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Electronic Instrumentation
Time: 3 hrs. Max. Marks: 100
Note: 1. Answer any FIVE full questions, selecting at least two questions from each part.
PART – A
1. a. Explain with suitable example accuracy and precision. (05 Marks)
Ans: Accuracy refers to the degree of exactness (closeness) or conformity to the true value of quantity under
measurement. Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a group of measurement (repeatability of
measurement).
Accuracy: To illustrate the concept of accuracy, let us consider an example. Suppose that a digital voltmeter
has an accuracy of ±2% and the measured value is 10V. This means that the true value is somewhere
between 10±2%=9.98 V or 10.02 V. To find the true value, or the actual percentage of accuracy, the readings
can be compared with a standard meter.
Precision: Consider a voltmeter that shows consistently for a number of repeated measurements as 9.99V
for a true value of 10.00V. This is close to the true value as the observer can read the scale by estimation.
Although there are no deviations from the observed value, the error created by the limitation of the scale
reading is a precision error. On the other hand, assume that repeated measurements by the voltmeter
produced readings like 9.98V, 9.99V, 10.01, 9.99 etc (not consistent) for a true value of 10V for a number
of measurements. This indicates that the meter readings are not showing precision even though they are
within the prescribed range of accuracy.
The above examples illustrate that conformity is necessary but not a sufficient condition for precision.
Similarly precision is necessary but not a sufficient condition for accuracy.
1. b. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil instrument (PMMC) with Full Scale Deection (FSD) of l00 PA
and coil resistance is 1 K is to be converted into a voltmeter. Determine the required multiplier
resistance if the voltmeter is to be measure 50 V at Mill scale. Also calculate the applied voltage when
the instrument indicates 0.8. 0.5 and 0.2 of FSD. (08 Marks)
Ans: For the given values, following circuit is developed for the required voltmeter, since a PMMC can be
converted in to a voltmeter by connecting a series resistance across it.
From the figure, the voltage across the meter and series resistance,
V = I (Rm + Rs) = Im (Rm + Rs)
Using the given values of Im = 100 PA, Rm = l k, V= 50V in the above equation results,
50 = 100 u 10–6 (1 u 10–3 + RS)
⎛ 50 ⎞
Therefore, Rs = ⎜ − 1 × 10−3
⎝ 100 × 10−6 ⎟⎠
Rs = 499kΩ
Voltmeter
RM
100 PA
V M
RS
The Combined meter resistance is 499+1 = 500 k and Full Scale division (FSD) of PMMC is 100 PA.
Then at 0.8 of FSD,
Applied voltage V = 0.8 u 100 u 10–6 u 500 u 10–3 = 40V.
At 0.5 of FSD, V = 0.5 u100 u10–6 u500 u10–3 = 25V.
At 0.2 of FSD, V = 0.2 u100 u–6 u 500 u10–3 = 10V.
1. c. Explain with neat circuit diagram and wave forms full wave rectier type AC voltmeter. (07 Marks)
Ans: One of the methods of measuring ac voltage is to use rectier types ac voltmeter that use a permanent
magnet moving coil (PMMC) movement along with a recties circuit. Fig. 1(a) shows the circuit of a
fullwave rectier type ac voltmeter, which consists of a multiplier, a bridge rectier, and amplier and a
PMMC movement.
R1 R2
RS
Multiplier
ac A
input
PMMC
R
Iac
0 t
Idc
Irms
Iac
0 t
High ac
ac A/D
attenuator Interface
bc convertor
ohms
Input converter Precision
Shunt reference
Low
Fig: 2(a) Basic block diagram of a DMM
The DMM can be a bench top, which is used mainly for stand alone operation and usual operation ready, or
it may be a system meter that provide a BCD output or some time micro processor based computing power,
depend upon the customer requirement.
