AEE - Automotive Electrical and Electronics

st
1
Edition
Automotive Electrical and Electronics
Mr.A.PRABHAKARAN M.E.,
Assistant Professor,
Automobile Engineering,
Kumaraguru College of technology.
TPEP Publication
© 2017 By KCT
Automotive Electrical And Electronics
Subject Code : U15AUT503

Subject Name : AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
TYPES OF BATTERIES Page No: 3

Batteries – types, construction and working principle of Lead Acid Battery, Nickel – Cadmium
Battery, Nickel Metal Hydride Battery, Sodium Sulphur Battery and Aluminum air Battery,
lithium ion batteries, Characteristics of batteries, battery rating, capacity and efficiency, Various
Tests on battery, battery – charging techniques, maintenance of batteries.
STARTING AND CHARGING SYSTEM Page No: 24
Requirements of Starter Motor, Starter Motor types, construction and characteristics, Starter
drive mechanisms, Starter Switches and Solenoids, Charging system components, Generators
and Alternators- construction and Characteristics, Voltage and Current Regulation, Cut –out
relays and regulators, charging circuits
IGNITION SYSTEM
Components and working of Battery Coil and Magneto–Ignition System, Centrifugal and
Vacuum Advance Mechanisms, Spark Plugs –construction, working and types, Electronic
Ignition System, Distributor–less Ignition System, Digital Ignition System
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
Introduction, electronic fuel carburetion, fuel injection- types and system overview, components
of fuel injection system, diesel fuel injection – introduction of diesel fuel injection, diesel
exhaust emissions, electronic control of diesel injection
WIRING, LIGHTING AND OTHER INSTRUMENTS
Automotive electrical wiring, terminals and switching, multiplexed wiring system,
electromagnetic compatibility(EMC), Lighting system – basic lighting system, Head Lamp and
Indicator Lamps, Anti–Dazzling and Dipper system
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TYPES OF BATTERIES
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BATTERY:
Batteries are a collection of one or more cells whose chemical reactions create a flow
of electrons in a circuit. All batteries are made up of three basic components: an anode (the ‗-
‘ side), a cathode (the ‗+‘ side), and some kind of electrolyte (a substance that chemically
reacts with the anode and cathode).
When the anode and cathode of a battery is connected to a circuit, a chemical reaction takes
place between the anode and the electrolyte. This reaction causes electrons to flow through
the circuit and back into the cathode where another chemical reaction takes place. When the
material in the cathode or anode is consumed or no longer able to be used in the reaction, the
battery is unable to produce electricity. At that point, your battery is ―dead.‖
CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERIES:
There are two main categories of batteries:
Primary Batteries:
Sometimes also called single-use, or ―throw-away‖ batteries because they have to be
discarded after they run empty as they cannot be recharged for reuse. Primary batteries can
produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are intended to be used once
and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current
drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source,
such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently
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available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions
are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers recommend against attempting recharging primary cells.
Primary Batteries include-

a) Carbon Zinc (aka. ‘Heavy Duty’) -- The lowest cost primary cell (household) is the zinc-
acidic manganese dioxide battery. They provide only very low power, but have a good shelf
life and are well suited for clocks and remote controls.
b) Alkaline -- The most commonly used primary cell (household) is the zinc-alkaline
manganese dioxide battery. They provide more power-per-use than Carbon-zinc and
secondary batteries and have an excellent shelf life.
c) Lithium Cells -- Lithium batteries offer performance advantages well beyond the
capabilities of conventional aqueous electrolyte battery systems. Their shelf-life can be well
above 10-years and they will work at very low temperatures. Lithium batteries are mainly
used in small formats (coins cells up to about AA size) because bigger sizes of lithium
batteries are a safety concern in consumer applications. Bigger (i.e. ‗D‘) sizes are only used
in military applications.
d) Silver Oxide Cells – These batteries have a very high energy density, but are very
expensive due to the high cost of silver. Therefore, silver oxide cells are mainly used in
button cell format for watches and calculators.
e) Zinc Air Cells – These batteries have become the standard for hearing aid batteries. They
have a very long run time, because they store only the anode material inside the cell and use
the oxygen from the ambient air as cathode.
Secondary Batteries:
Mostly called rechargeable batteries because they can be recharged for reuse. They
are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries
or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called
chargers or rechargers.
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Secondary batteries include:
a) Rechargeable Alkaline - Secondary alkaline batteries, the lowest cost rechargeable cells,
have a long shelf life and are useful for moderate-power applications. Their cycle life is less
than most other secondary batteries, but they are a great consumer‘s choice as they combine
the benefits of the popular alkaline cells with the added benefit of re-use after recharging.
They have no toxic ingredients and can be disposed in regular landfills (local regulations
permitting).
b) Nickel-Cadmium - Secondary Ni-Cd batteries are rugged and reliable. They exhibit a
highpower capability, a wide operating temperature range, and a long cycle life, but have a
low run time per charge. They have a self-discharge rate of approximately 30% per month.
They contain about 15% toxic, carcinogenic cadmium and have to be recycled.
c) Nickel-Metal Hydride - Secondary NiMH batteries are an extension of the old fashioned
NiCd batteries. NiMH batteries provide the same voltage as NiCd batteries, but offer at least
30% more capacity. They exhibit good high current capability, and have a long cycle life.
The selfdischarge rate is higher than NiCd at approximately 40% per month. NiMH cells
contain no toxic cadmium, but they still contain a large amount of nickel oxides and also
some cobalt, which are known human carcinogens and should be recycled.
d) Lithium Ion - Secondary Li-Ion batteries are the latest breakthrough in rechargeable
batteries. They are at least 30% lighter in weight than NiMH batteries and provide at least
30% more capacity. They exhibit good high current capability, and have a long cycle life.
The selfdischarge rate is better than NiMH at approximately 20% per month. Overheating
will damage the batteries and could cause a fire. Li-Ion cells contain no toxic cadmium, but
they still contain either cobalt oxides or nickel oxides, which are known human carcinogens
and should be recycled.
e) Lead-Acid -- Secondary lead-acid batteries are the most popular rechargeable batteries
worldwide. Both the battery product and the manufacturing process are proven, economical,
and reliable. However, because they are heavy, Lead-Acid batteries are not being used in
portable, consumer applications. Lead is a toxic, carcinogenic compound and should not enter
the regular waste stream. Recycling of Lead-Acid batteries is the environmental success story
of our time, approx. 93% of all battery lead is being recycled today in reused in the
production of new Lead-Acid batteries.
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LEAD ACID BATTERY
Definition: The battery which uses sponge lead and lead peroxide for the conversion of the
chemical energy into electrical power, such type of battery is called a lead acid battery. The
lead acid battery is most commonly used in the power stations and substations because it has
higher cell voltage and lower cost.
Construction of Lead Acid Battery
The various parts of the lead acid battery are shown below. The container and the plates are
the main part of the lead acid battery. The container stores chemical energy which is
converted into electrical energy by the help of the plates.
1. Container – The container of the lead acid battery is made of glass, lead lined wood,
ebonite, the hard rubber of bituminous compound, ceramic materials or moulded plastics and
are seated at the top to avoid the discharge of electrolyte. At the bottom of the container,
there are four ribs, on two of them rest the positive plate and the others support the negative
plates.
The prism serves as the support for the plates and at the same time protect them from a short-
circuit.The material of which the battery containers are made should be resistant to sulfuric
acid, should not deform or porous, or contain impurities which damage the electrolyte.
2. Plate – The plate of the lead-acid cell is of diverse design and they all consist some form
of a grid which is made up of lead and the active material. The grid is essential for
conducting the electric current and for distributing the current equally on the active material.
If the current is not uniformly distributed, then the active material will loosen and fall out.
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The grids are made up of an alloy of lead and antimony. These are usually made with the
transverse rib that crosses the places at a right angle or diagonally. The grid for the positive
and negative plates are of the same design, but the grids for the negative plates are made
lighter because they are not as essential for the uniform conduction of the current.
The plates of the battery are of two types. They are the formed plates or plante plates and
pasted or faure plates.
Plante‘s plates are used largely for stationary batteries as these are heavier in weight and
more costly than the pasted plates. But the plates are more durable and less liable to lose
active material by rapid charging and discharging. The plantes plate has low capacity weight-
ratio.
Faure process is much suitable for manufacturing of negative plates rather than positive
plates. The negative active material is quite tough, and it undergoes a comparatively low
change from charging and discharging.
3. Active Material – The material in a cell which takes active participation in a chemical
reaction (absorption or evolution of electrical energy) during charging or discharging is called
the active material of the cell. The active elements of the lead acid are
1. Anode: Porous lead

