Ashikaga Death Festival Japan

The Festival for the Spirits of the Dead in Japan
Author(s): Ensho Ashikaga

Source: Western Folklore, Vol. 9, No. 3 (1950), pp. 217-228
Published by: Western States Folklore Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1520740
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The Festival for the Spirits of the
Dead in Japan
ENSHO ASHIKAGA
THE JAPANESE FESTIVAL FOR THE SPIRITS OF THE DEAD, com

Bon, is celebrated for three days from the thirteenth to the f
of the seventh moon by the lunar calendar. The Bon Festiva
Festival of Lanterns, or the Festival for the Spirits of the Dead
called, is really one of the best-known and most popular ev
It is the All Souls' Day of Japan and, according to Japanes
the spirits of the dead revisit the earthly world during this pe
shrines are cleaned; the sh6ryd-dana,1 or "altar for the spir
placed in front of the shrines; and a special meal' is offered bef
tain the spirit guests. On the thirteenth day, lanterns are l
the cemeteries and, in some districts, the mukae-bi," or "we
before the house to light the way homeward for the guest
world. On the fourteenth (the fourteenth and fifteenth in
priest is invited to pray for blessings upon the dead. This is cal
the night of the last day (the sixteenth in some districts), a fir
out to send the spirits of the dead back to their infernal a
called okuribi," or "farewell fire," which is both a commu
* The limitation of type has made it necessary to omit certain diacritical ma
manuscript carefully indicates.
1 Also called tama-dana; a shelf or stand on which tablets to the spirits of
ranged for worship. There are three kinds: (i) the shdry6-dana for the spiri
muen-dana, or altar for the spirits of the dead which have no surviving rel
follow the ancestral spirits; and (3) the ara-dana, or altar for the spirits of th
died. See K. Segawa, "Bonmatsuri Shokoku Ffizoku" (The Customs of the B
Provinces), Dai-harin, XV, 7 (T6ky6, 1948), p. 39.
2A rush mat is ornamented with noodles, ear of millet, gourd, and ground
eggplants are offered before the spirit guests. On the thirteenth day, m
dumpling) is specially presented; on the fourteenth, potato salad and cooked
sesame seeds, and on the fifteenth, hasu-no-ii (steamed rice wrapped in a lotu
(farewell dumpling); for the three days, of course, incense is burned, flowers
and also tea and water.
3 A fire kindled before the doorway of a house on the thirteenth to receive the spirits of the
revisiting this world. This custom, however, varies in different localities; in some areas a bonfi
made either on the beach or at the riverside, or within a cemetery. See Dai-h6rin, XV, 7, p. 38.
'Mass said by Buddhist priests before a sh6ry6-dana during the festival.
5 In some districts it is kindled at the seaside or riverside as in the case of the "welcome fire." Mo
districts have a contradictory custom in that the people welcome the spirits of the dead a
cemeteries and send them back to the sea or rivers. See Mohan Bukky6 Jiten (Standard Bud
Dictionary) (TOky6, 1936), pp. 69-70; Dai-h6rin, XV, 7, p. 38.
[217]
R18 WESTERN FOLKLORE
matter. In many a waterside commu