2. b. Suppose the converter can measure a maximum of 5 V. i.e. 5 V corresponds to the maximum count
of 111111111, if the test voltage is Vin = 1 V. Show the steps take place in the table format in the
measurement for the successive approximation type Digital Volt Meter (DVM). (06 Marks)
Ans: Table below shows the steps take place in the measurement of voltage using the successive approximation
type digital voltmeter, considering a test voltage of 1V and the maximum count of 11111111 indicated 5V.
2. c. Explain with neat block diagram. Digital Frequency Meter. (07 Marks)
Ans: To measure the frequency of signal, which is unknown, the signal is converted into a train of pulses such
that one pulse represents each cycle of the signal. Then an electronic counter is used to count the number
of pulses occurring in a denite time interval. The number of count is the direct indication of the frequency
since each pulse represents a cycle.
Fig. 2(c) illustrates typical basic block diagram of a digital frequency meter.
Unknown Digital
Schmitt Start/stop
frequency Amplier Read out
trigger gate
signal 0000
The signal with the unknown frequency is applied to an amplifier. The amplifier output then fed to a schmitt
trigger circuit to convert the signal in to square wave form with fast and fall times, which is then passed
through a differentiation and clipping circuit so as to make the wave form into a train of pulses such that
each pulse represents one cycle of the signal. These pulses are fed to a start/stop gate with another input of
the gate being enable input. When enable input is made high (ON) the input pulses are passed through the
gate and are fed to the electronic counter. When the enable input is low (OFF) the counter stops counting
the pulses. The number of pules passed through the gate is displayed in the counter, in the time interval
between start and stop. If the enable input is a clock pulse of ON – time equals 1 seconds, then the counter
indicates the unknown frequency.
3. a. Explain sweep or time base generator with neat circuit diagram and wave forms, for a continuous
sweep CRO and triggered sweep CRO. (02 Marks)
Ans: Sweep or time base generator is a part of horizontal deecting circuit of a CRO. There are two kinds of
sweep generators; continuous sweep and triggered sweep, depend upon the application.
i) Continuous sweep CRO: Time base generator for a continuous sweep CRO, using a UJT and the
corresponding wave forms are shown Fig.3(a).
+VBB
Ts Sweep time
R2 Tr Retrace time
Synch RT V
pulse
input B2 VBB
VP
B1 E
CT Vo
R1
VV
t
TS Tr
Circuit diagram Wave form in output
VD
CT R4 Vo Output
R1
t
Tr Ts Th
Resistances R3 and R4 form a Voltage divider so as to make the voltage Vd at the cathode of the diode below
peak voltage VP such that UJT dosen't conduct in the normal condition. At the time of switching ON the
circuit, UTT is OFF and CT charges exponentially through RT towards VBB until the diode becomes forward
biased and conducts. Because of the action of diode, the capacitor voltage can not reach the peak voltage
required for UJT to conduct but is clamped at VD. However, a negative pulse of sufficient amplitude is fed
to the base – 2 of the UJT and the peak voltage is lowered for a moment, the UJT fires and this makes the
capacitor discharges rapidly through the UJT until the maintaining voltage of the UJT is reached. Once it
reaches this voltage, the UJT switches OFF and the CT charges towards VBB till it clamped at VD and the
cycle repeats.
3. b. Explain dual trace–oscilloscope with neat block diagram. (08 Marks)
Ans: A dual trace oscilloscope is one which has only one cathode ray gun but display two input wave forms
simultaneously using an electronic switch that switches the signals to a single vertical amplier. Block
diagram of dual trace oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3(c).
Electronic switch
Position
To vertical
deection
plate
Position Vertical
amplier
Pre–amplier and
Input B
Attenuator
From Q
Trigger C
circuit Toggle Flip – op
D Q
on the screen. However, we can not observe various portions of the applied wave form with this – single sweep.
To observe each and every part of a given wave form in minute details, a delayed time base can be used. That is, to
analyze a given waveform, we must apply the time base at the appropriate point on the waveform to be observed.