2. Cathode: Lead-dioxide
3. Electrolyte: Sulfuric acid, 6 molar H2SO4
4. Discharging
(+) electrode: PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e- → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
(-) electrode: Pb(s) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e-
5. During charging
(+) electrode: PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e-
(-) electrode: PbSO4(s) + 2e- → Pb(s) + SO42-(aq)
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The lead peroxide and sponge lead, which form the negative and positive active materials
have the little mechanical strength and therefore can be used alone.
4. Separators – The separators are thin sheets of non-conducting material made up of

chemically treated leadwood, porous rubbers, or mats of glass fibre and are placed between
the positive and negative to insulate them from each other. Separators are grooved vertically
on one side and are smooth on the other side.
5. Battery Terminals – A battery has two terminals the positive and the negative. The
positive terminal with a diameter of 17.5 mm at the top is slightly larger than the negative
terminal which is 16 mm in diameter.
Working Principle of Lead Acid Battery
When the sulfuric acid dissolves, its molecules break up into positive hydrogen ions (2H+)
and sulphate negative ions (SO4—) and move freely. If the two electrodes are immersed in
solutions and connected to DC supply then the hydrogen ions being positively charged and
moved towards the electrodes and connected to the negative terminal of the supply. The
SO4— ions being negatively charged moved towards the electrodes connected to the positive
terminal of the supply main (i.e., anode).
Each hydrogen ion takes one electron from the cathode, and each sulphates ions takes the two
negative ions from the anodes and react with water and form sulfuric and hydrogen acid.
The oxygen, which produced from the above equation react with lead oxide and form lead
peroxide (PbO2.) Thus, during charging the lead cathode remain as lead, but lead anode gets
converted into lead peroxide, chocolate in colour.
If the DC source of supply is disconnected and if the voltmeter connects between the
electrodes, it will show the potential difference between them. If wire connects the electrodes,
then current will flow from the positive plate to the negative plate through external circuit i.e.
the cell is capable of supplying electrical energy.
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Chemical Action During Discharging
When the cell is full discharge, then the anode is of lead peroxide (PbO2) and a cathode is of
metallic sponge lead (Pb). When the electrodes are connected through a resistance, the cell
discharge and electrons flow in a direction opposite to that during charging.
The hydrogen ions move to the anode and reaching the anodes receive one electron from the
anode and become hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom comes in contacts with a PbO 2, so it
attacks and forms lead sulphate (PbSO4), whitish in colour and water according to the
chemical equation.
The each sulphate ion (SO4—) moves towards the cathode and reaching there gives up two
electrons becomes radical SO4, attack the metallic lead cathode and form lead sulphate
whitish in colour according to the chemical equation.
Chemical Action during Recharging
For recharging, the anode and cathode are connected to the positive and the negative terminal
of the DC supply mains. The molecules of the sulfuric acid break up into ions of 2H+ and
SO4—. The hydrogen ions being positively charged moved towards the cathodes and receive
two electrons from there and form a hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom reacts with lead
sulphate cathode forming lead and sulfuric acid according to the chemical equation.
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SO4— ion moves to the anode, gives up its two additional electrons becomes radical SO4,
react with the lead sulphate anode and form leads peroxide and lead sulphuric acid according
to the chemical equation.
The charging and discharging are represented by a single reversible equation given below.
The equation should read downward for discharge and upward for recharge.
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NICKEL CADMIUM (NICD) BATTERY:
The Nickel Cadmium batteries have the advantage of being recharged many times and
possess a relatively constant potential during discharge and have more electrical and physical
withstanding capacity. This battery uses nickel oxide for cathode, a cadmium compound for
anode and potassium hydroxide solution as its electrolyte.
Electrochemistry
• Anode: Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)2
• Cathode: Nickel hydroxide, Ni(OH)2
• Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide, KOH
• The half-reactions are:
Cd+2OH- → Cd(OH)2+2e-
2NiO(OH)+Cd+2e- →2Ni(OH)2+2OH-
• Overall reaction:
2NiO(OH) + Cd+2H2O→2Ni(OH)2+Cd(OH)2
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ALUMINIUM–AIR BATTERY
Aluminium–air batteries or Al–air batteries produce electricity from the reaction of

oxygen in the air with aluminium. They have one of the highest energy densities of all
batteries, but they are not widely used because of problems with high anode cost and
byproduct removal when using traditional electrolytes and this has restricted their use to
mainly military applications. However, an electric vehicle with aluminium batteries has the
potential for up to eight times the range of a lithium-ion battery with a significantly lower
total weight.
Aluminium–air batteries are primary cells; i.e., non-rechargeable. Once the aluminium anode
is consumed by its reaction with atmospheric oxygen at a cathode immersed in a water-based
electrolyte to form hydrated aluminium oxide, the battery will no longer produce electricity.
However, it is possible to mechanically recharge the battery with new aluminium anodes
made from recycling the hydrated aluminium oxide. Such recycling would be essential if
aluminium–air batteries are to be widely adopted.
Electrochemistry
The anode oxidation half-reaction is
The cathode reduction half-reaction is
The total reaction is
About 1.2 volts potential difference is created by these reactions, and is achievable in practice
when potassium hydroxide is used as the electrolyte. Saltwater electrolyte achieves
approximately 0.7 volts per cell.
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NICKEL–METAL HYDRIDE BATTERY
A nickel–metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH or Ni–MH, is a type of

rechargeable battery. Its chemical reactions are somewhat similar to the largely obsolete
nickel–cadmium cell (NiCd). NiMH use positive electrodes of nickel oxyhydroxide
(NiOOH), like the NiCd, but the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead
of cadmium, being in essence a practical application of nickel–hydrogen battery chemistry. A
NiMH battery can have two to three times the capacity of an equivalent size NiCd, and their
energy density approaches that of a lithium-ion cell.
The typical specific energy for small NiMH cells is about 100 W·h/kg, and for larger NiMH
cells about 75 W·h/kg (270 kJ/kg). This is significantly better than the typical 40–60 W·h/kg
for NiCd, and similar to the 100–160 W·h/kg for lithium-ion batteries. NiMH has a
volumetric energy density of about 300 W·h/L (1,080 MJ/m3), significantly better than NiCd
at 50–150 W·h/L, and about the same as lithium-ion at 250–360 W·h/L.
NiMH batteries have replaced NiCd for many roles, notably small rechargeable batteries.
NiMH batteries are very common for AA (penlight-size) batteries, which have nominal
charge capacities (C) of 1.1–2.8 A·h at 1.2 V, measured at the rate that discharges the cell in
five hours. Useful discharge capacity is a decreasing function of the discharge rate, but up to
a rate of around 1×C (full discharge in one hour), it does not differ significantly from the
nominal capacity. NiMH batteries normally operate at 1.2 V per cell, somewhat lower than
conventional 1.5 V cells, but will operate most devices designed for that voltage.
Electrochemistry
The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is:
The charge reaction is read left-to-right and the discharge reaction is read right-to-left.
On the positive electrode, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH), is formed:
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The "metal" M in the negative electrode of a NiMH cell is actually an intermetallic

compound. Many different compounds have been developed for this application, but those in
current use fall into two classes. The most common is AB5, where A is a rare earth mixture
of lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium and B is nickel, cobalt, manganese, and/or
aluminium. Very few cells use higher-capacity negative electrode materials based on AB2
compounds, where A is titanium and/or vanadium and B is zirconium or nickel, modified
with chromium, cobalt, iron, and/or manganese, due to the reduced life performances. Any of
these compounds serve the same role, reversibly forming a mixture of metal hydride
compounds.
When overcharged at low rates, oxygen produced at the positive electrode passes through the
separator and recombines at the surface of the negative. Hydrogen evolution is suppressed
and the charging energy is converted to heat. This process allows NiMH cells to remain
sealed in normal operation and to be maintenance-free.
NiMH cells have an alkaline electrolyte, usually potassium hydroxide. For separation
hydrophilic polyolefin nonwovens are used.
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LITHIUM-ION BATTERY:
A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (abbreviated as LIB) is a type of

rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive
electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated
lithium compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in a non-
rechargeable lithium battery. The electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two
electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell.
• Anode: Graphite
• Cathode: Lithium manganese dioxide
• Electrolyte: mixture of lithium salts
• Lithium ion battery half cell reactions
CoO2 + Li+ + e- ↔ LiCoO2 Eº = 1V
Li+ + C6+ e- ↔ LiC6 Eº ~ -3V
• Overall reaction during discharge
CoO2 + LiC6 ↔ LiCoO2 + C6
Eoc = E+ - E- = 1 - (-3.01) = 4V
• Ideal material
– Low density, lithium is light
– High reduction potential
– Largest energy density for weight
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• Li-based cells are most compact ways of storing electrical energy
• Lower in energy density than lithium metal, lithium-ion is safe
• Energy density is twice of the standard nickel-cadmium
• No memory and no scheduled cycling is required to prolong battery life
CHARACTERISTICS OF BATTERY
Internal Resistance
• Temperature and state of charge affect the internal resistance of a battery.

• The internal resistance can also be used as an indicator of battery condition –the
lower the figure, the better the condition.
Efficiency
• The efficiency of a battery can be calculated in two ways, either as the ampere-hour
efficiency or the power efficiency.
Ahr (or charge) efficiency

• In an ideal world a battery would return the entire charge put into it, in which case the amp
hour efficiency is 100%. However, no battery does; its charging efficiency is less than 100%.
Energy efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of electrical energy supplied by a battery to the amount of
electrical energy required to return it to the state before discharge.
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Self-discharge
• All batteries suffer from self-discharge, which means that even without an external circuit
the state of charge is reduced.
• The rate of discharge is of the order of 0.2–1% of the Ah capacity per day. This increases
with temperature and the age of the battery.
• The chemical process
• Leakage current across top of the battery
Specific energy
• Specific energy is the amount of electrical energy stored for every kilogram of battery mass.
It has units of Wh.kg−1
Energy density
• Energy density is the amount of electrical energy stored per cubic meter of battery volume.
It normally has units of Wh.m−3
Specific power
• Specific power is the amount of power obtained per kilogram of battery. It is a highly
variable and rather anomalous quantity, since the power given out by the battery depends far
more upon the load connected to it than the battery itself.
Battery temperature, heating and cooling needs
• Although most batteries run at ambient temperature, some run at higher temperatures and
need heating to start with and then cooling when in use.
• In others, battery performance drops off at low temperatures, which is undesirable, but this
problem could be overcome by heating the battery.
Battery life and number of deep cycles
• Most rechargeable batteries will only undergo a few hundred deep cycles to 20% of the
battery charge.
• However, the exact number depends on the battery type, and also on the details of the
battery design, and on how the battery is used.
BATTERY CAPACITY:
The capacity of a cell or a battery is essentially the number of atoms or the amount of current
or electrical energy that can be obtained from a cell/battery after it is fully charged.
The Capacity of a cell is expressed in Ampere-hour because it is the integration of the current
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supplied by the cell over time. A rated capacity of 10-AH of a cell means that if a current
equal to one ampere is drawn from the battery then it will last for 10 hours before it gets
discharged.
The capacity of a cell depends upon various factors among which the important ones are
Plate Surface Area, quantity arrangement and porosity of active materials, quality of
electrolyte etc.
BATTERY EFFICIENCY:
Efficiency of a battery is the ratio of the energy provided by the battery/cell or output energy
while in use over the energy used by the battery/sell to get charged or input energy expressed
in percentage. The efficiency of a battery or cell can be calculated using the following
formula:
Efficiency =
BATTERY RATINGS:
Battery ratings are the ratings provided with a battery which defines the characteristics and
quality of a battery.
In simple terms, the characteristics or rating of a particular battery are determined by how
much current it can produce and how long it can sustain this current.
The rate at which a battery can produce current is determined by the speed of the chemical
reaction.
This in turn is determined by a number of factors:
 Surface area of the plates.

