Metrology and Instrumentation

ANOOP R
ME DEPT.
CEA
ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

➢ The angle is defined as the opening between two

lines which meet at a point.
➢ If one of the two lines is moved around a point in
an arc, a complete circle can be formed.
➢ The circle is divided into 360 equal parts and
each part is called as degree(0).
➢ Each degree is divided in 60 minutes (‘) and each
minute into 60 seconds(”).
✕ Another method of defining angle is based on the
relationship between the radius and arc of a
circle.
✕ It is called as radian.
✕ Radian is defined as the angle subtended at the
centre by an arc of a circle of length equal to its
radius.
✕ 2π radians = 3600
✕ 1 radian = 57.29580
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR ANGULAR
MEASUREMENT
✕ Vernier bevel protractor
✕ Optical bevel protractor
✕ Universal bevel protractor
✕ Sine bar
✕ Angle gauge
✕ Clinometer
✕ Angle dekkor
✕ Auto collimator, etc.
SINE BAR

✕ Sine bar is a precision instrument used along with

slip gauges, indicating devices for the
measurement of angles.
✕ Sine bars are graded as A grade and B grade
according to their accuracy.
✕ It is made of high carbon steel, high chromium
corrosion resistant steel suitably hardened,
precision ground and stabilized.
✕ It consists of a steel bar and two rollers.
✕ They are attached to the bar at each end.
✕ The axes of these rollers are parallel to each other
and also to the upper surface of the bar.
✕ The normal distance between the axes of the
rollers is exactly 100mm, 200mm or 300mm.
PRINCIPLE OF SINE BAR
✕ The angle is measured by indirect method as a function
of sine; thus the device is called sine bar.
✕ The principle of operation of a sine bar is based on the
laws of trigonometry.
✕ If ‘h’ is the height of the combination of slip gauges and
‘L’ the distance between the roller centres,
✕ sin θ = h/L or θ = sin-1 (h/L)

h
θ
Different types of sine
bar
USE OF SINE BAR
1.Locating any work to a given angle.

✕ sin θ = h/l
2. CHECKING OR MEASURING UNKNOWN
ANGLES
Dial
gauge
θ = sin-1
(h/L) -1
θ = sin (dx/x) Sine bar

Work piece

Slip
gauges
3.When the Component is of large size /
heavy.
LIMITATIONS OF SINE BARS
✕ Sine bar is fairly reliable for angles less than 15 ,and becomes
increasingly inaccurate as the angle increases. It is impractical to use
sine bars for angle above 45 degree.

✕ The sine bar is physically clumsy to hold in position.

✕ Slight errors of the sine bar cause large angular errors.

✕ Temperature variation becomes more critical.
✕ A difference in deformation occurs at the point of roller contact to the
support surface and to the gauge blocks
SOURCES OF ERROR IN SINE BARS
✕ Error in distance between roller centers.

✕ Error in slip gauge combination used for angle setting.

✕ Error in parallelism between the gauging surface and plane of

roller axes.

✕ Error in equality of size of rollers and cylindrical accuracy in the

forms of rollers.

✕ Error in parallelism of roller axes with each other.

✕ Error in flatness of the upper surface of the bar.

ANGLE GAUGE

✕ Angle gauges were developed by Dr.Tomlinson

in 1941, which enable any angle to be set to the
nearest 3”.
✕ These are pieces of hardened and stabilised steel.
✕ The measuring faces are lapped and polished to a
high degree of accuracy and flatness.
✕ They are 75mm long and 16mm wide.
✕ set contains 13 pieces and a square block
+ 10, 30, 90, 270 and 410
+ 1’, 3’, 9’ and 27’
+ 3”, 6”, 18” and 30”.
✕ Each angle gauge is marked with engraved V
which indicates the direction of included angle.
✕ When the angles of individual angle gauges are to
be added up then the V of all should be in line and
when any angle is to be subtracted, its engraved V
should be in other direction.
v

Θ- Ф
Ф Ф

v
v

θ θ

Ф+
θ
(i) Direct use of angle gauges to measure the angle
in the die insert.
(ii) Use of angle gauges with square plate.
BEVEL PROTRACTORS