Delayed sweep is a technique that adds a precise amount of time between the trigger point and the beginning
of the scope sweep. In the sweep mode, the start of the horizontal sweep can be delayed typically from a
few micro seconds to several seconds. This delayed sweep operation allows the user to view clearly a small
segment of the wave form by magnifying it. By this technique the versatality of the instrument is increased
so that better measurement of waveform jitter, rise time, pulse modulation are possible.
4. b. Explain basic principle of sampling oscilloscope with neat diagram and wave forms. (06 Marks)
Ans: In an ordinary CRO, when we try to measure high frequency, the image brilliance reduces. It is because,
when the frequency of the vertical deection signal increases, the writing speed of electron beam increases.
In order to obtain sufcient image brilliance and to maintain normal image brightness the electron beam
must be accelerated to a higher velocity so that more kinetic energy is available for transfer of electron
to the screen. The higher electron beem velocity can be easily achieved by raising the accelerating anode
voltage.
A high velocity beam also requires a greater deflection potential to maintain the deflection sensitivity.
All these leads to higher demands on the vertical amplifier.
To make the matter simple, a sampling oscilloscope uses a different approach altogether to improve the high
frequency performance. In the sampling scope, the input waveform is reconstructed from many samples
taken during recurrent cycles of the input wave form and thus over come the frequency limitations of
conventional CRT. This sampling technique is illustrated in Fig 4(a). From the figure, it can be seen that
the high frequency input being sampled by a train of sampling pulses. The principle involves in taking
one sample each from each recurrent full cycle of the applied wave at a slightly later delayed position.
As illustrated in the figure, sample 1 is taken form the first cycle, sample 2 from cycle 2, sample 3 from
cycle 3 and so on but from a slightly advanced position or from different points on the applied wave, when
regrouped these points will form a single wave, which is the replica of the applied wave form as shown in
the figure 4(a).
Reconstructed output wave
Higher frequency input wave
3 1
5
2 6
7
Sampling points
Triggering pulse
V
V
Sampling pulses Sampling pulses
Fig: 4(a) Sampling of high – frequency signal into a low – frequency signal
A simplified block diagram of the sampling circuitry used in the sampling scope is shown in Fig. 4(b).
The input wave form to be observed is applied to the sampling gate. Sampling pulses momentarily bias the
diodes of the balanced sampling gate in the forward directions briefly connecting the gate input capacitance
to the test point. These capacitances are slightly charged towards the voltage level of the input circuit.
Attenuator
Flood gun
electrons Glass face
Collimator plate
Write gun
Write beam
Flood
guns Collimator Phosphor Metal
storage layer lm
storage layer and creates a positive change path in the shape of the input wave form. The low energy flood
gun electrons are repelled from all parts of storage layer except from the positively charged path created
by the write beam. Now the flood gun electrons pass through the charged path and produce a trace on the
screen. The secondary emitted electrons and the flood gun electrons that do not pass through the storage
layer are attracted back to the collector mesh since it is kept at highly positive potential. Even though it is
low persistence phosphor screen, the flood gun electrons passing through the positively charged trace on
the storage layer continue to maintain a display on the screen for a very long time.
Phosphor
Metal layer
Flood lm
Collimator
guns Glass face
plate
Write gun
Write beam
PART – B
5. a. Explain with neat block diagram, operating principle of function generator. (08 Marks)
Ans: A function generator is used to generate a variety of wave form functions, whole frequencies are adjustable
over a wide range. The most common output wave forms are sine, triangular and square wave forms.
Fig. 5(a) shows a typical block diagram of a function generator. The basic wave form produced in a function
generator is a triangular wave and the sine and square waves are derived out of this triangular wave form.
I
Frequency
– control Integrator Triangular
circuit I
The generation of basic signal is done by two constant sources driving an integrator. The upper current
source is used to charge the integrator capacitor at a uniform rate, which produces a positive going ramp
according to the relation. V = –C³idt. The capacitor after reaching the final value will discharge through the
lower constant current source that results into a negative going ramp. The two actions; the charging and
discharging of the capacitor will produce a triangular wave as shown in Fig. 5(b).