 Temperature.
 Electrolyte strength.
 Current demanded.
 Cold cranking current indicates the maximum
battery current at 18 ° C (0 ° F) for a set time
(standards vary).A battery for normal light vehicle use may be rated as follows: 44 Ah, 60 RC
and 170 A CCA (BS).
A ‗heavy duty‘ battery will have the same Ah rating as its ‗standard duty‘ counterpart, but it
will have a higher CCA and RC.
Some of the popularly used battery ratings are:
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1. Ampere-Hour Capacity Rating:
The Ampere-hour rating of a battery is determined from a test in which a battery is

continuously discharged at a constant current rate for 20 hours at 27 degree Celsius of
temperature. For example if a battery was able to continuously provide 5 A of current for 20
hours then the battery is rated 100 AH. The more the Ampere-Hour rating of a battery is; the
more power it can accumulate and provide.
2. Reserve Capacity:
The reserve capacity of a battery is usually indicated in terms of minutes. It is the number of
minutes a battery is capable of providing a large current of 25 A , without dropping it‘s EMF
to 1.75 V per cell. The higher Reserve Capacity rating indicates a better battery.
3. Cold Rating:
The Cold rating of a battery is also indicated in term of minutes. It is the number of minutes a
battery can deliver a current of 300 Amps at -18 degree Celsius temperature.
4. Cold Cranking Power Rating:
The rating is applicable to all 12 volts batteries irrespective of their size. It is expressed in
terms of the ampere. It is the maximum current a battery is able to supply for 30 seconds after
continuously discharging it at -18 degree Celsius till its EMF drops to 7.2 Volts.
BATTERY MAINTENANCE
The five (5) primary steps in maintaining an automotive battery are:
 Checking the electrolyte level

 Cleaning the battery terminal connections
 Cleaning the battery top
 Checking the battery hold down and tray
 Inspecting for physical damage to the case and terminals
Battery Maintenance is an important issue. The battery should be cleaned using a baking soda
and water mix; a couple of table spoons to ½ liter of water. Cable connection needs to be
clean and tightened. Many battery problems are caused by dirty and loose connections. A
serviceable battery needs to have the fluid level checked. Use only mineral free water.
Distilled water is best. Don't overfill battery cells especially in warmer weather. The natural
fluid expansion in hot weather will push excess electrolytes from the battery. To prevent
corrosion of cables on top post batteries use a small bead of silicon sealer at the base of the
post and place a felt battery washer over it. Coat the washer with high temperature grease or
petroleum jelly (Vaseline), then place cable on the post and tighten. Coat the exposed cable
end with the grease. Most people don't know that just the gases from the battery condensing
on metal parts cause most corrosion.
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BATTERY TESTING :
Battery testing has changed in recent years; although the three areas are basically the same,
the equipment has improved.
1. Visual Inspection;
Battery service should begin with a thorough visual inspection. This inspection may reveal
simple, easily corrected problems.
Check for cracks in the battery case and broken terminals. Either may allow electrolyte
leakage, which requires battery replacement.
Check for cracked or broken cables or connections. Replace, as needed.
Check for corrosion on terminals and dirt or acid on the case top. Clean the terminals and
case top with a mixture of water and baking soda. A battery wire brush tool is needed for
heavy corrosion on the terminals.
Check for a loose battery hold-down or loose cable connections. Clean and tighten, as
needed.
Check the electrolyte fluid level (Figure 5). The level can be viewed through the translucent
plastic case or by removing the vent caps and looking directly into each cell. The proper level
is 1/2" above the separators (about 1/8" below the fill ring shown below). Add distilled water
if necessary. Do not overfill.
2. State of Charge;
The state of charge of a battery can be easily checked in one of two ways:
Specific Gravity;
Specific gravity means exact weight. A "Hydrometer" or a "Refractometer" compares
the exact weight of electrolyte with that of water. Strong electrolyte in a charged battery is
heavier than weak electrolyte in a discharged battery. By weight, the electrolyte in a fully
charged battery is about 36% acid and 64% water. The specific gravity of water is 1.000. The
acid is 1.835 times heavier than water, so its specific gravity is 1.835. The electrolyte mixture
of water and acid has a specific gravity of 1.270, usually stated as "twelve and seventy."
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Specific Gravity Readings

By measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, you can tell if the battery is fully
charged, requires charging, or must be replaced (Figure 7). It can tell you if the battery is
sufficiently charged for a capacity (heavy-load) test. The battery must be at least 75%
charged to perform a heavy load test. (The heavy load test will be discussed later). In other
words, each cell must have a specific gravity of 1.230 or higher to proceed.
Cell Readings Percent

Charged
1.270 100 %
1.230 75%
1.190 50%
1.145 25%
1.100 0%
If the battery is less than 75% charged, it must be fully recharged before proceeding. If the
battery is 75% or higher proceed to a heavy load test. A battery not sufficiently charged will
fail because it is discharged.
Specific Gravity - Excessive Cell Variation Readings
Variation in specific gravity among cells cannot vary more than 0.050. The variance
is the difference between the lowest cell and the highest cell. A battery must be condemned
for excessive cell variation if more than 0.050. In the example below, the highest SG reading
is cell #1 while the lowest SG reading is cell #5; the difference is 0.070 which requires
battery replacement. Cell #5 is failing.
Cell #1 Cell #2 Cell #3 Cell #4 Cell #5 Cell #6

1.260 1.230 1.240 1.220 1.190 1.250
Many factors contribute to cell variation; for example, if water was just added to that cell, the
cell is then diluted with water resulting is a lower specific gravity reading. Recharging the
battery would correct this false reading. In some cases if a battery that has cell variation
slightly over the specification and is only about 50% charge, charging the battery at a slow
rate of charge (5A) may reduce the cell variation, thus saving the battery
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Open Circuit Voltage;

A digital voltmeter must be used to check the battery's open-circuit voltage. Analog meters
are not accurate and should not be used.
1. Turn on the headlamps' high beam for several minutes to remove any surface charge; and
2. Turn headlamps off, and connect the digital voltmeter across the battery terminals.
Read the voltmeter. A fully charged battery will have an open-circuit voltage of 12.6 volts.
On the other hand, a totally dead battery will have an open-circuit voltage of less than 12.0
volts.
% of charge 12.6v = 100%, 12.4v = 75%, 12.2v = 50%, 12.0v = 25%, 11.9v = 0%
Note: If the battery is 12.4v or higher, proceeds to heavy load test. If the battery is less than
12.4v, the battery must be fully recharged before testing. Be sure to remove the surface
charge completely; this is the number one mistake technicians make. If need be, place a load
tester on the battery and load the battery for 10 seconds at approximately 200 amps. Allow a
few minutes for the battery to recover then measure the open circuit voltage. This should
remove the surface charge and allow an accurate open circuit voltage measurement.
(Remember: a reading of 12.4 volts or higher load tests the battery, 12.3 volts or less,
recharges the battery.)
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Capacity or Heavy Load Test
While a State of Charge test determines the battery's state of charge, it does not measure the
battery's ability to deliver adequate cranking power. A capacity, or heavy-load test measures
the battery's ability to deliver current. A battery load tester such as a Volt, Amp Tester (VAT)
(Figure 12) is used. (Note: the battery must be at least 75% charged before a heavy test can
be performed.)
Typical methods of battery testing include:
 Voltage testing — A low float voltage shows a cell that is not fully charging and
cannot supply full capacity, which may be an indication of plate sulfation. A high
float voltage is an indication of overcharging. This can lead to premature grid
corrosion and higher temperatures in the battery. High temperatures may lead to
valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries drying out or even thermal runaway.
Incorrect float voltage shows something is wrong. However, if the float voltage is
correct, it says nothing about SOC, capacity, or SOH.
 Float current — A high float current could be a precursor to thermal runaway. It
could also indicate a short circuit/ground fault or be a sign of a high float voltage.
Incorrect float current, once again, shows that something is wrong. But if the float
current is correct, it says nothing about capacity or SOH.
 Ripple current — Excessive ripple will cause internal heating of batteries. Ideally,
ripple current should be less than 5A for every 100Ah. However, ripple current says
more about the state of the charger than the battery. Ripple current does not provide
any information about SOC, capacity, or SOH.
 Temperature testing — Temperature is critical for batteries, as high temperatures
reduces battery life. Temperature testing provides no information about SOC,
capacity, or SOH.
 Specific gravity measurement — A specific gravity measurement reads the ratio of
the density of a liquid to the density of water. Specific gravity measurements in
batteries indicate how much sulfate is in the electrolyte, providing information about
the SOC, but not capacity or SOH.
 Impedance testing — An impedance test does not measure the capacity of the battery,
but it is an indicator of the SOH of the battery.
 Discharge testing — Discharge testing is the only form of test that will determine the
actual capacity of the string, but not necessarily the SOH.
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STARTING AND CHARGING SYSTEM
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CHARGING SYSTEM
Charging system is required to recharge the battery which is an important component

of electrical system of an automobile. Charging is required as the capacity of a battery to
supply current is limited to the energy stored in it in the form of chemical energy. Battery
supplies the current to run the starting motor, various lights and horn, etc. The charging
system generates electricity to recharge the battery and run other electrical components.
Components of a Charging System
Charging system consists of:
Generator or Dynamo
It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Regulator
It controls the generator output according to the need. It controls the current or
voltage.
Relay
It is used to control the flow of current between generator and battery. It acts as circuit
breaker.
STARTING SYSTEM
The starting system of an automobile is used to start the internal combustion engine.
Both SI and CI engines cannot start by itself. These engines need to be cranked by a starting
motor. This motor is also called a starter or cranking motor. Cranking of any engine means
rotating its crank shaft. Rotation of crank shaft causes the piston to reciprocate. When piston
reciprocates, suction, compression, expansion and exhaust strokes of engine are completed.
Thus, engine completes its working cycle and it starts running.
Starting motor produces necessary torque to rotate the engine wheel (crank shaft) through a
suitable gear (one pinion on motor and other ring gear around engine wheel).
COMPONENTS OF STARTING SYSTEM
Starting system consists of the following:

