much cultivated) and of mountain areas
where the erosion hazard is greater.
3) Concerning soil erodibility, the investigations must be
quickly extended to other types of soils particularly
on vertisols and brown tropical soils which are rich in
swelling clays.
4 ) In paralle1,other ways must be explored like adaption of
the Wischmeier nomograph to African soils conditions
taking into account an aggregation stability test, a
permeability test and the density of gravel and rocks
in the plough horizon.
5) During mapping and soil survey> relations between pedolo-
gicalymapped units and the reaction of the soil to the
water dynamic (infiltration and aggregation stability)
should be considered.
6) Finally, splash resistance tests must be associated with
runoff plots data under natural and simulated rainfall
in order to compare the classification of soil types in
relation to splash and shearing stress resistance.
But it is not sure that we will get something better
than a soil classification related to some well known refe-
rences (long test on runoff plots under natural rainfall)
as long as we do not know better the interactions between
the different erosion factors and particularly the inter-
action between the soil and the slope characteristics.

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