V
+V
b t
+V
c
t
Original
–V wave
Shaped sine
wave
Am
modulator
AM
AF RF Output
Amplier Attenuator
oscillator oscillator FM
FM
modulator Fig: 5. c Standard signal generator
Figure 5.c shows the block diagram of a standard signal generator, which some times is called the standard
AM/FM signal generator. It consists of an RF generator, an AF generator, an amplitude modulator, a
frequency modulator, an amplifier and an attenuator.
The radio–frequency (RF) oscillator is used to produce sine waves in the range of 1 MHz to 100 MHz.
Usually, an RF oscillator of the Hartley or Colpitt's type is used to produce the desired radio–frequency
sine waves. The output frequency of the oscillator can be varied by varying the tank–circuit inductance
using ferrite tuning.
The audio–frequency (AF) oscillator is of the Wien – bridge type and is used to produce sine waves in the
range of 10 Hz to 100 kHz. The amplitude– and frequency– modulator circuits are, respectively, used to
amplitude and frequency modulate the RF signal with AF signal. These modulations are taken out through
a band switch S to an amplifier – attenuator combination circuit.
The amplifier – attenuator combination circuit is used to control the amplitude of the output signal. Some times,
a test–signal terminal of 1 –volt, 1000–Hz sine wave is also incorporated on the equipment's panel board.
Standard AM/FM signal generator is used to test and measure the performances of radio circuits. They arc
used as laboratory standards for testing and repairing RF transmission systems. They also help in tuning
radio receivers for optimum performance in factories and repair shops. In military and police signaling
schemes, standard, AM/FM signal generator is one of the highly essential test equipment.
5. c. Explain with neat block diagram and waveforms, frequency synthesizer in signal generators.
(06 Marks)
Ans: Figure 5.d shows a frequency multiplier using a PLL (phase–locked loop). It consists of a PLL with a
divide–by–N counter connected in its feedback path. Let the input frequency be fi and the fedback
input f0. These two are compared in the phase detector, which produces an output voltage that is proportional
to the phase difference between fi and f0. The low pass filter removes the AC content in the voltage and
produces an almost pure DC voltage which drives a voltage–controlled oscillator (VCO). The VCO in turn
produces a frequency that is proportional to the input DC voltage. Thus we find that the output frequency
is proportional to the phase difference between fi and f0.
fi Phase Low – pass
VCO Nf0
detector lter
f0
Divided by N
Nf0
Crystal Frequency Phase Low – pass
VCO
Osc counter detector lter
fi f0
Divided by N
R1 R2 R1 R2
V G V
a b
R3 R4 R3 R4
Step 3: The voltage between a and b is the difference between Va and Vb, which is the Thevenin's equivalent
voltage.
VR3 VR4 ⎡ R3 R4 ⎤
i.e., Vth = Vab = Va − Vb = − ∴Vab = V ⎢ − ⎥
R1 × R3 R2 + R4 ⎣ R1 + R3 R2 + R4 ⎦
Step 4: To find thevenin's equivalent resistance, find the resistance looking into the terminals a and b by
short circuiting the voltages source V. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 6(c).
Rth
R1 R2 a
Vth G
a b
R3 R4
b
Fig. 6(c) Thevenin's resistance Fig. 6(d) Thevenin's equivalent
R1R3 R2R4
i.e. Rth = R +R + R +R
1 3 2 4
The Thevenin's equivalent circuit for the bridge looking to the terminals a and b is shown in Fig. 6(d).
If the galvanometer is connected across the terminals a and b and consider the galvanometer resistance is
Rg, then the deflection current in the galvanometer is given by
Vth
Ig =
Rth + Rg
6. b. An unbalanced wheat stones bridge is shown in Fig. Q6(b). Calculate current in the galvanometer.