(a) Starting Motor:
Starting motor to produce rotation of crank shaft.
(b) Drive Mechanism:
Drive mechanism to transfer rotary motion of starter to the crank shaft of the
engine.
(c) The ignition switches to start motor.
REQUIREMENTS OF THE STARTING SYSTEM
An internal combustion engine requires the following criteria in order to start and continue
running.
 Combustible mixture.
 Compression stroke.
 A form of ignition.
 The minimum starting speed (about 100 rev/min).
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In order to produce the first three of these, the minimum starting speed must be achieved.
This is where the electric starter comes in. The ability to reach this minimum speed is again
dependent on a number of factors.
 _Rated voltage of the starting system.
 Lowest possible temperature at which it must still be possible to start the engine. This
is known as the starting limit temperature.
 Engine cranking resistance. In other words the torque required to crank the engine at
its starting limit temperature (including the initial stalled torque).
 Battery characteristics.
 Voltage drop between the battery and the starter.
 Starter-to-ring gear ratio.
 Characteristics of the starter.
 Minimum cranking speed of the engine at the starting limit temperature.
It is not possible to view the starter as an isolated component within the vehicle electrical
system,. The battery in particular is of prime importance. Another particularly important
consideration in relation to engine starting requirements is the starting limit temperature. as
temperature decreases, starter torque also decreases and the torque required to crank the
engine to its minimum speed increases.
STARTER MOTOR
What is a Starter Motor?
An automobile engine cannot start by itself, and the engine cannot start without
rotating the crank shaft to the engine starting speed by an external force and to create the first
combustion, this driving device is the ―Starter Motor‖. The Starter Motor has to generate a
very large torque since the Starter Motor has to drive the crank shaft to the speed that able to
start the engine using only the power supply from the battery and by mating the starter pinion
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gear with the ring gear on the peripheral of the engine flywheel. In the past, pinion sliding
type was used mainly but now, reduction type is the main stream. Reduction type motor
transmits the rotational power to the pinion gear via a reduction gear, in order to increase the
rotating torque while reducing the size and weight.
STARTER MOTOR TYPES AND STARTER DRIVE MECHANISMS
Inertia starters
In all standard motor vehicle applications it is necessary to connect the starter to the
engine ring gear only during the starting phase. If the connection remained permanent, the
excessive speed at which the starter would be driven by the engine would destroy the motor
almost immediately. The inertia type of starter motor has been the technique used for over 80
years, but is now becoming redundant. The starter shown in Figure shows the Lucas M35J
type. It is a four-pole, four-brush machine and was used on small to medium-sized petrol
engined vehicles. It is capable of producing 9.6 Nm with a current draw of 350 A. The M35J
uses a face-type commutator and axially aligned brush gear. The fields are wave wound and
are earthed to the starter yoke. The starter engages with the flywheel ring gear by means of a
small pinion. The toothed pinion and a sleeve splined on to the armature shaft are threaded
such that when the starter is operated, via a remote relay, the armature will cause the sleeve to
rotate inside the pinion. The pinion remains still due to its inertia and, because of the screwed
sleeve rotating inside it, the pinion is moved to mesh with the ring gear.
When the engine fires and runs under its own power, the pinion is driven faster than the
armature shaft. This causes the pinion to be screwed back along the sleeve and out of
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engagement with the flywheel. The main spring acts as a buffer when the pinion first takes up
the driving torque and also acts as a buffer when the engine throws the pinion back out of
mesh.
One of the main problems with this type of starter was the aggressive nature of the
engagement. This tended to cause the pinion and ring gear to wear prematurely. In some
applications the pinion tended to fall out of mesh when cranking due to the engine almost, but
not quite, running. The pinion was also prone to seizure often due to contamination by dust
from the clutch. This was often compounded by application of oil to the pinion mechanism,
which tended to attract even more dust and thus prevent engagement. The pre-engaged starter
motor has largely overcome these problems.
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Operation
When current is supplied to the motor it accelerates much faster than the pinion can. This
causes the pinion to "screw itself" along the helix to the right. This causes the pinion to mesh
with the engine flywheel gear and start the engine turning.
When the engine fires, the flywheel causes the pinion to rotate faster than the shaft, so it
"screws itself" back along the shaft, out of mesh.
The Anti-rattle spring stops the pinion vibrating along the shaft whilst the engine is running
and "pinging" off the flywheel teeth (occasional metallic "ping" from between engine and
gearbox could mean that this spring has failed – it could also mean the gearbox drive plate is
breaking up).
Pre-engaged starters
Pre-engaged starters are fitted to the majority of vehicles in use today. They provide a
positive engagement with the ring gear, as full power is not applied until the pinion is fully in
mesh. They prevent premature ejection as the pinion is held into mesh by the action of a
solenoid. A one-way clutch is incorporated into the pinion to prevent the starter motor being
driven by the engine. One example of a pre-engaged starter in common use is shown in
Figure.
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The basic operation of the pre-engaged starter is as follows. When the key switch is
operated, a supply is made to terminal 50 on the solenoid. This causes two windings to be
energized, the hold-on winding and the pull-in winding. Note that the pull-in winding is of
very low resistance and hence a high current flows. This winding is connected in series with
the motor circuit and the current flowing will allow the motor to rotate slowly to facilitate
engagement. At the same time, the magnetism created in the solenoid attracts the plunger
and, via an operating lever, pushes the pinion into mesh with the flywheel ring gear. When
the pinion is fully in mesh the plunger, at the end of its travel, causes a heavy-duty set of
copper contacts to close. These contacts now supply full battery power to the main circuit of
the starter motor. When the main contacts are closed, the pull-in winding is effectively
switched off due to equal voltage supply on both ends. The hold-on winding holds the
plunger in position as long as the solenoid is supplied from the key switch. When the engine
starts and the key is released, the main supply is removed and the plunger and pinion return to
their rest positions under spring tension. A lost motion spring located on the plunger ensures
that the main contacts open before the pinion is retracted from mesh. During engagement, if
the teeth of the pinion hit the teeth of the flywheel (tooth to tooth abutment), the main
contacts are allowed to close due to the engagement spring being compressed. This allows the
motor to rotate under power and the pinion will slip into mesh. Figure shows a sectioned
view of a one-way clutch assembly. The torque developed by the starter is passed through the
clutch to the ring gear. The purpose of this free-wheeling device is to prevent the starter being
driven at an excessively high speed if the pinion is held in mesh after the engine has started.
The clutch consists of a driving and driven member with several rollers between the two. The
rollers are spring loaded and either wedge-lock the two members together by being
compressed against the springs, or free-wheel in the opposite direction. Many variations of
the pre-engaged starter are in common use, but all work on similar lines to the above
description. The wound field type of motor has now largely been replaced by the permanent
magnet version.
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Operation
When the solenoid is energised the iron core is pulled to the right. First it moves the
pinion to the left. This meshes it with the engine flywheel teeth. And then it closes the
solenoid switch contact plate to supply current to the motor.
When the engine fires – and diesels often start to run on only one cylinder and need the
starter to help them turn over – the flywheel would accelerate to motor to a speed at which its
internals would fly apart. This is prevented by the free wheel that allows the pinion to turn
faster than the motor without damage.
The pivot for the lever has to be adjusted on some pre-engage starters to ensure the pinion
does not knock the end of the starter motor when it is operated. This should only be required
after new parts have been fitted, so check before changing a faulty solenoid.
Permanent magnet starters
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Permanent magnet starters began to appear on production vehicles in the late 1980s. The two
main advantages of these motors, compared with conventional types, are less weight and
smaller size. This makes the permanent magnet starter a popular choice by vehicle
manufacturers as, due to the lower lines of today‘s cars, less space is now available for engine
electrical systems. The reduction in weight provides a contribution towards reducing fuel
consumption. The standard permanent magnet starters currently available are suitable for use
on spark ignition engines up to about 2 litre capacity. They are rated in the region of 1kW.
The principle of operation is similar in most respects to the conventional pre-engaged starter
motor. The main difference being the replacement of field windings and pole shoes with
high quality permanent magnets. The reduction in weight is in the region of 15% and the
diameter of the yoke can be reduced by a similar factor.
Permanent magnets provide constant excitation and it would be reasonable to expect the
speed and torque characteristic to be constant. However, due to the fall in battery voltage
under load and the low resistance of the armature windings, the characteristic is comparable
to series wound motors. In some cases, flux concentrating pieces or interpoles are used
between the main magnets. Due to the warping effect of the magnetic field, this tends to
make the characteristic curve very similar to that of the series motor.
Development by some manufacturers has also taken place in the construction of the brushes.
A copper and graphite mix is used but the brushes are made in two parts allowing a higher
copper content in the power zone and higher graphite content in the commutation zone. This
results in increased service life and a reduction in voltage drop, giving improved starter
power.
For applications with a higher power requirement, permanent magnet motors with
intermediate transmission have been developed. These allow the armature to rotate at a higher
and more efficient speed whilst still providing the torque, due to the gear reduction.
Permanent magnet starters with intermediate transmission are available with power outputs of
about 1.7 kW and are suitable for spark ignition engines up to about 3 litres, or compression
ignition engines up to about 1.6 litres. This form of permanent magnet motor can give a
weight saving of up to 40%. The principle of operation is again similar to the conventional
pre-engaged starter. The intermediate transmission, is of the epicyclic type. The sun gear is
on the armature shaft and the planet carrier drives the pinion. The ring gear or annulus
remains stationary and also acts as an intermediate bearing. This arrangement of gears gives a
reduction ratio of about 5 : 1.
This can be calculated by the formula:
Ratio=AS/S
where
A =number of teeth on the annulus, and
S =number of teeth on the sun gear.
The annulus gear in some types is constructed from a high grade polyamide compound with
mineral additives to improve strength and wear resistance. The sun and planet gears are
conventional steel. This combination of materials gives a quieter and more efficient
operation.
32 | P a g e
Heavy vehicle starters
The subject area of this book is primarily the electrical equipment on cars. This short
section is included for interest, hence further reference should be made to other sources for
greater detail about heavy vehicle starters.
The types of starter that are available for heavy duty applications are as many and varied as
the applications they serve. In general, higher voltages are used, which may be up to 110 V in
specialist cases, and two starters may even be running in parallel for very high power and
torque requirements.
Large road vehicles are normally 24 V and employ a wide range of starters. In some cases the
design is simply a large and heavy duty version of the pre-engaged type discussed earlier.
This starter may also be fitted with a thermal cut-out to prevent overheating damage due to
excessive cranking. Rated at 8.5kW, it is capable of producing over 80 Nm torque at
1000 rev/min. Other methods of engaging the pinion include sliding the whole armature or
pushing the pinion with a rod through a hollow armature. This type uses a solenoid to push
the pinion into mesh via a rod through the centre of the armature. Sliding-armature-type
starters work by positioning the field windings forwards from the main armature body, such
that the armature is attracted forwards when power is applied. A trip lever mechanism will
then only allow full power when the armature has caused the pinion to mesh.
IGNITION SWITCH
An Ignition (or starter) switch is a switch in the control system of an internal