Vernier Bevel Protractor

✕ Dial Bevel Protractor
✕ Optical Bevel protractor
SPIRIT LEVEL

Each graduation line representing a specific slope is defined by a tangent

relationship,
e.g. 0.01 cm per meter

✕ 0=l/R
CLINOMETER
✕ A clinometers is a special case of application of spirit level for measuring, in
the vertical plane, the incline of a surface in relation to the basic horizontal
plane, over an extended range.
✕ The main functional element of a clinometer is the sensitive vial mounted on a
rotatable disc, which carries a graduated ring with its horizontal axis supported
in the housing of the instrument.
✕ The bubble of the vial is in its centre position, when the clinometer is placed on
a horizontal surface and the scale of the rotatable disc is at zero position.
✕ If the clinometer is placed on an incline surface, the bubble deviates from the
centre. It can be brought to the centre by rotating the disc. The rotation of the
disc can be read on the scale. It represents the deviation of the surface over
which the clinometer is placed from the horizontal plane.
CLINOMETER
✕ Vernier Clinometer
✕ Micrometer Clinometer
✕ Dial Clinometer
 AUTO-COLLIMATOR
✕ Auto-collimator is an optical instrument used for the
measurement of small angular differences, changes or
deflection, plane surface inspection etc.
Principle of auto-collimator
Collimating lens
Reflecting mirror
Object

x = 2fθ

θ
Image
Where f = focal length of lens
θ = angle of inclination of reflecting mirror
AUTOCOLLIMATOR
Angle
dekkor
 Angle
dekkor

Work piece
MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE FINISH
SURFACE TEXTURE ( Surface Roughness)
✕ “ The characteristics quality of an actual surface due to small
departures from its general geometrical form which, occurring at
regular or irregular intervals, tend to form a pattern or texture on
the surface”
✕ Surface texture varies according to the machining processes used
in producing it (eg. Metal machining)
✕ Difference in surface texture are noticeable by visual
examination & can be felt readily by passing a finger nail over
the surface
Factors Producing Surface Irregularity:
✕ Vibrations

✕ Material of the work piece

✕ Type of machining

✕ Type of coolant used

✕ Cutting conditions .i.e., feed ,speed and depth of cut.
✕ Faulty tools
✕ Errors due to personal element
REASONS FOR CONTROLLING SURFACE TEXTURE
✕ Different requirements need different surface texture.
✕ Brake drums and clutch plates

✕ Heat exchanger tubes transfer heat better when their surface

are slightly rough rather than highly finished.

Principal reasons for controlling the surface texture are

✕ To improve service life

✕ To improve fatigue resistance

✕ To reduce frictional wear

✕ For good appearance.

SYMBOLS USED TO IDENTIFY SURFACE
FINISHES AND CHARACTERISTICS
✕ Waviness height: peak-to-valley distance in inches or millimeters
✕ Waviness width: distance between successive waviness peaks or
valleys in inches or millimeters
✕ Roughness height: Deviation measured normal to centerline in
micro inches or µm
✕ Roughness width: Distance between successive roughness peaks
parallel to nominal surface in inches or millimeters
✕ Flaws: Irregularities such as scratches, holes, cracks, crest, or
hollows that do not follow regular pattern
✕ Lay: Direction of predominant surface pattern caused by
machining process
SYMBOLS THAT INDICATE DIRECTION OF LAY
(TYPES OF LAY)
✕ ||Parallel to boundary line of surface
indicated by symbol
✕ _|_ Perpendicular to boundary line of surface
indicated by symbol
✕ X Angular in both directions on surface
indicated by symbol

✕ M Multidirectional
✕ C Approximately circular to center of the
surface indicated by symbol

✕ R Approximately radial in relation to the

center of surface indicated by symbol
ORDERS OF GEOMETRICAL IRREGULARITIES:-

✕ As we Know that the material machined by chip removal process

can't be finished perfectly due to some departures from ideal
conditions as specified by the designer.

✕ Due to conditions not being ideal, the surface Produced will have
some irregularities, these geometrical irregularities can be
classified into four categories.
✕ First Order: The irregularities caused by inaccuracies in the machine
tool itself are called as first order irregularities.

These include:
(1) Irregularities caused due to lack of straightness of guide ways on
which the tool must moves.

(2) Surface regularities arising due to deformation of work under the

action of cutting forces, and

(3) Due to the weight of the material itself.

✕ Second Order: The irregularities caused due to vibrations of any
kind are called second order irregularities.

✕ Third order: Even if the machine were perfect and completely

free from vibrations some irregularities are caused by machining
itself due to the characteristics of the process.

✕ Fourth Order: The fourth order irregularities include those

arising from the rupture of the material during the separation of
the chip.
EVALUATION OF SURFACE FINISH
✕ Surface inspection of comparison methods.

✕ Direct Instrument Measurement

✕ Numerical methods

1 .Peak to valley method

2. The average roughness method

3 .Form factor or bearing curve method

SURFACE ROUGHNESS

✕ Mean line of the Profile: It is the line that divides the effective profile
such that, within sampling length the sum of squares of distances (y1,
y2, ….yn) between effective points and mean line is minimum.

✕ Center line of the Profile: It is the line for which the area embraced by
the profile above or below the line is equal.
EVALUATION OF SURFACE
Peak to Valley Height method
The average roughness method

+ C L A Method

+ R M S Method
CENTRE LINE AVERAGE METHOD
RMS( ROOT MEAN SQUARE) VALUE METHOD
✕ In this method also, the roughness is measured as the average
deviation from the nominal surface. Root mean square value
measured is based on the least squares

• Let us assume that the sample length ‘L’ is divided into ‘n' equal
parts and 1, 2, 3 ….are the heights of the ordinates erected at those
points.
Ten Point Height Method
FORM FACTOR AND BEARING CURVES

Degree of fullness(K)=Area of Metal/Area of enveloping

rectangle
Degree of emptiness = (Kp) = 1- K
SURFACE INSPECTION OF COMPARISON
METHODS
1) Touch inspection - 25mm per sec– find irregularities up to 0.01mm

2) Visual inspection

3) Scratch inspection- Softer materials like lead,babbit or plastic is

rubbed.

4) Microscopic inspection-compare work piece with std piece

5) Reflected light intensity- using photo cell.

6) Magnetic particle methods.
OPTICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
Interferometry
✕ Wave form of light as a standard of measurement possess is the
advantage of being accurate and a very small of measure.
✕ The value of wave length determines the color of light and
amplitude determines the intensity of light.
PRINCIPLE OF INTERFERENCE
CM-BM= (½)
OPTICAL FLAT
✕ The second component of the ray lags behind the first ray by an
amount twice the air gap

✕ If the path difference between the reflected rays is even multiple

of half wave length, they will be out of phase and dark band will
occur.

✕ If the path difference is odd multiple of half wave length, they will
be in phase and bright band will occur.
OPTICAL FLATS
✕ Used with monochromatic light to check work for flatness,
parallelism and size

✕ Disks of clear fused quartz, lapped to within few millionths of an

inch of flatness

✕ Used with helium light source.

PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FLAT
Light split into two parts:
one reflected back by lower

Optical flat, perfectly flat, transparent disk, placed on work.

Surface adjacent to work piece is transparent and capable of
reflecting light.
PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FLAT

Fringe lines are

the visible bands.

Light split into two parts: one reflected back by lower surface of flat
and other reflected by upper surface of work. When two light waves
cross each other (interfere) they become visible.
PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FLAT

The fringe lines occurs whenever distance between lower surface of flat
and upper surface of work piece is only ½ of a wavelength or multiples
thereof.
INTERFEROMETERS
✕ Is an optical instrument that can produced two beams interference or
multiple beam interference.

✕ Interferometers are optical instruments used for measuring flatness

and determining minute differences in length by direct reference to the
wavelength of light.

✕ Basically, an interferometer is constructed using the same principle as

of an optical flat. The disadvantages of optical flats are overcome here
by some refined arrangements. The fringes formed can be oriented to
the best advantage in interferometers .
MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
LASER INTERFEROMETER
• The instrument used for high precision measurements
(distance, angles…. etc.)
• It uses interferometry as the basis for measurement.

• It uses the very small, stable and accurately defined

wavelength of laser as a unit of measure.
NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER
If the work piece is flat and parallel to the base plate, the fringe
pattern will be straight, parallel and equally spaced.