(05 Marks)
1.5k: 3k:
R1
RG=250: R2
10V G
R3 R4
5k: 14k:
Ans: Given R1 = 1.5 k, R2 = 3k, R3 = 5k, R4 = 14k, Rg = 250 and V = 10V
The Thevenin's equivalent voltage between the galvanometer terminals is the difference of voltage at these
points.
⎛ R4 R3 ⎞
i.e., Vth = V ⎜ −
⎝ R + R4 R1 + R3 ⎟⎠
⎡ 14k 5k ⎤
= 10 ⎢ −
⎣ 3k + 14k 1.5k + 5k ⎥⎦
= 0.5423V
The Thevenin's equivalent resistance is
Rth = 3.624 k
RR RR
Rth = 1 3 + 2 4
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
Eth
1.5k × 5k 3k × 14k Rg = 250 G
= + 0.5423v
1.5k + 5k 3k + 14k
= 3.624kΩ
The equivalent circuit connected along with the galvanometer is shown in figure. The current through the
galvanometer is given by
Vth 0.5423
Ig = = = 140μA
Rth + R g 3.624k + 0.25k
6. c. Derive an expression for Lx and Rx which is a series impedance in the Maxwell's bridge. And nd
series equivalent unknown impedance, when C1 = 0.01 Pf, R1 = 470 K, R2 = 5.1 K, R3 = 100K.
(10Marks)
Ans: i) Fig. shows a Maxwell's bridge that is used to measure unknown value of impedance interms of known
C1 R2
R1
Detector
Lx
R3
Rx
Fig : Maxwell's bridge
Z 2 Z3
i.e., Z x = = Z 2 Z 3Y1 .............(1)
Z1
Where Z1 = R1 in parallel with C,
1 1
i.e., Y1 = =
Z1 R1 + jωC ,
Z 2 = R2 , Z 3 = R3
Rx = 1.085k Lx = 5.1H
a b
7. a. List at least ve advantages of electrical transducer. (05 Marks)
R1
Vt
R2
wiper
Vo=?
B
Fig. Q7(b)
Ans: Given size of shaft stroke = 3 inches
Position of wiper = 0.9 inch
Total refinance of Pot = 5k
Applied voltage Vt = 5V
Referring the figure and given data
0.9 in
R2 = × 5k
3.0 in
= 1.5Ω
Vo R2 A
∴ =
Vt R1 + R2
R2 R1
i.e. Vo = × Vt w
R1 + R2 Vt
R2
1.5k Vo
= × 5V = 1.5V
5k
Vo = 1.5V B B
w – wiper position
7. c. Dene Gauge factor. Derive expression for gauge factor of bounded resistance wire strain gauge.
(10 Marks).
Ans: Strain gauges works under the property called Piezo resistive. When a strain gauge undergoes tension or
compression, the length of the material changes, which results in the change of resistance of the material.
Gauge factor is a characteristic of a strain gauge, which is dened as the unit change in resistance per
Direction of
A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire resulting in increase its
strain
length and decrease its cross – sectional area. The combined effect
will be increase in resistance that can be observed by the following
equation.