combustion engined motor vehicle that activates the main electrical systems for the vehicle.
Besides providing power to the starter solenoid and the ignition system components
(including the engine control unit and ignition coil) it also usually switches on power to many
"accessories" (radio, power windows, etc.). The ignition switch usually requires a key be
inserted that works a lock built into the switch mechanism. It is frequently combined with the
starter switch which activates the starter motor. The ignition locking system may be bypassed
by disconnecting the wiring to the switch and manipulating it directly; this is known as
hotwiring
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STARTER SOLENOIDS:
The solenoid is much the same as a relay in that it uses an electromagnet to move
something, but this time the electromagnet is a lot larger and stronger and it slides a great
chunk of iron about. Usually a spring pushes the iron back, once the magnetism has been
turned off.
Some solenoids, like those on old car starter circuits, work as a giant, heavy duty relay.
Others, like those actually mounted on the starters of modern cars and diesel engines, pull
part of the starter about and also make an electrical contact like a relay.
34 | P a g e
This diagram shows the inside of a diesel starter solenoid.
When the switch is turned to the start position, the electromagnet pulls the centre part to the
right. This has two effects:
1. It drags part of the starter motor about.
2. It pushes the contact plate against the terminal bolt heads so electricity can
flow to the actual motor.
One of the coils is called the PULL IN coil because it is strong and initially pulls the centre
part, and then gets turned off. The other coil, the HOLD IN coils, helps to do the pulling in
and then just holds the solenoid in position until the current to the coil is turned off.
The only interest the two coils should have for ordinary boaters is because if one fails, then
some odd symptoms can occur.
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CHARGING SYSTEM COMPONENTS:
Charging System Components
The Charging system is an important part of the electrical system. The charging system
has two essential functions:
 Generate electrical power to run the vehicle‘s electrical systems

 Generate current to recharge the vehicle‘s battery
Electrical Power: At low engine speeds, the battery may supply some of the power the
vehicle needs. At high engine speeds, the charging system handles all of the vehicle‘s
electrical requirements.
Charging:
Alternator (generator) output is higher than battery voltage to recharge the battery.
The charging system components:
These components make up the charging system:

 Alternator
 Voltage regulator
 Battery
 Charging Indicator
I Alternator
The alternator generates electrical power to run accessories and to recharge the
batteries. It is normally driven by a belt located off the crankshaft. Mechanical energy from
36 | P a g e
the crankshaft is converted by the alternator into electrical energy for the batteries and
accessories.
The alternator contains three main components:
 Stator (attached to alternator housing, remains stationary),
 Rotor (spins inside the stator),
 Rectifier,
Slip ring and brushes make an electrical connection to the spinning rotor.
The alternator generates electricity through these steps:

 Engine power drives the alternator rotor through a pulley and drive belt.
 The alternator rotor spins inside the windings of the stator.
 The stator windings generate an alternating current.
 Rectifier diodes change the alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
II. Voltage regulator
The voltage regulator acts as an electrical traffic cop to control alternator output. It senses
when the batteries need recharging, or when the vehicles electrical needs increase, and
adjusts the alternators output accordingly. ie., it controls the alternator‘s output current to
prevent over-charging and under charging of the battery. It does this by regulating the current
flowing from the battery to the rotor‘s field coil.
The voltage regulator can be mounted inside or outside of the alternator housing. If the
regulator is mounted outside there will be a wiring harness connecting it to the alternator.
Today‘s IC voltage regulator is a fully electronic device, using resistors and diodes.
III. Battery
The batteries are a reservoir of chemical electrical power. Their primary purpose is to crank
the engine. They also supply power to vehicle accessories when the electrical load is too great
for the alternator alone. The battery also acts as a voltage stabilizer. The battery must always
remain attached to the electrical system while the engine is running.
IV. Charging Indicator
The charging indicator is usually an ON /OFF warning lamp. When the system is running, the
light should be off. The lamp lights when the charging system is not providing sufficient
charge.
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DC GENERATOR
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct

current electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of
dynamically induced emf.
Note: A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and
vice versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a
DC machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC
motor. Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC machine instead of just
'construction of a dc generator'.
The above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC
machine consists two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine
are described below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or
steel. It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries
the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two
purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and
placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that,
when energized, they form alternate North and South poles.
38 | P a g e
Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape with
slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks
for reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for
cooling purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that
each armature slot will carry two different coils.
Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through
a commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to
collect the current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor,
commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of
a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is
equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the
commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They
rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping
the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
Working principle of a DC generator:
According to Faraday‘s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is

placed in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf
(electromotive force) gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be
calculated from the emf equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with the closed
path, the induced current will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce
an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an
electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. The direction of
induced current is given by Fleming‘s right hand rule.
39 | P a g e
Need of a Split ring commutator:
According to Fleming‘s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes
whenever the direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let‘s consider an armature
rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving upward. When the armature
completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that particular conductor will be reversed
to downward. Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating.
If you look at the above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced current is
alternating in an armature conductor. But with a split ring commutator, a connection of the
armature conductors also gets reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we
get unidirectional current at the terminals.
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TYPES OF A DC GENERATOR:
Generally DC generators are classified according to the ways of excitation of their fields.
There are three methods of excitation.
1. Field coils excited by permanent magnets – Permanent magnet DC generators.

2. Field coils excited by some external source – Separately excited DC generators.
3. Field coils excited by the generator itself – Self excited DC generators.
A brief description of these types of generators is given below.
Permanent Magnet DC Generator
When the flux in the magnetic circuit is established by the help of permanent magnets
then it is known as Permanent magnet DC generator.
It consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnets situated around the
armature. This type of DC generators generates very low power. So, they are rarely found in
industrial applications. They are normally used in small applications like dynamos in motor
cycles.
Separately Excited DC Generator
These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by some external DC source such
as battery.
A circuit diagram of separately excited DC generator is shown in figure.
Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated emf
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Self-excited DC Generators
These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by the current supplied by
themselves. In these type of machines field coils are internally connected with the armature.
Due to residual magnetism some flux is always present in the poles. When the armature is
rotated some emf is induced. Hence some induced current is produced. This small current
flows through the field coil as well as the load and thereby strengthening the pole flux. As the
pole flux strengthened, it will produce more armature emf, which cause further increase of
current through the field. This increased field current further raises armature emf and this
cumulative phenomenon continues until the excitation reaches to the rated value.
According to the position of the field coils the self-excited DC generators may be classified
as…
1. Series wound generators

2. Shunt wound generators
3. Compound wound generators
Series Wound Generator

In these types of generators, the field windings are connected in series with armature
conductors as shown in figure below. So, whole current flows through the field coils as well
as the load. As series field winding carries full load current it is designed with relatively few
turns of thick wire. The electrical resistance of series field winding is therefore very low
(nearly 0.5Ω ). Let,
Rsc = Series winding resistance
Isc = Current flowing through the series field
Ra = Armature resistance
IL = Load current
Eg = Generated emf
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Shunt Wound DC Generators

In these type of DC generators the field windings are connected in parallel with armature
conductors as shown in figure below. In shunt wound generators the voltage in the field
winding is same as the voltage across the terminal. Let, Rsh = Shunt winding resistance
Ish = Current flowing through the shunt field