family during the past year send ad
visions and little lighted lanterns.' B
the light of the boats vanishing into t
with the infinite world beyond.'
The idea of the festival is to benef
tors in the other world; but it is said
happiness of longevity even to pare
believed that charitable offerings, e
not only to spirits but also to their do
Although its origin is unknown, th
at the time of Sakyamuni, the foun
on the contents of the Urabon-kyd
this stitra, when Mokuren (Skt: M
, As an exception, however, it should be sta
"spirit boats" (sh6ry6-bune) about seven feet lon
the "farewell fire" is kindled at the seaside. T
boat and are loaded with straw puppets, lighted
which prayers are written, tied to small bam
P-. 79-
7 Masaharu Anesaki, Religious Life of the Japanese People (T6kyb, 1938), pp. 7-8.
s On the subject of the Hindu and Buddhist customs of offering gifts, see Bimala Churn Law, The
Buddhist Conception of Spirits (London, 1936), pp. 1o6-1o7; see also Peta-vatthu (probably com-
piled about 2oo years after the Buddha's death), Nanden Daiz6ky6 (The Southern Buddhist Canon),
XXV (TOky6, 1936), 3-5, and the Pali Text Society ed. (London), pp. 4-5-
O Yiu lan p'dn ching in Chinese; translated from the Sanskrit by Dharmaraksa, a native of Tukhira,
who is said to have known thirty-six languages and translated (265/266-316/317, A.D.) some 165
(or 175?) works. No Sanskrit text extant, but the Chinese versions: Urabon-ky6 or Yii lan p'dn ching
(sometimes called Uran-gy6 or Yii lan ching), Taish6 DaizOky6, XVI, no. 685; H6onbubon-gy6 or
Pao en feng p'in ching (sometimes Hazckudoku-ky6 or Pao hsiang kung te ching), the translator
unknown, Taisho, XVI, no. 686. The Urabon-ky6 translated by Dharmaraksa is even now recited in
the Shingon temples on the day of the Urabon service. Mochizuki's Bukky6 Daijiten (An Unabridged
Buddhist Dictionary) (T6ky6, ed. of 19o9), p. 13ib, briefly says that the Buddha probably adopted
the custom existing in his times, and preached the Urabon-ky6; however the latest edition of his
dictionary gives a more detailed account of it. See ibid. (Ky6to, 1944), p. 244a. De Visser, quoting a
passage in W. Crooke's Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India, states in his excellent
work Ancient Buddhism in Japan I (Leiden, 1935), 92-97, that the Indian Feast of Lamps or Divill
seems to be the basis of the legend concerning the origin of the festival, that the Hindu Divili
festival must have been combined by the Tantric priests in China with the Avalambana (or
Ullambana) and preta-feeding rites, and that the fact that the latter were performed on the same
date as the Taoist Chung-yuen, a festival in honor of Earth and ancestors, said to have originally
been celebrated with nocturnal illuminations, may have given some support to this association of
ideas. The present Urabon service is generally believed to have been based on the Urabon-kyo. See
KyOjun Shimizudani, "Urabon-ky6 Kaidai" (Introduction to the Urabon-kye), Kokuyaku Issaikye,
Ky6shi2-bu, 14 (TOkyO, 1934), p. 435; Hoshun Nishihara, Bukky6 Jibutsu Yurai Densetsu no Kenkyil
(Studies on Things in Buddhist Origin and Tradition), I (Ky6to, 1938), 303; Shimpen Bukkyo Jiten
(New Buddhist Dictionary) (TOkyO, 1933), p. 1o6; Mohan Bukkyo Jiten, p. 7o; Tokun6 Oda,
Bukky6 Daijiten (An Unabridged Buddhist Dictionary) (T6kyo, 1929, 12th ed.), p. 12o; Shink6
Mochizuki, Bukkyo Daijiten (1909 ed.), p. 132a; (1944 ed.), p. 244c.
"o Also Mokkenren; Moggallino in Pili; Mu Lien in Chinese. Sometimes called Mahimaudgal-
yyana, Daimokkenren, or Ta Mu Chien Lien; one of the ten chief disciples of Sakyamuni, specially
noted for miraculous powers.
FESTIVAL OF THE DEAD 219
self the six supernatural powers,' he wished to

its penalty in requital of the favors he had
powers he scanned all existence (from heav
his mother, reduced to a mere skeleton, suff
hunger." In the fullness of his sorrow he has
but it was turned to flames before she could eat it. He was so overcome with
grief that he hurried back to the Buddha and told the master the whole story
of what had happened to his mother. He was then told by the Buddha that
since her sins were great his own power could not deliver her, nor could the
powers of deities in the heavens and the earth, Maras" and heretics, sorcerers,
and the four demon kings" deliver her either, though all the elements were
moved by his dutifulness to his parents; but only the supernatural powers of
all the priests would be able to save her. He was told further that on the day of
"pravarana,''' the fifteenth of the seventh moon, he was to provide food, drink,
11Skt: Sad-abhijfli; P5li: Cha-abhififii. The six supernatural or universal powers acquired by a
Buddha, also by an arhat (an enlightened, saintly man): (1) Rddhividhi-jfiina-abhijfia, power to be
anywhere or do anything at will; (2) Divya-srotra-j.-a., ability to hear any sound anywhere; (3)
Paracitta-j.-a., ability to know the thoughts of all other minds; (4) Pirvanivasausmrti-j.-a., knowl-
edge of all former existences of self and others; (5) Cyutyupapatti-j.-a., knowledge of the decease
and rebirth of beings; (6) Asravaksaya-j.-a., knowledge of the destruction of the intoxicants. See
Abidatsuma-shfiimonsoku-ron (Abhidharma-sangiti-parytdya-pdda-sastra), Kokuyaku Issaiky6,
Bidon-bu, 2 (TAkyd, 1929), pp. 127-128. However, the Abidatsuma-kusha-ron (Abhidharmakosa-
sastra) gives as the fifth power Divya-caksuh-j.-a., or instantaneous view of anything anywhere in
the form realm; the difference between them is not in substance but in terms. See Kokuyaku
Issaiky5, Bidon-bu, 26, 2 (TOky6, 1935), pp.- 396-4oo. See also Ry6zabur6 Sakaki, Mahavyutpatti
(Ky6to, 1916), pp. 18-19; W . E. Soothill and L. Hodous, A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms
(London, 1937), pp. 123a, 138b; Chu Fei-huang, Fa Hsiang Tz'u Tien, II (Shanghai, 1940), 294-295.
12 Preta-loka, preta-gati (Pdli: Peta-loka, peta-gati); one of the places of torment in the Buddhist
hell, where the dead spirits are punished with hunger. Concerning "preta" see Peta-vatthu, Khud-
daka-Nikaya, 3, and B. C. Law, The Buddhist Conception of Spirits. Baiyfi Watanabe says that the
idea of "pitr" (spirits of the forefathers) existed in the Vedic era and, mixed with the idea of moral
merits and demerits, gradually developed into the idea of "preta." See Kokuyaku Issaikyd, Bidon-bu,
2 (T6ky6, 1929), p. 29, fn. 107.
1 They are considered as demons, being enemies of Buddha's doctrine, although they inhabit one
of the heavens of Hindu cosmogony. See E. T. C. Werner, A Dictionary of Chinese Mythology
(Shanghai, 1932), p. 307; Soothill-Hodous, A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, p. 485b; and
other dictionaries on Buddhism in Japanese or Chinese. The Sanskrit "mara" means "death," "the
Tempter," "the evil one," etc.
" The guardians of the whole world against the attacks of Asuras (malicious spirits): on the east,
Dhrtardstra, the deva who guards the kingdom, color white; on the south, Virfidhaka, the deva of
increase and growth, blue; on the west, Virfipiksa, the broad-eyed deva; and on the north,
Vaisravana (or Dhanada), the deva who hears much and is well versed, yellow. See Dictionary of
Chinese Buddhist Terms, p. 173b; Tokun6 Oda, Bukkyd Daijiten, p. 748a-748b; Shink6 Mochizuki,
Bukky5 Daijiten (Ky6to, 1944), pp. 1958a-1959a; Mohan Bukkyd Jiten, p. 469b; Gemmy6 Ono,
Bukkyd Bijutsu Kcwa (Lectures on Buddhist Art) (T6ky6, 1921), pp. 666-668; Sh5wa Shinsan
Kokuyaku Daizdky5, Kaisetsu-bu, I (T6ky6, 1930), 149-155; Nanden Daiz6kyd, XXV, 3.
11 According to the Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, it means the end of restraint, i.e., fol-
lowing the period of the annual retreat by Buddhist priests which covers the three months of the
Indian rainy season; the object of the retreat was study and meditation. The last day of the annual
retreat is called the day of "pravarana." See ibid., pp. 211b, 219a. The word "pravdrana" means
"satisfying a desire," "fulfillment of a wish"; therefore the "day of pravarana" may be interpreted the
"day of fulfillment of a wish," or "day of completion of study and meditation."
220 WESTERN FOLKLORE
utensils, etc., for both departed pa