ρl Leads
R=
A
where Fig. Bonded resistance wire strain gauge
R = The resistance of the gauge material
U = Specific resistance of the material in – m
l = length of the conductor (material)
A = Area of cross section of the conductor wire
From the definition, the gauge factor can be deduced as
ΔR / R
K= ..........(1)
Δl / l
⎛ Δl ⎞
The ratio of change in length to original length ⎜ ⎟ is called as strain and denoted as V. Therefore we can
⎝ l ⎠
rewrite equation (1) as
ΔR / R
K= ..........(2)
σ
Here V indicates strain in the lateral direction. We know that the resistance of a conductor with uniform
cross section is
l
R=ρ
A
l l
=ρ =ρ
πd / 4 2
π
d2 ..........(3)
4
Where d is the diameter of the conductor
When the conductor undergoes stress, due to the strain, the length of the conductor increase by l but
simultaneously decrease the diameter by d. Hence the resistance of the conductor after undergoes the
strain can be written as
l + Δl l (l + Δl )
RS = l =
π π 2
(d − Δd )2 [d − 2d Δd + Δd 2 ]
4 4
RS =
l (l + Δl )
=
(
ρl 1 + Δl l )
π 2 ⎛ 2Δd ⎞ π 2 ⎡ 2Δd ⎤
d ⎜1 − ⎟ d 1−
4 ⎝ d ⎠ 4 ⎢⎣ d ⎥⎦
Now, the ratio of strain in the lateral direction to the strain in the axial direction is nothing but Poisson's
Δd / d
i.e. μ = ..........(5)
Δl / l
Δd μΔl
∴ = ..........(6)
d l
Δd
Substituting the value of in equation (4), we get
d
Rs =
(
ρl 1 + Δl l )
π 2 ⎡ 2μΔl ⎤
d 1−
4 ⎢⎣ l ⎥⎦
Rationalizing,
⎛ Δl ⎞ ⎛ Δl ⎞
ρl ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜⎝1 + 2μ ⎟⎠
⎝ l ⎠ l
RS =
π 2 ⎛ 2μΔl ⎞ ⎛ Δl ⎞
d ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜⎝1 + 2μ ⎟⎠
4 ⎝ l ⎠ l
⎡ 2μΔl 2Δl 2μΔl 2 ⎤
1+ + + 2
ρl ⎢ l l l ⎥
∴ RS = ⎢ ⎥
π 2⎢ Δl 2
⎥
d 1 − 4μ 2 2
4 ⎣⎢ l ⎦⎥
Neglecting higher powers of l, we have
ρl ⎡ 2μΔl Δl ⎤
RS = ⎢⎣1 + l + l ⎥⎦
π 2
d
4
ρl ⎡ Δl ⎤
=
π 2 ⎢⎣1 + l (1 + 2μ )⎥⎦
d
4
ρl ρl Δl
RS =
π 2
+
π 2 l
(1 + 2μ )
d d
4 4
ρl
From equation (3), substituting R = , the above equation becomes
π d 2
4
Rs = R + ΔR
ρl Δl
where ΔR + (1 + 2μ )
π d 2
l
4
8. a. Explain Photo transistor. With neat diagram and output characteristics. How is it used as a
transducer? (05 Marks)
Ans: Photo – transistor is a semi conductor device, in which the collector current can be controlled by subjecting
base area to illumination. It should be noted that the photo – transistor has base connection like a BJT. The
optically generated Electron-Hole pairs (EHPs) is the base ow through the base-emitter junction to produce the
base current that results in the ow of the collector current Ic. Basic construction of a photo-transistor is shown
in Fig. 8(a). Illumination of the central region (base) causes the release of EHPs. This lowers the barrier potential
across both the junctions, causing the ow of electrons from emitter region to the collector region through base
region. Fig. 8(b) shows a set of output characteristics for different level of illumination.
Illumination
IC(mA)
8 400 w/m2
300 w/m2
6
200 w/m2
4
100 w/m2
E B C 2
VCE (V)
Symbol 0 5 10 15 20 25
(a) Construction (b) Output characteristic
Fig. 8 Photo transistor
Photo transistor can be used as a transducer in the operation of a relay circuit. A simple relay circuit is
shown below. The light incident on the photo transistor causes its current to increase, which results into
increase in the voltage drop across the resistor R that inturn increase input to the transistor, which drives
the relay.
VCC
Relay
R
coil
R1 R1
R
low RF
V
supply
E
dc Bias
R1
1
since the power delivered to the bolometer element is of the power fed to the bridge.
4
In a transmission system, where coaxial cable or wave guide is used, the bolometer should provide the
necessary impedance matching. This is done by using of a tapered section as shown in Fig.