Ra = Armature resistance
IL = Load current
Eg = Generated emf
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Compound Wound DC Generator
In series wound generators, the output voltage is directly proportional with load
current. In shunt wound generators, output voltage is inversely proportional with load current.
A combination of these two types of generators can overcome the disadvantages of both. This
combination of windings is called compound wound DC generator.
Compound wound generators have both series field winding and shunt field winding. One
winding is placed in series with the armature and the other is placed in parallel with the
armature. This type of DC generators may be of two types- short shunt compound wound
generator and long shunt compound wound generator.
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ALTERNATORS
Construction of Alternator
Synchronous machine is consists of two parts, one is stator and another is rotor.
Stator
The stator or armature is an iron ring, formed of laminations of silicon steel with slots
in periphery to contain armature conductors. These slots may be open, semi- 148 closed and
closed according to speed and size of machine. Open slots are most commonly used because
the coil can be freely wound and insulated properly. These slots provide the facility of
removal and replacement of defective coils. The semi closed slots are used to provide better
performance over open slots. The totally closed slots are rarely used.
Rotor
The magnetic field required for the generation of AC voltage is provided by rotating
magnetic field similar are DC generator. The field system is placed on a rotating shaft, which
rotates within the armature conductors or stator. The field system contains electromagnets
which are excited by pilot or main excitors. Generally main excitors are used but for very
large machines the pilot excitor is also used. These excitors are DC generators. A
synchronous generator is an electromechanical device which converts mechanical energy
(usually provided by steam, water or gas turbine as the ‗prime-mover‘) into electrical energy
in the form of three-phase (usually) AC quantities. It works on the principle of Faraday‘s Law
45 | P a g e
of Electromagnetic Induction. Synchronous Generators are known as Alternator. The term

‗Synchronous Generator‘ usually refers to a machine in a Power Station connected to a large
interconnected power system. Electromechanical energy conversion takes place whenever a
change in flux is associated with mechanical motion. EMF is generated in a coil when there is
a relative movement between the coil and the magnetic field. Alternating emf is generated if
the change in flux-linkage of the coil is cyclic. Since electromechanical energy conversion
requires relative motion between the field and armature winding, either of these could be
placed on the stator or rotor. Because of practical convenience, field windings are normally
placed on the Rotor and the Stator serves as the seats of induced emf, (i.e. the armature
winding will be on Stator) in almost all Synchronous machines.
Alternators are classified according to their pole construction as:
(a) Salient pole-type

(b) Smooth cylindrical pole-type or Round rotor construction.
The cylindrical or round rotor consists of a steel forging with slots to carry the field winding.
It has inherent mechanical strength and is, therefore, used for two-pole or four-pole
synchronous generators driven by steam turbines which require a high-speed for optimum
efficiency. Such machines have less diameter and more axial length and are rated upto 1
GVA (Giga Volt-Ampere). They employ modern cooling techniques (water-cooled stator
conductors, hydrogen atmosphere etc.) and are called as Turbo-Alternators.
The Salient Pole construction is suitable for slower machines since many pole-pieces can be
accommodated. Hydro synchronous generators (or Hydro-alternators) are driven by water
turbines with optimum speeds in the range of 250 rpm, which requires twelve pole pairs Ns =
120f/ p.
Since rating is approximately proportional to speed, the low-speed machines are physically
large and expensive. Salient Pole Machines have more diameter and less axial length. Now,
with this background, let us discuss ‗Principle‘ first.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ALTERNATOR
The working principle of alternator is very simple. It is just like basic principle of DC
generator. It also depends upon Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction which says
the current is induced in the conductor inside a magnetic field when there is a relative motion
between that conductor and the magnetic field.
46 | P a g e
For understanding working of alternator let's think about a single rectangular turn placed in
between two opposite magnetic pole as shown above.
Say this single turn loop ABCD can rotate against axis a-b. Suppose this loop starts
rotating clockwise. After 90o rotation the side AB or conductor AB of the loop comes in front
of S-pole and conductor CD comes in front of N-pole. At this position the tangential motion
of the conductor AB is just perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines from N to S pole. Hence
rate of flux cutting by the conductor AB is maximum here and for that flux cutting there will
be an induced current in the conductor AB and direction of the induced current can be
determined by Flemming's right hand rule. As per this rule the direction of this current will be
from A to B. At the same time conductor CD comes under N pole and here also if we apply
Fleming right hand rule we will get the direction of induced current and it will be from C to
D.
Now after clockwise rotation of another 90o the turn ABCD comes at vertical position as
shown below. At this position tangential motion of conductor AB and CD is just parallel to
the magnetic flux lines, hence there will be no flux cutting that is no current in the conductor.
While the turn ABCD comes from horizontal position to vertical position, angle between flux
lines and direction of motion of conductor, reduces from 90o to 0o and consequently the
induced current in the turn is reduced to zero from its maximum value.
47 | P a g e
After another clockwise rotation of 90o the turn again come to horizontal position and here
conductor AB comes under N-pole and CD comes under S-pole, and here if we again apply
Flemming's right hand rule, we will see that induced current in conductor AB, is from point B
to A and induced current in the conductor CD is from D to C.
As at this position the turn comes at horizontal position from its vertical position, the
current in the conductors comes to its maximum value from zero. That means current is
circulating in the close turn from point B to A, from A to D, from D to C and from C to B.
Just reverse of the previous horizontal position when the current was circulating as A → B →
C → D → A.
While the turn further proceeds to its vertical position the current is again reduced to zero. So
if the turn continues to rotate the current in the turn continually alternate its direction. During
every full revolution of the turn, the current in the turn gradually reaches to its maximum
value then reduces to zero and then again it comes to its maximum value but in opposite
direction and again it comes to zero. In this way the current completes one full sine wave
form during each 360o revolution of the turn. So we have seen how an alternating current is
produced in a turn is rotated inside a magnetic field. From this, we will now come to the
actual working principle of alternator.
Now we cut the loop and connect its two ends with two slip rings and stationary brush is
placed on each slip ring. If we connect two terminals of an external load with these two
brushes, we will get an alternating current in the load. This is our elementary model
of alternator.
48 | P a g e
Having understood the very basic principle of alternator, let us now have an insight into its
basic operational principal of a practical alternator. During discussion of basic working of o,
we have considered that the magnetic field is stationary and conductors (armature) are
rotating. But generally in practical construction of alternator, armature conductors are
stationary and field magnets rotate between them. The rotor of an alternator or a synchronous
generator is mechanically coupled to the shaft or the turbine blades, which on being made to
rotate at synchronous speed Ns under some mechanical force results in magnetic flux cutting
of the stationary armature conductors housed on the stator. As a direct consequence of this
flux cutting an induced emf and current starts to flow through the armature conductors which
first flow in one direction for the first half cycle and then in the other direction for the second
half cycle for each winding with a definite time lag of 120o due to the space displaced
arrangement of 120obetween them as shown in the figure below. These particular phenomena
results in 3φ power flow out of the alternator which is then transmitted to the distribution
stations for domestic and industrial uses.
49 | P a g e
CUT-OUT RELAY:
Sometimes called the circuit breaker, this device is a magnetic "make-and-break"

switch. It connects the generator to the battery (and therefore the rest of the car) circuit when
the generator's voltage builds up to the desired value. It disconnects the generator when it
slows down or stops.
The relay has an iron core that is magnetized to pull down a hinged armature. When the
armature is pulled down a set of contact points closes and the circuit is completed. When the
magnetic field is broken (like when the generator slows down or stops) a spring pulls the
armature up, breaking the contact points.
Voltage Regulator
Another iron core-operated set of contact points is utilized to regulate maximum and
minimum voltage at all times. This circuit also has a shunt circuit (a shunt re-directs electrical
flow) going to ground through a resistor and placed just ahead (electrically) of the points.
When the points are closed the field circuit takes the "easy" route to ground but when the
points are open the field circuit must pass through the resistor to get to ground.
The field coil on the generator is connected to one of the voltage regulator contact
points. The other point leads directly to ground.
When the generator is operating (battery low or a number of devices running) its voltage
may stay below that for which the control is set. Since the flow of current will be too weak to
pull the armature down the generator field will go to ground through the points. However, if
the system is fully charged the generator voltage will increase until it reaches the maximum
limit and current flow through the shunt coil will be high enough to pull the armature down
and separate the points.
This cycle is repeated over and over in real time. The points open and close about 50 to
200 times per second, maintaining a constant voltage in the system.
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Current Regulator
Even though the generator's voltage is controlled it is possible for its current to run too
high. This would overheat the generator, so a current regulator is incorporated to prevent
premature failure.
Similar in appearance to the voltage regulator's iron core, the current regulator's core is
wound with a few turns of heavy wire and connected in series with the generator's armature.
In operation, current flow increases to the predetermined setting of the unit. At this time,
current flow through the heavy wire windings will cause the core to draw the armature down,
opening the current regulator points. In order to complete the circuit the field circuit must
pass through a resistor. This lowers current output, points close, output increases, points
open, output down, points close, and so on. The points, therefore, vibrate open and closed
much as the voltage regulator's points do, many times every second.
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IGNITION SYSTEM
52 | P a g e
Ignition System:
In spark ignition engines, a device is required to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture at the
end of compression stroke. Ignition system fulfils this requirement. It is a part of electrical
system which carries the electric current at required voltage to the spark plug which generates
spark at correct time. It consists of a battery, switch, distributor ignition coil, spark plugs and
necessary wiring.
A compression ignition engine, i.e. a diesel engine does not require any ignition system.
Because, self-ignition of fuel air mixture takes place when diesel is injected in the
compressed air at high temperature at the end of compression stroke.
Requirements of an Ignition System :
(a) The ignition system should be capable of producing high voltage current, as high as 25000
Volts, so that spark plug can produce spark across its electrode gap.
(b) It should produce spark for sufficient duration so that mixture can be ignited at all operating
Speeds of automobile.
(c) Ignition system should function satisfactory at all engine speeds.
(d) Longer life of contact points and spark plug.
(e) Spark must generate at correct time at the end of compression stroke in every cycle of engine
Operation.
(f) The system must be easy to maintain, light in weight and compact in size.
(g) There should be provision of spark advance with speed and load.
(h) It should be able to function smoothly even when the spark plug electrodes are deposited with
Carbon lead or oil.
INTRODUCTION:
A combustion engine which has some vivid characteristic like high speed and high
internal compression requires a system that produces very high ignition from the spark plug
which is used as the source. The ignition system is the system which uses the spark plug as
their source where electrical energy is input given to the spark plug.
There are three types of ignition system
1. Battery Ignition System

2. Magneto Ignition System
3. Electronic Ignition System
BATTERY COIL IGNITION SYSTEM:
Most of SI engine used battery ignition system. In this system a 6 volt or 12 volt
battery used to produce spark. Passenger cars, light truck, motorcycles and large stationary
engines are fitted with this system.
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Battery Ignition System
Main Parts of battery ignition system:
Battery
A battery is used to provide energy for ignition. It is work as storage of energy and
charged by dynamo, which is driven by engine. It converts chemical energy to electric
energy. Two types of battery used in spark ignition system, lead acid battery and alkaline
battery. The first one is used in light duty commercial vehicle and the other one is used in
heavy duty commercial vehicle. It is housed in primary side of ignition coil.
Ignition switch
It is used to turn on and off the ignition system. Battery is connected to the primary
winding of ignition coil by ignition switch and ballast resistor.
Ballast resistor
It is connected in series with primary winding to regulate current in primary winding.