When the work piece is flat but not parallel to the base plate, straight
parallel fringes of different thickness will be obtained.

If the work piece is concave or convex, fringe pattern will be as

shown in Figure .

it can be deduced that the surface is flat with slight rounding off at
the corner.

The surface of the work piece is at certain angle with the base plate,
fringe pattern will be as shown in Figure
OPTICAL PROJECTORS
PARTS OF A PROJECTOR
✕ Source of Light - Light source is usually a powerful lamp up to 1000 watts
or more. Generally, tungsten filament lamp is used for illumination.
✕ However, it is replaced by high-pressure mercury lamp when specific
measurement has to be made.
✕ The light source has to be designed with consideration of several factors to
avoid harmful heat transfer to the optical system and operating elements of
the projector.
✕ Therefore, the lamp house is usually mounted externally with a powerful
blower fan. It also has special heat absorbing glass filters to keep back the
heat rays that might affect the dimensional stability of the object.
TWO TYPES OF LIGHT SOURCE SYSTEMS ARE
COMMONLY EMPLOYED :
✕ Shadow Projection Light Source System - In this system, light
rays originating from the light source hit the object, whose
physical body creates a shadow bounded by the actual contour of
the object when viewed in the direction of light rays. This shadow
is then magnified by the lens system and projected on the viewing
screen.

✕ Reflection Projection Light Source System - In this system, light

source illuminate the front side of the object, which faces the lens
system. The lens system receives reflected light, which is
magnified and projected on the screen as the object image.
✕ Collimating or Condensing Lens - These lenses are the parts of a
projector, which refract the light into a beam with parallel rays of
almost uniform intensity on the entire area of object illumination.
They are fixed in the lens housing and are situated nearest to the light
source. Therefore, the glass used for collimating lens must be heat
resistant.

✕ Projection Lens The projection lens system magnifies and transmits

the object contour or image resulting from the collimated parallel light
rays.

✕ Different types of lens arrangement are possible.

✕ Screen - The projected image of the object appears and is displayed
on the screen for inspection.

✕ It is made of ground glass, with finely grained texture, to provide a

bright, glare-free image.

✕ The screen must present an image easy to measure with accuracy

without causing fatigue to the operator. The brightness of the
image must be uniform over the full area of the screen.
MAGNIFICATION OF A PROJECTOR
✕ The magnification of a projector is defined by the following
formulae

• The most frequently available magnifications in optical projectors are 5X, 10X,
20X, 25X, 30 X, 31.25X, 50X, 62.5X, 100X, and 125X. Since different
magnification is required depending on the object, projectors are built with optical
system that permits interchanging the lenses. The two aspects that must be noted in
magnifying an image are
• The higher the magnification, the more is the intricate details of the object, and
• The lower is the magnification, the larger will be the area that can be projected
on the screen.
TOOLMAKER’S MICROSCOPE
✕ Engineering microscopes designed to satisfy various measuring
needs of toolmaker’s are known as toolmaker’s microscopes.

✕ A plain toolmaker’s microscope is primarily intended for a

particular application.

✕ On the other hand, universal toolmaker’s microscope is adaptable to

an uncommonly wide range of measuring tasks.

✕ A toolmaker’s microscope is designed for measurements of parts of

complex forms, e.g. profile of external threads, tools.

✕ It can also be used for measuring center-to-center distance of holes

in any planes, Accurate angular measurements.
✕ The optical head can be moved up or down the vertical column and
can be clamped at any height by means of clamping screw.
✕ The table which is mounted on the base of the instrument can be
moved in two mutually perpendicular horizontal directions
(longitudinal and lateral) by means of accurate micrometer screw
having scale and venires.
✕ A ray of light from a light source is reflected by a mirror through 90’
It then passes through a transparent glass plate (on which flat parts
may be placed ).
✕ A shadow image of the outline or counter of the workspaces passes
through the objective of the optical head and is projected by a system
of three prisms to a ground glass screen.
✕ Observations are made through an eyepiece. Measurements are made
by means of cross lines engraved on the ground glass screen. The
screen can be rotated through 360’; the angle of rotation is read
through an auxiliary eyepiece.