and to present gifts to all priests,
world and in the other world, the
could be delivered from the torm
Buddha then ordered the priests to p
far back as seven generations. All
whereupon on that day of "pravdr
the torments of the hell of hunger.
if this festival should be establish
reply the Buddha said: "All Buddhi
parents and ancestors for their lov
of the seventh moon every ybar.""
The above is the gist of the Urabon
to have been derived. It is obvious
Japan from China along with the
Chinese folklore, somewhat differen
dead are allowed to return to eart
festivals continue until Ti-tsang's
on the fifteenth of the seventh moon." The Bon service is said to have been
first performed in China in the fourth year of Ta-t'ung (538) of the Liang
Dynasty, in the period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties."
Then, when was it first performed in Japan? Some say that it was established
by the Emperor Sh6mu (699-756) in the fifth year of Tempy6 (733),' but
actually this refers to its establishment as an annual event. Others say that it
was first held on the fifteenth day of the seventh moon, in the third year (657)
of the Empress Saimei (reigned 655-661; second accession of the Empress
K6gyoku [594-661]);" but the earliest record of the festival can be found in
the Nihonshoki, Vol. 22, which says that it was held on the fifteenth of the
" The regions of fire, blood, and sword, where the souls of the wicked are tormented.
17Kokuyaku Issaiky3, Kydshfi-bu, 14 (T6ky6, 1934), pp. 436-438. See also Robert C. Armstrong,
Buddhism and Buddhists in Japan (New York, 1927), pp. 37-38; De Visser, Ancient Buddhism in
Japan, I (Leiden, 1935), 68-71.
I His birthday is celebrated on the thirtieth of the seventh moon. See Werner's Dictionary of
Chinese Mythology, pp. 497-499. Ti-tsang (Skt., Ksitigarbha; Jap., Jiz6) is one of the Bodhisattvas
who takes care of people's life after death, and is popularly held to be the guardian deity of children.
"A Dictionary of Chinese Mythology, p. 6oi. Eitel says about the festival in China: "Engrafted
upon the native ancestral worship, this ceremonial for feeding the ghosts of deceased ancestors of
seven generations obtained immense popularity and is now practised by everybody in China, by
Taoists even and by Confucianists." Quoted in the Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, p. 275a.
S"Fo tsu t'ung chi, 37, quoted in Mochizuki's Bukky5 Daijiten (19o09 ed.), p. 131c; (1944 ed.), p.
244b. See also Oda's Bukky3 Daijiten, p. i2oc; Shimpen Bukky6 Jiten, p. 1o6c; H. Nishihara, Bukky6
Jibutsu Yurai Densetsu no Kenky0, I, 307.
' R. C. Armstrong, Buddhism and Buddhists in Japan, p. 36. This can be found in the Genk6sha-
kusho, 22, quoted in Oda's Bukky6 Daijiten, p. I2oc; and also in the Shoku Nihongi, 11, quoted in
Mochizuki's Bukkyo Daijiten (g9o9 ed.), p. 13c; (1944 ed.), p. 244b.
2 H. Nishihara, Bukky fJibutsu Yurai Densetsu no Kenkyz, I, o307; Mohan Bukky6 Jiten, p. 7o;
Mochizuki, Bukky6 Daijiten (1909 ed.), p. 131c; (1944 ed.), p. 244b. This is apparently based upon
the record in the Nihonshoki, 26; see ibid. (Toky6, Dai-Nippon-Bunko ed. of 1934), P. 483.
seventh moon, in the fourteenth year (606) o