It is used to prevent injury due to overheating of ignition coil. It controls the current passes
through primary winding. It is made by iron. Iron has property of increase electrical
54 | P a g e
resistance rapidly by increase in temperature at certain limit. This additional resistance resists
flowing current which control the temperature of ignition coil.
Ignition coil
Ignition coil is the main body of battery ignition system. The purpose of ignition coil
to step up the battery voltage (6 or 12) to a high voltage, which is sufficient to produce spark
at spark plug. It consist a magnetic core or soft wire or sheet, and two electrical winding
called primary winding and secondary winding. The primary winding has generally 200-300
turn and the end are connected to exterior terminal. The secondary has almost 21000 turns of
copper wire which is insulated to withstand with high voltage. It is located inside the primary
winding and its one end connected to secondary winding and other end is grounded either to
primary winding or to the metal case. This entire unit is enclosed in a metal container which
makes it a compact unit.
Contact breaker
This is a mechanical device making and braking the primary circuit to ignition coil.
When the points are closed current flow in ignition coil and when it open, flow of current
stopped.
Capacitor
It is a simple electrical capacitor in which two metal plate are separated by an

insulating material with a distance. Commonly air is used as insulating material but for
particular technical requirement some high quality insulating material is used.
Distributor
Distributor is used in multi cylinder engine to regulate spark in each spark plug at
correct sequence. It distribute ignition surge in individual spark plug in correct sequence.
There are two types of distributor. One is known as carbon brush type and the other one is
gap type. In carbon brush type carbon brush carried by the rotor arm sliding over the metallic
segment embedded into the distributor cap or molded insulating material. This makes electric
connection or secondary winding with spark plug. In gap type distributor electrode of rotor
arm pass close to but does not make contact with the distributor cap. So there is no wear of
electrode.
Spark Plug
A spark plug generally has two electrodes which are separated with each other. A
high potential discharge flow through it which generate spark and ignite the combustion
mixture in cylinder. It mainly consist two electrodes a steel shell and an insulator. The central
electrode connected with the supply of ignition coil. It is well insulated with the outer steel
shell which is grounded. There is a small air gap between steel shell and central electrode,
between which spark is generated. The electrode usually made by high nickel alloy so it can
withstand with high temperature and corrosion resistance.
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Working of Battery Ignition System:
In the battery ignition system ignition coil stores the energy in form of magnetic field
and deliver it at the instant of ignition, in form of high voltage current with high tension wire
to correct spark plug. The diagram of four cylinder battery ignition system is as follow.
 First low voltage current flow form battery to the primary coil through ignition switch
and ballast resistor.
 Ballast resistor regulates the temperature of ignition coil by regulating current passing
form it.
 The ignition capacitor connected in parallel with contact breaker. One end of
secondary winding is also grounded through contact breaker.
 When the ignition switch is closed, the primary winding of the coil is connected to the
positive terminal, and current flow through it known as primary current.
 The current flows form primary coil produces a magnetic field which induces an EMF
in secondary coil.
 The cam regulates the contact breaker. Wherever the breaker open, current flows into
condenser, which charged the condenser.
 As the condenser become charger the primary current falls and the magnetic field
collapses. This will induces a much higher voltage in condenser.
 Now the condenser discharge into the battery which reverse the direction of both
primary current and magnetic field. This will induce a very high EMF in secondary
winding.
 Now this high voltage EMF produce spark at correct spark plug through distributor.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:
Advantages:
1. At the time of starting or at low speed good spark is available.

2. The battery which is used to generate spark can be used to light other auxiliary like
headlight, tell light etc.
3. Initial expenditure is less and it has low maintenance cost.
4. Ignition system is not affected by adjusting spark timing in battery ignition system.
Disadvantages:
1. Time available of built up the current and stored energy is decrease as speed of engine
increases.
2. Contact breaker subjected to both electrical and mechanical wear which results short
maintenance interval.
3. The primary voltage decreases as the engine speed increase. So it is not fully reliable of
high speed engine.
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MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEM:
The Magneto Ignition System is a unique kind of Ignition System which has its own
source to generate the necessary amount of energy for an automobile or a vehicle to work.
The system consists of the following ingredients:
1. Magneto
2. Distributor
3. Spark Plug
4. Capacitor
Parts of Magneto Ignition System:
Magneto:
It is the major part of this type of ignition system because it is source of energy. A
magneto is a small electric generator which is rotate by the engine and is capable of produce
a very high voltage and does not need battery as a source of external energy. The magneto
contains both primary and secondary winding thus it does not require a separate coil to boost
up the voltage required to operate the spark plug. There are two types of magneto. First one is
known as armature rotating type and other one is known as magnet rotating type. In the first
type, the armature rotates between the stationary magnate. On the other hand in second type
armature is stationary and the magnates are rotating around armature.
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Distributor:
Distributor is used in multi cylinder engine to regulate spark in each spark plug at
correct sequence. It distribute ignition surge in individual spark plug in correct sequence.
There are two types of distributor. One is known as carbon brush type and the other one is
gap type. In carbon brush type carbon brush carried by the rotor arm sliding over the metallic
segment embedded into the distributor cap or molded insulating material. This makes electric
connection or secondary winding with spark plug. In gap type distributor electrode of rotor
arm pass close to but does not make contact with the distributor cap. So there is no wear of
electrode.
Spark Plug:
A spark plug generally has two electrodes which are separated with each other. A
high potential discharge flow through it which generate spark and ignite the combustion
mixture in cylinder. It mainly consist two electrodes a steel shell and an insulator. The central
electrode connected with the supply of ignition coil. It is well insulated with the outer steel
shell which is grounded. There is a small air gap between steel shell and central electrode,
between which spark is generated. The electrode usually made by high nickel alloy so it can
withstand with high temperature and corrosion resistance.
Capacitor:
It is simple electrical capacitors in which two metal plate are separated by an

insulating material with a distance. Commonly air is used as insulating material but for
particular technical requirement some high quality insulating material is used.
Working of Magneto Ignition System:
The working principle of magneto ignition system is same as battery ignition system
except in the magneto ignition system Magneto is used to produce energy except
battery. The diagram of four cylinder magneto ignition system is as follow.
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 First when the engine starts or during cranking magneto rotate which generates a very
high voltage.
 The ignition capacitor connected in parallel with contact breaker. One end of magneto
winding is also grounded through contact breaker.
 The cam regulates the contact breaker. Wherever the breaker open, current flows into
condenser, which charged the condenser.
 As the condenser become charger the primary current falls and the magnetic field
collapses. This will induces a much higher voltage in condenser.
 Now this high voltage EMF produce spark at correct spark plug through distributor.
As the engine speed is low at starting, the current generated by the magneto is quite small. As
the engine speed increases the flow of current also increases. Thus with magneto ignition
system there is always starting problem and sometimes a separate battery needed for stating.
This ignition system is best suited at high speed so it is used in racing cars, aircraft engines
etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. This system is more reliable at medium and high speed.

2. It is more reliable because no battery is used.
3. It requires less frequently maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1. It has starting problem due to low cranking speed at starting.

2. It is more expensive compare to battery ignition system.
3. There is possibility of misfire due to leakage because wiring carry vary high voltage.
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Difference between Battery and Magneto Ignition System:
S.No. Battery Ignition System Magneto Ignition System

1. As the name implies, battery is No battery is needed in this type of ignition
necessary in this type of ignition system. It has its own electric generator.
system.
2. It is difficult to start when the battery There is no such problem because no battery
is discharge. is used.
3. It required high maintenance due to It required less maintenance.
battery.
4. In battery ignition system current forIn magneto ignition system, required electric
primary circuit is obtain by battery. current is generated by the magneto, which is
an electric generator.
5. Spark strength does not depend on Spark strength depends on speed of engine
speed of engine due to current is due to magneto.
supplied by battery.
6. Good spark is available at low speed. During starting or at low speed, quality of
spark is poor.
7. Efficiency of system decreases with Efficiency of the system improves as the
the reduction in spark intensity as engine speed rises due to high intensity spark.
engine speed rises.
8. Battery ignition system occupies more Compare to battery ignition system, magneto
space. ignition system requires less space.
9. Commonly employed in cars and light It is mainly used in racing cars and two
commercial vehicles. wheelers.
Ignition Advance:
The purpose of spark advance mechanism is to assure that under every condition of engine
operation, ignition takes place at the most favorable instant in time i.e. most favorable from a
standpoint of engine power, fuel economy and minimum exhaust dilution. By means of these
mechanisms the advance angle is accurately set so that ignition occurs before TDC point of
the piston. The engine speed and the engine load are the control quantities required for the
automatic adjustment of the ignition timing. Most of the engines are fitted with mechanisms
which are integral with the distributor and automatically regulate the optimum spark advance
to account for change of speed and load. The two mechanisms used are:
(a) Centrifugal advance mechanism, and