No further details are given; therefore the s
mere imitation of the Chinese custom with no
ing. And, judging from the fact that in 659 t
priests of the temples in the capital to lecture
ably much later than the reign of the Empres
understand the nature of the service.
As stated above, although the Bon Festival was established as an annual
event in the year of 733, it seems to me that the festival really became popular
among the people after the end of the Heian period (794-1185). There is an
interesting picture scroll called the Gaki-z6shi" which possibly supports my
opinion. The scroll, which is in the possession of the S6genji, a Buddhist
temple in Okayama, consists of seven chapters containing pictures and literary
descriptions, in which is described the story of Mokuren and his mother based
on the Urabon-ky6. The scroll is an excellent portrayal with effective coloring.
The painter is said to have been Tosa Mitsunaga;" although this is question-
able, yet it is considered a work of about his time-the end of the Heian period
or the beginning of the Kamakura ( 1186-1333). It was the time when the
Buddhist idea of "six places"" actually influenced the people, swimming with
the tide of turbulent days; therefore it is possible to say that the idea of the
"hell of hunger" came to be adopted, even into the fine arts, either as a means
of propagating Buddhism or as an emotional experience of the people of the
time." In my opinion, therefore, the Bon Festival was really popularized
among the Japanese about the close of the twelfth century.
' Ibid. (Dai-Nippon-Bunko ed.), p. 399-
24 Ibid., p. 490.
2 "Pictures of Hungry Spirits." There is another scroll owned by Otogorb Kawamoto of Okayama;
this, however, consists of io chapters of pictorial parts only and does not include the picture of
Mokuren and his mother. All the figures of hungry spirits drawn in this scroll are apparently based
on the descriptions given in the Sh6b6nensho-ky6, Saddharmasmrtyupasthanasfitra (ChIng fa nien
ch'u ching; translated by Gautama-prajiiaruci, a native of Benares, India, who arrived in Loyang in
516. Taish6 DaizOkyd, XVII, no. 721). See Kokushi Jiten (Dictionary of Japanese History) II (T6ky6,
1940), p. 428b-428c.
" The dates of his birth and death are unknown. He is the fourth generation of the Tosa family;
one of the three outstanding painters in the Tosa school. The Nenchfigy6ji-e (pictures of annual
events) which he painted at the age of twenty-five or twenty-six are said to have been greatly ad-
mired by the ex-Emperor Goshirakawa (1127-1192; reigned 1156-1158); therefore there is no doubt
that he lived about the end of the twelfth century. See Akira Ota, Seishi Kakei Daijiten (An Un-
abridged Genealogical Dictionary), II (T6ky6, 1934), 3955a, 8; Rekishi Jiten (Dictionary of History),
Dai-shis6 Encyclopaedia, XXXIII (TOkyo, 1929), 227b.
27 The six places, roads, or directions of reincarnation: (1) naraka-gati, or that of the hells; (2)
preta-gati, of hungry spirits; (3) tiryagyoni-gati, of animals; (4) asura-gati, of malevolent nature
spirits; (5) manusya-gati, of human existence; (6) deva-gati, of deva existence.
I Kokushi Jiten, II, 428. As another example of the adoption of the idea of hells into the fine
arts, there is the Jigoku-zeshi (pictures of Hell), a set of four scrolls, painted during the Kamakura
period. The painter is unknown. The plot has been taken from the Shob6nensho-kyo; see fn. 25. It
includes eightdifferent representations of Hell, based upon the teaching, "the-good-shall-be-rewarded-
and-the-wicked-punished." One roll each is owned by the following: Anjfi-in, Okayama; Tomitar6
Hara, Yokohama; Baron Masuda, T6ky6; and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. See Japanese Paint-
ing: The Japanese Arts Through Lantern Slides, IV (TOky6, 1938), 48-49.
Properly speaking, the Bon serv

tended to pray for the happiness
Heian period (794-1185), howev
pray for blessings upon the spirit
developed into the custom of inv
inviting also living relatives and
piness of the living was not inclu
(1186-1333), the festival for the iki
persons," was specially established
upon the living.
Strictly speaking, the festival of
seventh moon during the KAmakur
the festival performers themselves;
own spirits."
It should be noted here that in this period the ceremony of segaki" was held
during the Bon Festival, and that even today it is practiced on any chosen day
between July i and 15; but the segaki has an entirely different origin from the
Bon Festival: the former derives its origin from Ananda,82 whereas the latter
originates in the story of Maudgalydyana. Because of their similarities both
in offering foods to, and in saying masses for, the spirits of the dead, it is
obvious that the two ceremonies were confused and have been so handed
down to the present day; but a distinction should be made between th
from the content of the respective siitras on which the two are based.
In the Muromachi period (1334-1573), however, the festival for
ikimitama took place on the eleventh of the seventh moon, on which
female attendants would go to the Sh6gun's house to offer their congra
tions." It thence appears that the ikimitama in this period was a custo
blessing the living spirits of superiors-naturally living parents were inc
and since then it has become the festival to pray for the longevity of l
" Katsumori Shiba, "Heianch6-jidai no Fifzoku" (The Customs of the Heian Period), N
Fitzoku-shi K6za, I (T6ky6, 1929), 253.
30 Shigeru Sakurai, "Kamakura-jidai no Ffizoku" (The Customs of the Kamakura Period),
II (Toky6, 1929), 250, fn. i.
3' The ceremony of saying masses for, and making offerings to, the spirits of the dead hav
relations; not necessarily held in July.
u He was noted as the most learned disciple of Buddha, and famed for hearing and rememb
his teaching. See A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, p. 294a. According to the Kubatsu
gakidarani-kyd, Pretamukhagnijvdlayalarakdradharanisfstra (Chiu pa yen k'ou 9 kuei t'o lo ni
translated by Amoghavajra), Ananda, who had been warned and advised about his life after d
by a hungry spirit with a mouth of emitting flames, held this ceremony in order to escape
reborn into the hell of hunger; he was also told by the Buddha that if he held this cerem
would be able to escape calamities and to enjoy longevity. See ibid., TaishO Daiz6ky6, XXI, no
" S6gor6 Uozumi, "Muromachi-jidai no Ffizoku" (The Customs of the Muromachi Period
pon Ffizoku-shi K6za, II, 248. According to the Nenzankibun by Nenzan Tameakira And6
1716). Uozumi, ibid., p. 248, this custom dates from before the era of Bummei (1469-1487).
parents. In this period the Bon Festival was h

fourteenth, during which time lanterns were
from the Sh6gun's family."
Lanterns are said to have first been used in t
during the Kamakura period (1186-1333).' Acc
the official diary of the Kamakura shogunate
offering ten thousand lamps) was held on the
the day of the Urabon service, in the first yea
give light to the annihilated members of the T
hence it is presumable that the custom of off
Festival existed before 1190o-in the very early
Belief in lanterns, however, can be traced
1185). People of that time believed that when
cemeteries and temples, the "guiding light" wo
wandering about in the land of the dead." It is
custom of votive lanterns during the Bon Fes
mon belief. And on the night of the last day, th
on the mountains outside of Ky6to; this proba
of votive lanterns, although it has been believe
offering to a group of seven stars, the Plough
come fire" and the "farewell fire" for the spirits
to be "guiding lights," derived from the same
According to one opinion, however, the "wel
tom of praying for resurrection of the spiri
body." This may be true as far as the "welcom
" Ibid. According to Sakurai, however, the custom of pres
had already existed before the Muromachi period-more prec
See S. Sakurai, "Kamakura-jidai no Ffizoku," Nippon FIfzoku
* S. Sakurai, "Kamakura-jidai no Fiizoku," Nippon Fizoku
Azuma-kagami, III (T6ky6, Nihon Koten Zenshfi ed. of
custom had been already established in the second year o
Ffizoku," Nippon F~fzoku-shi Kaza, II, 250. But the Azuma-k
be noted here than the Mand6-e is the service of repentance
to a Buddha, and not for the sake of the dead spirits. This
Temple and on Suzaku Street in the twelfth month of the s
reign of the Emperor Sh6mu, but the term Mandd-e is said
the Heian period. See Mohan Bukky6 Jiten, p. 1o15c; Ichi
(The Buddhist Services in Ancient Japan), Bukkye Kekog
Visser, Ancient Buddhism in Japan, I, 240-241.
23S. Sakurai, "Kamakura-jidai no Ffizoku," Nippon Ffz
to Fizoku (Belief and Customs), Nippon Ffzzoku-shi KOza, X
SS. Uozumi, "Muromachi-jidai no Ffizoku," Nippon Fftzo
lief in the fire offering to a group of seven stars or the nor
and Ursa Minor, seems to have some connection with the
has been practiced in the Shingon sect, esoteric Buddhism,
and longevity; this is not treated in this paper.
0 Tar6 Nakayama, Minzoku Temby6 (Sketches on the Ethn
"farewell fire" comes into question: why is

spirits welcomed by praying for their resurre
had a belief that the spirits of the forefath
descendants,' it must be considered to be a ver
well fire" is kindled to send back to their in
spirits. There must be a reason, but it is ge
rived from a contradiction in beliefs of th
Buddhistic point of view a distinction is cl
the living and that of the dead; but the Jap
Buddhism did not make such a distinction b
that the dead disappeared-they only thoug
country from a light country, passing thr
Buddhism taught the Japanese that the existen
sisted of the "six places," one of which was
lieved that the dead spirits fallen to such a
hunger for a long, long time." It may be imag
the dead spirits had to go back to the hell e
this world and prayers were given for the sak
then that the "farewell fire" was kindled as
returning to their infernal abode. Therefor
the "welcome fire" and the "farewell fire"
In the Edo period (1603-1867) the Bon Fes
teenth to the sixteenth inclusive. On the t
lighted when the tanagy6 was offered; on t
regarded as the day of the ikimitama, pres
40 Totsud6 Kat6, Minkan Shink6-shi (History of Comm
, H. Kitano, "Bon-odori to Sagich6" (The Bon Dance a
(TOkyO, 1928), p. 20.
4 Daiei Kaneko, Shinran-sh6nin ni eizeru Sh6toku-taish
Shinran's Eyes) (T6ky, 1939), P. 74.
4 Many Buddhist siitras give accounts of all types o
Updsakasila-siftra; Chinese, Yu p'o sd chieh ching. Taish6
gives the following concerning the life of "pretas" (th
human world are equivalent to one night (day?) in the
thousand years to live (a part is omitted here). And th
various other hells in accordance with the law of "sam
Bukky6 Daijiten (1909 ed.), pp. 238b-24oa, (1944 ed.) pp. 4
"A lantern of a cubical form with its corners squared.
4 Chung-yiian in Chinese; one of the San Gen, San Yiian
introduced from China possibly before the establishmen
Wakamori the festival for the ancestral spirits on the da
Urabon service originated from the Buddhist customs;
not at all mentioned by him. See Tar6 Wakamori, Nih
Japanese Folklore) (T6ky6, 1947), P. 261. At any rate
Taoists, and since the Chfigen fell on the day of the Urab
month, it mixed with the Urabon, and both of them a
Kuan," Dictionary of Chinese Mythology, pp. 400-403;
97-102.
their children; and on the last day, the sixte

"Servants' Day," many people visited the tem
Yama) images were kept," because Emma was b
charge of the dead spirits. During the period
as Bon-odori" was common in various districts.
Bon-odori, which may be seen in many districts even today, affords a delight-
ful pastime for the young folk, who gather at the compounds of local shrine
or temples and dance far into the night. The dance consists of simple, monot
onous steps and clapping of hands; common folk songs are sung, usually with
out the accompaniment of any musical instrument."
Bon-odori is really the simplest dance ever seen in Japan. Why is it so
simple? It is simple because it requires a great number of participants, old an
young, men and women. Any and every person can participate, but has to
dance as he is, without wearing a special kind of kimono. Dancing in everyday
clothes is the original form of Bon-odori, which is one reason why it is sim
plicity itself; it naturally will not require any technical skill in dance move-
ment."
It is absolutely necessary that every movement of Bon-odori, steps, clapping

of hands, and singing, be uniform; that is, the manifestation of the united
strength of the masses is required. It has been ethnographically interpreted as
a "demonstration to the spirits of the dead," but the ideal perfection of beauty
of the Bon-odori, from the artistic point of view too, lies in the incorporation
of several hundred people into one body." Some say that the dance is the
46 Returning home from one's service for a few days in order to have holidays. The yabuiri has
been reserved, from olden times, as one of the big holidays for apprentices, servants, and other
household employees.
4 Emma, or Yama, is the king of Hades who judges and punishes the departed souls. A pilgrimage
to the Emma images at many temples is even now made on the day of the yabuiri. According to a
Buddhist legend, the coverlid of a gigantic furnace in Hell is removed once a year by Emma, who
is also supposed to pull out the tongues of liars when they are dead and sent to the other world.
The most famous Emma image is kept in a hall of the compound of the TaisOji Temple, Shinjuku,
T6ky6.
" Much has been discussed by many scholars. The following works by Occidentals are listed in the
Minzoku Geijutsu, I, 7, pp. 83-86, and 8, pp. 27-4o: Marcelle A. Hincks, The Japanese Dance (9glo),
pp. 26-27; F. T. Piggott, The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan (1893), p. 23; Ethel L. Urlin,
Dancing, Ancient and Modern (191o), p. 84; Lord Redesdale, The Garter Mission to Japan (19o6),
p. 189; Basil H. Chamberlain, Things Japanese (1922), pp. 112-113; William Ridgeway, The Drama
and Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races (1916), p. 322; Henri L. Joly, "Random Notes on
Dances, Masks and Theatres," The Japan Society, London, XI (The Twenty-second Session, 1912-
1913), pp. 28-29; Julia D. Carrothers, Japan's Year (TOky6, 1905), P. 47; Anna C. Hartshorne, Japan
and Her People (1902), II, 266-267; C. F. Brinkley, Japan and China (t9o2), IV, 74-77; Clive Holland,
Old and New Japan (19o7), pp. 121-122; T. W. Robertson Scott, The Foundations of Japan (1922),
pp. 274-275; Arthur Lloyd, Every Day Japan (19o09), pp. 139-141; Lafcadio Hearn, Japan (19o5),
p. 222; Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpse of Unfamiliar Japan (1894), II, 130-133.
"I Annual Events in Japan (TOky6, 1935?), P. 51.
0o Yfikichi Kodera, "Buy6 toshite no Bon-odori no Kaib6," (Analytical Study of Bon-odori as a
Dance), Minzoku Geijutsu, I, 7, p. 70.
51 Ibid., p. 72.
symbol of the jubilation of the dead i

tion is probably strained. Since Bon
the clapping of hands still remains
hands in prayer." Hand clapping is
musical instrument, and also to be
together with the sound of footste
preted as a "demonstration."
Opinion is divided on the origin of t
impossible to bring it to a conclus
mentioned here, which might solve
the fact that the nembutsu (lit. rec
widely practiced in company with
songs of this nembutsu (it is called
ing the Bon-odori;" hence it is clear
on Bon-odori.
Mention should be made here of the Nembutsu-odori," or "Buddhist prayer

dance," practiced during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. According
52 Shimpen Bukky5 Jiten, p. io6b; Mohan Bukky6 ]iten, p. 7oa.
5 Y. Kodera, "Buy6 toshite no Bon-odori no Kaib6," Minzoku Geijutsu, I, 7, p. 78.
" There are roughly four opinions: (1) It derived its origin from Buddhism; (2) from Shint6
(3) from rural communities; (4) from a song festival. As to the first opinion: B. H. Chamberlai
simply says in his Things Japanese that it had its origin in Buddhism (ibid., pp. 112-113); according
to H6shun Nishihara it originated in the fact that Mokuren danced about, overjoyed at his mother'
deliverance from the hell of hunger (Bukky6 Jibutsu Yurai Densetsu no Kenkyfl, I, 313); and i
the opinion of Tokutar6 Fujita, Kfiya-nemrnbutsu (see n. 63) is considered to be its origin (quoted
"Minkan Bukky6 Shfizoku," Bukky6 Kbkogaku Kdza, II, 34). Fujita's opinion is specially worthy of
our notice, but attention should be paid to the fact that Kfiya himself had nothing to do with th
dance. Of those regarded as the second opinion, see M. A. Hincks, The Japanese Dance, pp. 26-2
W. Ridgeway, The Drama and Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races, p. 322. For the third on
see H. L. Joly, "Random Notes on Dances, Masks and Theatres," The Japan Society, London, XI
28-29; Tar6 Wakamori, Nihon Minzoku-gaku Gaisetsu, p. 2:61; and according to the same sourc
the Bon dance was performed for the purpose of exterminating noxious rice insects. The fourth
opinion is that the Bon dance is the surviving custom of Utagaki (or Kagai). The Utagaki is a pop-
ular song festival held in spring and autumn at sacred places, and is said to be a matrimonial cus-
tom much in vogue in ancient times among the higher classes. This is also a noteworthy opinion,
but it requires further investigation. See "Utagaki," Kokushi Jiten, I, 643a; "Kagai," ibid., II, 4o3a;
Tatsuyuki Takano, Nippon Kayb-shi (History of Japanese Songs and Ballads) (T6ky6, 1926), pp
41,90-96; Totsud6 Kat6, Minkan Shink6-shi (T6ky6, 1925), pp. 335-337; Von Otto Karow, "Utagaki-
Kagahi-Ein Beitrag zur Volkskunde und Religionsgeschichte Altjapans," Monumenta Nipponic
V, 2 (T6ky6, 1942), pp. 1-45.
S5Minzoku Geijutsu, II, 8, p. 66. The Bon-nembutsu is also called furyfi, in modern Japanese
ftlryft. The word furyfi primarily meant "decoration" for festivals. During the Muromachi period
however, furyfi generally meant the dance, even including the Bon dance. See S. Uozumi, "Muro-
machi-jidai no Ffizoku," Nippon Ffizoku-shi Kaza, II, 248-249. Concerning furyfl, see also Minzoku
Geijutsu, II, lo, pp. 30-39.
5 Minzoku Geijutsu, II, 8, pp. 68-72.
57Ibid., I, 8, pp. 17-18; K. Sugiura, "Minkan Bukky6 Shfizoku," Bukkyo Kokogaku K6za,
(T6ky6, 1936), p. 34; P. D. Perkins and Keiichi Fujii, "Nembutsu Odori" (Buddhist Invocation o
Prayer Dance), The Young East, VIII, 4 (T6ky6, 1941), pp. 12-31. It is interesting to notice that the
kabuki, or "classical Japanese theatrical play," derived its origin from the Nembutsu-odori; se
Kokushi Jiten, II (TOkyo, 1940), 633d.
to tradition, Rennyo (1415-1499), the restorer of
in Nembutsu-odori to the people of the northern
Bon Festival." There are different kinds of nembutsu dances, one of which,
known as Rokusai-nembutsu," is still practiced in Ky6to during the period of
the Bon Festival. The originator of this dance is said to have been Taira-
no-Sadamori, a disciple of Kiiya (903-972)," who danced about the streets of
Ky6to every night striking a metallic bowl or gourd while chanting his
prayers." This dance is generally known as Kisya-nembutsu" and is believed
to have greatly influenced later Japanese folk dances."
Hence, it is presumable that Bon-odori originated from Nembutsu-odori,"
and that the clapping of hands, the surviving trace of the hands joined to-
gether in prayer, serves for such a musical instrument as the metallic bowl
used by the performers of Nembutsu-odori. And further, it is said that the
clapping of hands as well as the sound of footsteps is a kind of demonstration
to the spirits of the dead which is believed to have been based on a fear com-
plex. It is well known that the ancient Japanese performed music or dancing
in order to drive away the spirits of the dead in fear of a great deal of danger
from their presence, and that there was a custom that they marched in a
funeral cortege rapidly striking a metallic bowl." Therefore it may be said
that Bon-odori is a kind of demonstrational dance to the spirits of the dead,
the purpose of which is evidently to send them back to their infernal abode.
To summarize: the Bon Festival originated in India; when introduced into
Japan, it lost the original meaning (apparently it had already been lost in
China) that it should be the service day for the salvation of parents, both alive
and dead; to which various elements of other customs have been added.
Generally speaking, the Urabon service, after the introduction of Buddhism
was held to welcome the ancestral spirits and pray for blessings upon them
38 A Buddhist sect founded by Shinran (1173-1262).
" Shfigaku Yamabe, "Nihon Bunka to Bukkyo" (Japanese Culture and Buddhism), Dai-shis
Encyclopaedia, IX (T6ky6, 1928), 129.
0o Totsud6 Kat6, Minkan ShinkO-shi, p. 395; K. Sugiura, "Minkan Bukky6 Shfizoku," Bukky
K6kogaku K6za, II, 32-33.
"' Known as the founder of the Ktiya sect, a branch sect originally derived from the Tendai de-
nomination of Buddhism. Sansom says: "He, who had preached in the streets of Ky6to during a
epidemic in 951, spent most of his life travelling about Japan, teaching the people to invoke the
name of Buddha, so that he was known as the Saint of the Market Place." G. B. Sansom, Japan, A
Short Cultural History (New York, 1943), Pp. 242-243.
62 K. Sugiura, "Minkan BukkyO Shfzoku," Bukky6 K6kogaku K6za, II, 32; Mohan BukkyO Jiten,
pp. 20o6c-207a.
63 Popularly known as Hachi-tataki from the circumstance that the priests of the Kfya branch
strike metallic bowls while chanting their prayers.
1' K. Sugiura, "Minkan Bukky6 Shfizoku," Bukky5 K6kogaku K6za, II, 34.
63 Furthermore, there is an opinion that the Nembutsu-odori was derived from the Hanashizume
no-matsuri which was a ceremony performed for keeping off diseases during the year; see Minzok
Geijutsu, I, 1, pp. 28-29. However, since this does not give any historical evidence, to me thi
opinion is not acceptable.
" K. Sugiura, "Minkan BukkyO Sh zoku," Bukky5 K6kogaku Kdza, II, 23.
and therefore it seems to have devel

ancestor-worship. It is noticeable tha
favors in the present and future by
become the service in which a mass
spirits of the dead. And, in fact, off
therefore it might be possible to say
spirits for an abundant harvest, and
existed before the introduction of Bu
Japan was originally an agricultural c
cultural products were offered to th
follow that the custom had existed before the introduction of Buddhism.
Nevertheless, it is probablyrecognized that the custom was influenced by such
a rural function as a harvest festival, because there was a ceremony for the
repose of rice flowers," and also because even the Bon dance is said by some to
have been performed for the purpose of exterminating noxious rice insects."
The custom of kindling a fire may be considered as the surviving trace of the
sacred fire, which purifies sins, based on the Shint6 idea; but, properly speak-
ing, this custom was influenced by the belief in lantern offerings: a fire is the
"guiding light" for the spirits going to and from the other world. Further, as
to the question of the origin of the Bon dance, it is rather difficult to draw a
conclusion; it may not be going too far to say that the dance was derived from
the so-called Kfiya-nembutsu and was intermixed with the folk dances already
existing at that time. At any rate the Bon dance should be regarded as the
farewell dance for the dead spirits.
In short, the Urabon was the service of guidance to salvation for the sake of
both the dead and the living; especially for the dead, the "welcome fire" was
set to lead their spirits to this world, various offerings were made to let them
have the use of the benevolent influence of donors, and the "farewell fire" was
kindled to guide their return to their world. And probably because of a fear
complex toward the dead spirits, the ancient Japanese sent the spirits back by
dancing the Bon dance as a "demonstration." The Bon Festival, whatever the
explanation of its origin, is for the people indeed a time of pleasure and of
quiet recollection of dear ones gone, and also is a beautiful event symbolizing
continuity with the infinite world beyond.
07 Minzoku Geijutsu, I, 1, p. 28; see also Enkfi Uno, "H6y6 Gybji Gaisetsu" (An Outline of Bud-
dhist Rites), Bukky6 K6kogaku KOza, XV (T6ky6, 1937), 8.
8 Tarb Wakamori, Nihon Minzoku-gaku Gaisetsu, p. 261.

Ashikaga Death Festival Japan

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The Festival for the Spirits of the Dead in Japan

Author(s): Ensho Ashikaga

THE JAPANESE FESTIVAL FOR THE SPIRITS OF THE DEAD, com

matter. In many a waterside commu

self the six supernatural powers,' he wished to

utensils, etc., for both departed pa

seventh moon, in the fourteenth year (606) o

Properly speaking, the Bon serv

parents. In this period the Bon Festival was h

"farewell fire" comes into question: why is

their children; and on the last day, the sixte

It is absolutely necessary that every movement of Bon-odori, steps, clapping

symbol of the jubilation of the dead i

Mention should be made here of the Nembutsu-odori," or "Buddhist prayer

and therefore it seems to have devel

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