(b) Vacuum advance mechanism.
Centrifugal Advance Mechanism

The centrifugal advance mechanism controls the ignition timing for full- load operation. The
adjustment mechanism is designed so that its operation results in the desired advance of the
spark. The cam is mounted, movably, on the distributor shaft so that as the speed increases,
the flyweights which are swung farther and farther outward, shaft the cam in the direction of
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shaft rotation. As a result, the cam lobes make contact with the breaker lever rubbing block
somewhat earlier, thus shifting the ignition point in the early or advance direction
Depending on the speed of the engine, and therefore of the shaft, the weights are swung
outward a greater or a lesser distance from the centre. They are then held in the extended
position, in a state of equilibrium corresponding to the shifted timing angle, by a retaining
spring which exactly balances the centrifugal force. The weights shift the cam either or a
rolling contact or sliding contact basis; for this reasons we distinguish between the rolling
contact type and the sliding contact type of centrifugal advance mechanism.
The beginning of the timing adjustment in the range of low engine speeds and the continues
adjustment based on the full load curve are determined by the size of the weights by the
shape of the contact mechanisms (rolling or sliding contact type), and by the retaining
springs, all of which can be widely differing designs. The centrifugal force controlled cam is
fitted with a lower limit stop for purposes of setting the beginning of the adjustment, and also
with an upper limit stop to restrict the greatest possible full load adjustment
Vacuum Advance Mechanism

Vacuum advance mechanism shifts the ignition point under partial load operation.
The adjustment system is designed so that its operation results in the prescribed partial load
advance curve. In this mechanism the adjustment control quantity is the static vacuum
prevailing in the carburetor, a pressure which depends on the position of the throttle valve at
any given time and which is at a maximum when this valve is about half open. This explains
the vacuum maximum.
The diaphragm of a vacuum unit is moved by changes in gas pressure. The position of this
diaphragm is determined by the pressure differential at any given moment between the
prevailing vacuum and atmospheric pressure. The beginning of adjustment is set by the pre-
established tension on a compression spring. The diaphragm area, the spring force, and the
spring rigidity are all selected in accordance with the partial –load advance curve which is to
be followed and are all balanced with respect to each other. The diaphragm movement is
transmitted through a vacuum advance arm connected to the movable breaker plate, and this
movement shifts the breaker plate an additional amount under partial load Ignition Systems
condition in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of the distributor shaft. Limit
stops on the vacuum advance arm in the base of the vacuum unit restrict the range of
adjustment.
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The vacuum advance mechanism operates independent of the centrifugal advance

mechanism. The mechanical interplay between the two advance mechanisms, however,
permits the total adjustment angle at any given time to be the result of the addition of the
shifts provided by the two individual mechanisms operates in conjunction with the engine is
operating under partial load
SPARK PLUG:
Spark Plug is a device which is used to ignite the air fuel mixture in the engine
cylinder. They are generally used in petrol engine. For the combustion of the fuel, we need
spark to initiate the combustion.
Requirements
1. It must be reliable at high voltage transmission i.e. up to 40,000 V.

2. It must have good insulation capability even at temperatures of 1000 0C, and
prevention of arcing and flashover.
3. It must possesses resistance to thermal shock (Hot exhaust gases-cold intake
mixtures)
4. It must make pressure tight and gas-tight sealing with the combustion chamber.
5. It must be capable to resist oscillating pressures up to approx. 100 bar.
6. It should have high mechanical strength for reliable installation.
7. It must have good thermal conduction by insulator tip and electrodes.
8. It must possess resistance to spark erosion, combustion gases and residues.
9. It must be capable of preventing of build-up of deposits on the insulator.
They are made with high quality materials to meet the above requirements.
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Main Parts
The main parts of a spark plug are
1. Plug Terminal: It is the portion that is connected to the high tension cable coming
from the distributor cap. It conducts the high voltage to the central electrode.
2. Ceramic Insulator: It is made up of Aluminium oxide ceramic and acts as an
insulator. It separates the central electrode from earth at up to 40000 Volts. It can be
manufactured in plain form or with profiles to prevent flashover.
3. Metal Body: it is steel shell manufactured with precision rolled threads for a secure
fit, and easy installation and removal. It provides electrical ground to the cylinder
head and helps to cool plug by transferring heat to the cylinder head.
4. Central Electrode: It is made nickel based alloys consists of a copper core enclosed
in it. Depending upon the type, the central electrode can be in platinum or iridium.
The high voltage is applied to the central electrode from the secondary winding
through the distributor.
5. Ground Electrode: It is welded to the metal body of the SP. It makes spark path with
the central electrode. It is made up of nickel based alloys ( or iridium or titanium
reinforcement)
6. Sealing washer/ Gasket: It makes sealing with the cylinder head and helps in heat
dissipation.
7. Insulator tip: It is extended into the combustion chamber. It has greater influence on
the thermal rating of the spark plug
8. Electrode Gap: It is the distance in between the central electrode and ground
electrode. The electrode has crucial role in the spark generation. If an appropriate gap
is not provided to the plug than if cannot produce sufficient spark to ignite the fuel
and may leads to misfire.
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Types of Spark Plug
On the basis of the relative operating temperature range of the tip of the high tension
electrode, it is divided into two types.
1. Hot spark plug: It has long heat transfer path and a large area exposed to the
combustion gases.
2. Cold spark plug: It has short heat transfer path and small area exposed to the
combustion gasses.
Working
 When a high voltage current from the distributor is passes to the spark plug.
 The central electrode and ground electrode is applied to a very high voltage up to
40000 V.
 Due to this high voltage difference between the central electrode and ground
electrode, the air in between the electrode gap gets ionized.
 The ionized gas becomes conductor and conducts current from central electrode to the
ground electrode producing spark.
 The spark produced is used to ignite the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder.
65 | P a g e
Application
It is used in the petrol engines of scooters, motorcycles, cars, etc. where the petrol is
burnt with the help of spark.
Electronic Ignition System
Digital Ignition System

(a) Capacitance Discharge Ignition system
(b) Transistorized system
(c) Piezo-electric Ignition system
(d) The Texaco Ignition system
Capacitance Discharge Ignition System
It mainly consists of 6-12 V battery, ignition switch, DC to DC convertor, charging

resistance, tank capacitor, Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), SCR-triggering device, step up
transformer, spark plugs.
A 6-12 volt battery is connected to DC to DC converter i.e. power circuit through the ignition
switch, which is designed to give or increase the voltage to 250-350 volts. This high voltage
is used to charge the tank capacitor (or condenser) to this voltage through the charging
resistance. The charging resistance is also so designed that it controls the required current in
the SCR
Depending upon the engine firing order, whenever the SCR triggering device, sends a pulse,
then the current flowing through the primary winding is stopped. And the magnetic field
begins to collapse. This collapsing magnetic field will induce or step up high voltage current
in the secondary, which while jumping the spark plug gap produces the spark, and the charge
of air fuel mixture is ignited.
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Transistorized Assisted Contact (TAC) Ignition System
Distributor–less Ignition System:
Distributor less ignition system used extensively by Ford incorporates all the features of
electronic spark advance systems, except a special type of ignition coil is used in place of HT
distributor. The system is generally used only on four- or six-cylinder engines, because the
control system becomes highly complex for higher number of cylinders
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Electronic Ignition System:
Electronic ignition is now fitted to almost all spark ignition vehicles. This is because the
conventional mechanical system has some major disadvantages.
Mechanical problems with the contact breakers, not the least of which is the limited lifetime.
Current flow in the primary circuit is limited to about 4 A or damage will occur to the
contacts – or at least the lifetime will be seriously reduced.
Legislation requires stringent emission limits, which means the ignition timing must stay in
tune for a long period of time
Weaker mixtures require more energy from the spark to ensure successful ignition, even at
very high engine speed
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FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
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Automotive Electrical and Electronics

Subject Code : U15AUT503

TYPES OF BATTERIES Page No: 3

There are two main categories of batteries:

Primary Batteries include-

Secondary batteries include:

LEAD ACID BATTERY

Construction of Lead Acid Battery

1. Anode: Porous lead

4. Separators – The separators are thin sheets of non-conducting material made up of

Working Principle of Lead Acid Battery

Chemical Action During Discharging

Chemical Action during Recharging

NICKEL CADMIUM (NICD) BATTERY:

• Anode: Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)2

• Cathode: Nickel hydroxide, Ni(OH)2

• Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide, KOH

• The half-reactions are:

Aluminium–air batteries or Al–air batteries produce electricity from the reaction of

The anode oxidation half-reaction is

The cathode reduction half-reaction is

The total reaction is

NICKEL–METAL HYDRIDE BATTERY

A nickel–metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH or Ni–MH, is a type of

The "metal" M in the negative electrode of a NiMH cell is actually an intermetallic

A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (abbreviated as LIB) is a type of

• Cathode: Lithium manganese dioxide

• Electrolyte: mixture of lithium salts

• Lithium ion battery half cell reactions

CoO2 + Li+ + e- ↔ LiCoO2 Eº = 1V

Li+ + C6+ e- ↔ LiC6 Eº ~ -3V

• Overall reaction during discharge

CoO2 + LiC6 ↔ LiCoO2 + C6

– Low density, lithium is light

– High reduction potential

– Largest energy density for weight

• Li-based cells are most compact ways of storing electrical energy

• Lower in energy density than lithium metal, lithium-ion is safe

• Energy density is twice of the standard nickel-cadmium

• No memory and no scheduled cycling is required to prolong battery life

• Temperature and state of charge affect the internal resistance of a battery.

Ahr (or charge) efficiency

• The chemical process

• Leakage current across top of the battery

Battery temperature, heating and cooling needs

Battery life and number of deep cycles

This in turn is determined by a number of factors:

 Surface area of the plates.

battery current at 18 ° C (0 ° F) for a set time

Some of the popularly used battery ratings are:

1. Ampere-Hour Capacity Rating:

The Ampere-hour rating of a battery is determined from a test in which a battery is

4. Cold Cranking Power Rating:

The five (5) primary steps in maintaining an automotive battery are:

 Checking the electrolyte level

Specific Gravity Readings

Cell Readings Percent

Specific Gravity - Excessive Cell Variation Readings

Cell #1 Cell #2 Cell #3 Cell #4 Cell #5 Cell #6

Open Circuit Voltage;

Capacity or Heavy Load Test

Typical methods of battery testing include: